issa cft chapter one

International Sports Sciences AssociationThe World Leader in Fitness Education and Certification — Since 1988

www.ISSAonline.edu Frederick C. Hatfield, PhD

FITNESS: THE COMPLETE GUIDEOFFICIAL TEXT FOR ISSA’S CERTIFIED FITNESS TRAINER PROGRAM

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F i t n e s s : T h e C o m p l e t e G u i d e

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTYThis study guide is informational only. The data and information con-tained herein are based upon information from various published aswell as unpublished sources and merely represents training, health andnutrition literature and practice as summarized by the authors and edi-tors. The publisher of this study guide makes no warranties, expressed orimplied, regarding the currency, completeness or scientific accuracy ofthis information, nor does it warrant the fitness of the information forany particular purpose. The information is not intended for use in con-nection with the sale of any product. Any claims or presentations regard-ing any specific products or brand names are strictly the responsibility ofthe product owners or manufacturers. This summary of informationfrom unpublished sources, books, research journals and articles is notintended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals. Itis not intended to direct their behavior or replace their independent pro-fessional judgement. If you have a problem with your health, or beforeyou embark on any health, fitness or sports training programs, seekclearance from a qualified health care professional.

Fitness: The Complete Guide (Edition 8.6.6)

10 9 8 7 6 5

Official Course Text for:International Sports Sciences Association’s Certified FitnessTrainer Program

Copyright © 2009 TXu1-157-866 International Sports SciencesAssociation. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be repro-duced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by anyinformation storage or retrieval system, except as may be expresslypermitted by 1976 Copyright Act or in writing by the Publisher.

Direct all correspondence, permissions requests, and inquiries to:International Sports Sciences Association1015 Mark Avenue • Carpinteria, CA 930131.805.745.8111 • www.ISSAonline.edu

CONTRIBUTORSFrederick C. Hatfield, PhD, MSS

Sal Arria, DC, MSS

Karl Knopf, EdD

Michael Yessis, PhD

James A. Petersen, PhD

Daniel Gastelu, MS, MFS

Charles Staley, BS, MFS

Patrick S. Gamboa, BS, MSS

REVIEWERSThomas D. Fahey, EdD

Jane Frederick, MA, MFS

Doug Holt, BS, MFS, CSCS

EDITORSMichelle Basta Boubion, BA, NSCA-CPT

Maura Weber, BAManaging Editor, Muscle & Fitness Hers Magazine

Beth Saltz, MPH

GRAPHICS AND ILLUSTRATIONSarah McDonough, Art Director

Karen Williams, Formatting and Photography (Strength)

Samantha Hird, Photography (Flexibility)

Alex Gundersen, Illustrator

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I n t e r n a t i o n a l S p o r t s S c i e n c e s A s s o c i a t i o n

ABOUT THE AUTHORFrederick C. Hatfield, MSS, PhD, is Co-founder andPresident of the ISSA. Dr. Hatfield, (aka “Dr. Squat”) wonthe World Championships three times in the sport ofpowerlifting, and performed a competitive squat with1014 pounds at a body weight of 255 pounds (moreweight than anyone in history had ever lifted in competi-tion). Dr. Hatfield’s former positions include an assistantprofessorship at the University of Wisconsin (Madison)and Senior Vice President and Director of Research andDevelopment for Weider Health and Fitness,Incorporated. Dr. Hatfield was honored by SouthernConnecticut State University when they presented himwith the 1991 Alumni Citation Award. He has written

over 60 books (including several best-sellers) and hundreds of articles in the generalareas of sports training, fitness, bodybuilding, and performance nutrition. He has beencoach and training consultant for several world-ranked and professional athletes, sportsgoverning bodies and professional teams worldwide. Dr. Hatfield qualified for the 1998World Championships in Olympic Lifting and competed in the Masters Division.

AUTHOR

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Nutrition, 446

Weighing the Truth on Exercise andNutrition, 450

The Basics of Sound Nutrition, 462

Estimating Caloric Needs, 492

The ISSA Zig-Zag Approach to Muscle Gainand Fat Loss, 518

Fad Diets and Nutrition, 528

Supplementation, 536

Injury and Disease, 576

Exercise and Older Adults, 580

Exercise and Adaptive Fitness, 588

Exercise and Our Youth, 594

Exercise and Hypertension, 598

Exercise and Diabetes, 604

Exercise and Arthritis, 610

Exercise and Coronary Heart Disease, 616

Exercise and Pregnancy, 622

Exercise and Asthma, 628

Exercise and Sports Medicine in the Trenches, 634

Basic First Aid, 672

References, 683

Glossary, 701

Index, 721

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction, 1

Anatomy and Physiology, 8

Metabolism, 10

Basic Anatomy and Physiology, 30

Muscle Anatomy and Physiology, 72

Kinesiology and Biomechanics, 122

Kinesiology of Exercise, 126

Biomechanical Concepts of Exercise, 140

Musculoskeletal Deviations, 154

Muscle Mechanics, 166

Health and Physical Fitness, 184

Strength, 188

Cardiovascular Training Theory, 294

Flexibility, 320

Body Composition, 338

Program Development, 358

Program Development, 360

Basic Assessment of Fitness Participants, 370

Training Principles, 390

Periodization, 408

Determining Training Loads, 426

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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Anatomy and Physiology

Kinesiology and Biomechanics

Health and Physical Fitness

Program Development

Nutrition

Injury and Disease

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THE WHO, WHAT, WHY, AND HOW OF

PERSONAL TRAINING

INTRODUCTION

F i t n e s s : T h e C o m p l e t e G u i d e

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INTRODUCTION 1

THE WHO, WHAT, WHY, AND HOW OF PERSONAL TRAININGI n t e r n a t i o n a l S p o r t s S c i e n c e s A s s o c i a t i o n

PERSONAL TRAININGThe fitness industry, as we know it today, is a multi-billion dollar industry.Personal training is its ever-growing offspring. While the roots of personal train-ing are difficult to pinpoint (its origin is credited to the 1950s) one could con-tend that the roots of personal training date back to the beginning of recordedhistory. While the profession or terminology associated with personal trainingwas not yet in existence, the concept of optimal health, which is the basis behindthe profession, was already being touted by ancient philosophers. Around 400B.C., Hippocrates wrote:

“Eating alone will not keep a man well: he must also take exercise. For food and exercise,while possessing opposite qualities, yet work together to produce health . . . and it is neces-sary, as it appears, to discern the power of various exercises, both natural exercises andartificial, to know which of them tends to increase flesh and which to lessen it; and notonly this, but also to proportion exercise to bulk of food, to the constitution of the patient,to the age of the individual . . .”

Of all of our nation’s leaders, President Theodore Roosevelt was one of thestrongest — physically and mentally. However, he did not start that way. As achild, Roