THE CONSTITUTION TESTED 67

Tnnrr PnrsrprruTs oF rnr Youruc Rrpust-lc

ln this section you will read about three of our nation'searly Presidents. You will learn how, through their

leadership, the country grew and developed.

Historians have written that George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jacksonwere three of America's most important Presidents. \7hich one do you consider the mostimportantl Explain.

Important Terms and Concepts: As you read this section, look for the following:

* Cabinet + Neutrality* Hamilton's Financial Plan ] Washington's Farewell Address* Political Parties * I"ouisiana Purchase* Protective Tariff * War of 1812

To help you find these terms, this symbol * appears in the margin where the term is firstexplained.

PRESIDENT GEORGE WASHINGTON: L789.L797

After the Constitution was ratified, George Washington waselected the nation's first President. Two major problems fac-ing \Tashington were the formation of a government and thefact that the nation's treasury was empty.

TI/ASHINGTON'S DOMESTIC POLICY

Note: Domestic poligy refeii to all ihe steps a Presildiiit tadei ii aeat itth probtgms aid to improve con-ailtoitsittlriniheUiiffi,Sfai'ei.,:rii,alE'n1faliiy,';,edincerns relatiois,itth other countries.,, , , , .

FORMTNG A GOVERNMENT (1789)The Constitution allowed the President to appoint people to be in charge of executive depart-ments, but did not state what these departments were. So, to help carry out the many jobs facinghim, Washington created four executive departments. He appointed a Secretary of the Treasury,a Secretary of State, a Secretary of War, and an Attorney General. They began meeting in a

/

+68 THE CONSTITUTION TESTED

group that has come to be known as the Cabinet. Every President since 'l7ashington has fol-

lowed this preced ent (an action thatbecomes d wal of dontg things in the future). Over the years, as

the national government assumed new duties, new departments were created.

RAISING MONEYThe new nation faced a large debt from the Revolutionary War. The job of finding solutions to thenarion's economic problems was given to Alexander Hamilton, the new Secretary of the Trea-

sury. Hamilton drew up a four-part financial program.

+ HAMILTON,S FINANCIAL PLAN

PROTECTfVE: TARlfF,rtSnitton. ..wanttu ...,.,.COngie5s; to, pasS,,a,,high,,ta riff :, (tJx, ptacedbn imported.9oodi'tohelp,protect Americanindustries from foreigncompetit ion).

WHISKEY TAX.Hamilton proposeda tax on whiikey toraise money for thenational govern-ment.

REPAY:THE.lDEBT,:,Hamittoh:want€d, ,.,.thb nationaf goV', ,,ernmeni to pay offthe debts of thest5tes..and, natlohal,.,governmeht,in,0rdefto establiih ,the.neWnation'i, lr€dit::,: ,

,NATIONAL; BANK,,,,Hamilton ireated anational bank toae6si!, *i, r"vlnr,"r,ploiide.a tound , lcurrenty and makeloans to the national: : : : : : : : : l : : . ' l

gOvernmentr , ' , '

How many of today's Cabinet members can you namel Fill in the Vones you know. Use an almanac'to help you with the ones you do not know.

THE CURRENT PRESIDENTIAL CABINET

Department

StateTreasunrJusticeInteriorAgricultureCommerceLaborDefenseHousing and

Urban DevelopmentTransportationEnergyHealth and

Human ServicesEducationVeterans AffairsEnvironment

Created by Year

Vashington 1789Washington 1?89Washington 1789Taylor 1849Harrison 1889T. Roosevelt 1903

Who is the current occupant?

N#ildon::TfUfian

johnson

JohnbonCarter .

: : : :Cartet. , .Carter ,BushClinton.

19.1.3,t9,,4,7

i,t65L,966]I.,9,7,,7.,,19771,97919891993

Note: The Vice President is also a member of the cabinet.

THE CONSTITUTION TESTEDThomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, opposed the plan. Jefferson and his followers believedthat it benefited the wealthy and hurt the malority of Americans, who were farmers.

THE FORMATION OF POLITICAL PARTIESThe differences between the followers of Hamilton and Je{ferson grew grearer. This split overideas about how the government should operate led Jefferson and Hamilton to organize their fol-

lowers into America's first political parties (groupi that try to elect|their members ta govemment office.s so rhry can-pasi laws favorable n

'

Alexander Hamilton

their ideas). Hamilton's followers wereand the supporters of Jefferson calledRepublicans.

known as the Federalists,themselves Democratic.

DEFEAT OF THE PROTECTIVE TARIFFAlthough Hamilton was successful in getting most of his planpassed in congress, he failed in his attempt to pass a protective +tariff. It would have raised duties (taxes), increasing the price of

'foreign goods and helping American producet, to ,.11 their prod-ucts on the home market. The southern srares were oppor.d to it

because they felt it would only benefit the industrial North.

THE WHISKEY REBELLTON (17e4\'srest of the Appalachian Mountains, farmers often converted their grain into whiskey beforeshipping it to market. It was cheaper to transport whiskey in barrels-over the mountain trailsthan to carry bushels of grain . The Whiskey Tax caused great resentment among these farmers.\rhen farmers on the Pennsylvania frontier refused ro pay the rax, Washington called up themilitia and Hamilton personally led them in putting down the rebellion.

WASHINGTON'S FOREIGN POLrcY

THE PROCLAMATION OF NEUTRALITY (1793')As a new nation, the United States was militarily weak and feared losing its independence to astrong European nation. \Uhen war between France and Britain broke or1 i., 1793 (as a result ofthe French Revolution), many Americans worried that the U.S. might be drawn into the war.To calm fears, President Washington adopted a policy of neutrality. fnir policy stated that the IU.S. would avoid taking sides in European disputes and not become involved in foreign wars.

TREATIES WITH EUROPEAN POWERSEven though the British had signed a peace treaty with their former colonies in 1283, they stillregularly seized American ships and searched them for deserters from the British Nurry. Sl"rh-ington, fearing war with Great Britain, sent John Jay to London to resolve these difficulties. Atreaty was signed, but the British made few concessions. The treaty said nothing about seizingAmerican sailors as British deserters. Spain also concluded a treary with the United States. Spainand the U.S. agreed on the northern boundary of Florida, and Spain gave Americans permissionto navigate the Mississippi River and to deposit goods on the docls of New Orleans. Theserights were essential to Western farmers, who used this route to ship their crops to market.

-a

THE CONSTITUTION TESTED

The camera was not: yet inventedwhen the AmeriCan Revolution tookplace. The American, people 'wit-

nessed the'whole series of events byway:of scenes painted bv'John Trum'bull. His paintings'romanticized anddramatized the battles of the Ameri-

can 11evgrurrun. !Z r rruDs,wrrL,

fought;in the battle always appearedas heroes. In addition, Trumbull waswell known for painting:inspiring por-traits of most of the nation's earlyleadeis.

70

WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS (1 796)After two terms in office, Vashington decided not to run a third time. At the end of his Presi-

dency, Washington advised Congress that the United States should be cautious about entering

into permanent alliances with foreign countries. \Washington wanted the nation to devote itself

to dweloping its trade and assuming leadership of the 'lTestern Hemisphere. This message has

* become known as'l7ashington's Farewell Address.

PRESIDENT THOMAS JEFFERSON: 1801' 1 809

Jefferson wasthe leader of the Repubiican Party. As a young man, he had written the Declara'

tion of Independence. From 1?84 to 1789, he had witnessed the

events leading up to the revolution in France. He was a philosopher,

writer, architect and inventor as well as a politician.

JEFFERSON'S VIEWS ON GOVERNMENTJefferson called his election as President the Revolution of 1800'

because he believed it marked a turning point in the direction the na-

tion was moving. Jefferson believed the best government was a weakgovernment. He opposed giving special privileges to the wealthy. He

vowed to make government more democratic by representing the in'

terests of ordinary citizens. Jefferson had strong sympathies for the

common farmer, believing in equal justice for all men. When he be-

came President, he set about reducing the size of the army, halting plans for naval expansion,

and lowering the costs of government.

* rrrn LOUISIANA PURCHASE (1803)Jefferson had always dreamed of a large America. He had an opportunity to realize his dreams

with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. Napoleon, the ruler of France, offered to sell it to

the United States for $15 million. Although President Jefferson was uncertain whether the Con-

stitution allowed the federal government to buy territory, he went ahead with the purchase. The

Louisiana Territory doubled the size of the United States. Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and

William Clark to explore the region and report on the Native Americans they met. The expedi-

tion lasted two years. Lewis and Clark pushed westward all the way to the Pacific Ocean.

THE CONSTITUTION TESTED

EMBARGO ACT OF 1807British warships continued to stop American ships to search for deserters from the British Nur.y.This practice humiliated Americans and put pressure on Jefferson to take acrion. Trying toavoid war, Jefferson proposed and Congress passed the Embargo Act, which stated that Arneri-can ships would no longer carry foodstuffs to Europe. Jefferson hoped this act would force Euro-peans to respect America's rights as a neutral. Jefferson's policies succeeded in keeping the Unit-ed States out of war during his Presidency.

PRESIDENT ANDREW JACKSON: r829.rB3Z

THE WAR OF 1812Three years after Jefferson's Presidency ended, America was finally drawn into conflict with Eng-land in the War of 1812. American forces tried, unsuccessfully, to invade Canada. British ftroops briefly occupied Washington, D.C. and burned the White House. In 1815, a peace wassigned which left things much as they had been before rhe war, excepr that the British promisedthey would no longer seize American ships to search for British deserrers. One of the great he-roes of the war was General Andrew Jackson, who helped to defeat British forces ar the Battle ofNew Orleans in 1815.

I

r 72 THE CONSTITUTION TESTED

JACKSON BECOMES PRESIDENTAndrew Jackson's election in 1828 marked aturning point in American history. He was thefirst President who was not born to wealth,Coming from the state of Tennessee, he was alsothe first President not from an Eastern state.

THE AGE OF JACKSONIANDEMOCRACYMost of the authors of the Constitution feared"mob rule." They believed that only the mosteducated people should hold public office. Theycounted on various protections to prevent thenew government from becoming controlled bythe uninformed or uneducated. For example,most states had special laws which allowed onlywhite male properry holders to vote. Thischanged with Jackson's election, which hasbeen called the Revolution of 1828 because ofthe many democratic changes introduced. Jack-son believed he was a direct representative of the

Andrew Jackson

people.

JACKSON CREATES A POWERFUL PRESIDENCYJackson believed that the President was the people's most important voice in government. Hetherefore favored a strong Presidency. When elected, he introduced what became known as theSpoils System. Under this system, government officials who had served under a previous Presi-dent were replaced with the people who had worked to elect the new President. Jackson arguedthat the duties of public office were so plain and clear that any intelligent man could fill them.He believed that it was good to change office-holders because more people would then get expe-rience in government. Finally, Jackson thought a group of permanent officials was likely to be-come corrupt.

Choosing a President. Selec-t ion of President ial candi-dates by party leaders was

replaced by nominat ingconventions where popu lai-ly elected members of each

pol i t ical party chose thecandidates.

Campaign, Methods. Witl'r. . , . inCieaSed numberi of , , ,voters, new campaign

methods emerged. Candi-dates held dinners, ral l ies

and publ ic meetings.

. ..Votin$... RightS i,.dfte.r,..J ac k;.son's eleation, the states

e.lim,inCted,propeity,,qua I if i.itatibhs,,:: 5o::tHat,:m,oiti riwh ite

adult males could vote.

THE CONSTITUTION TESTED 73

JACKSON DECLARES WAR ON THE BANKWashington had introduced a National Bank as part of Hamilton's financial plan. Jackson dis-liked the National Bank because he thought it gave an unfair monopoly to the rich and power.ful. Although the Bank was found to be constitutional by the Supreme Court, Jackson decidedto eliminate it. When Jackson was re-elected in 1832, he ordered the removal of all federal de-posits from the National Bank. This had the effect of killing the National Bank. He placed thesefunds in state banks. He felt that state banks were more willing to lend money to farmers, andless open to corruption.

*ni..ruuo;rnt.:,;aittr" firsr appear.a,i" .nl ralo'r J*irg,..iui::pia;iaeit ii'of Aildie#iliriklfil,

1,,tr6w, . .iS .. Ftesident: JaCkSon. diessed?

2. ,ril7hat is:he holdingl

s#hv?,

\)(lhet.'..is :.he ..sianding.: oh,l

4. \Uhat do you ,U61..is the,main:,ideaof .the,cait'oon?

r 74 THE CONSTITUTION TESTED

THE RISE OF LABORDuring Jackson's Presidency, a new industrial society began to emerge in the U.S. There was anincreased use of machines and a shift fromworking at home and in small shops toworking in factories. This development,known as the Industrial Revolution, led tonew industries, expanded transportationand rapidly growing cities. American work.ers welcomed the Industrial Revolution be.cause it meant more jobs and higher wages.However, by the 1830s and 1840s, laborconditions began to worsen, as workers be-came increasingly dependent on factoryowners. Often workers were required to putin 16-hour days in crowded, poorly lit andunsafe factories. As worker discontenrgrew, labor organizations developed in anattempt to improve wages and workingconditions. Andrew Jackson was popular among these early labor groups because they believedhe represented the interests of the common man.

AN AGE OF REFORMThe period of Jacksonian Democracy saw the rise of several American reform movements.Horace Mann helped develop free, public elementary schools. Dorothea Dix fought for prisonreforms: she demanded better conditions in jails, an end to whipping and imprisonment fordebts, and better treatment of the mentally ill.

Early factories were often built alongsiderivers, to make use of the water power

,, :,suMMrNC up' THRnEpRESrDiNrs or rrr vouNc #iUnLiC':lVhen George Washington;became the nationts first President, he hoped to unifu the na,tioh *hile avoiding dangerous alliances,with foreign countries that might threaten the new

,nationls independence. Thomas'Jefferson helped the nation to prosper, and doubled ,its,Ciie. Under;President Andrew j"Ckro.t, i n.,mber of d"mocratic reforms were introduced.

Now that you have read the previous section, check who you think was the greatest Presi-dent among these three, and explain why:

E George Washington:

0 Thomas Jefferson:

E Andrew Jackson:

THE CONSTITUTION TESTED 75

Directions: Complete each of the following cards. Then answer the multiple-choice questions.

Nrurneurv

Define it:

\7hv did Washington recommend itl-

LoumeNe Puncrnsn

What was

What was

it l

its effect?

I Vhich statement concerning the President'scabinet is correct?1 Its members are elected by the voters.2 Its size has remained unchanged.3 The President must follow its decisions.4 New departments have been added over the

years.

2 Which statement best summarizes a belief ofPresident Thomas Jefferson's?1 Only the wealthy should serve

ment.2 The nation must have a powerful central gov.

ernment.3 All men are entitled to equal justice.

4 The United States should play the role of aworld leader.

The American Revolution and the War of 1812were similar in that both1 led to the principle of "no taxation without

representation"2 helped lead to the downfall of the Federalist

Party3 were fought against the British4 represented defeats for the United States

4 A believer in "Jacksonian democracy" wouldhave supported:1 rule by a royal family2 government service open to all3 the elimination of all job training4 reduced military spending

5 The "Spoils System" can best be defined as1 replacing officeholders with members of your

own parry2 stopping one branch of government from be-

coming too powerful3 limiting the term of office of Presidential can-

didates4 allowing people to vote for their representa.

tives in Congress

6 Vhich best represents the advice George \7ash-ington gave in his Farewell Address? The Unit-ed States1 must build a large army2 should establish a global empire3 must join many military alliances4 should avoid involvement in European alli-

ances

govern-

76 THE CONSTITUTION TESTED

Tnr Clvl l- Wnn: 1861-1865

In this section you will read about the Civil War and how it

changed the nation. The primary goals of preserving

national uniry and ending slavery were achieved, butat a tremendous cost in lives and properry.

CAUSES OF THE CIVL WAR

The Civil'War was one the bloodiest wars in American history. Great events such as the Civil

War usually have many causes. Here we briefly examine some of them: sectionalism, slavery,

states' rights, and the breakdown of compromise.

SECTIONALISMDuring the early 1800s, the Northeast, South and Northwest sections of the United States each

developed their own different ways of life.

+ These different ways of living led ro sectionalism. Sectionalism referred to the greater loyalry that

many American, Gl, ,o*urd their own section (reglon) than they did to the country as a whole.

Such differences played an important part in leading to the Civil \Var.

+

What do vou think was the main cause of the U.S. Civil War?

Explain.

Important Terms and Concepts: As you read this section, look for the following:

* Civil War* Sectionalism* Abolitionists

* Dred Scott Decision* Thirteenth Amendment* Emancipation Proclamation

iis ruonrxiesi

This section - now Wis-consin, l l l inois. Indiana,Michigan, and Ohio - be-came the breadbasket ofthe nat ion. l ts grain wasshipped by river and canalto the Northeast and South.Most people in this areawere small farmers.

The major institution wasslavery. Al though mostSoutherners did not ownslaves, much of the South'seconomy was based onprofits obtained by usingslave labor on large planta'tions, and growing exPortcroos such as cotton.

This section became a cen-ter of manufacturing, shiP-ping, f ishing and smal lfarms. The Northeast wit-nessed the first growth ofthe new class of factoryworkers. Factories and cit-ies were beginning to dra-matically change lifestyles.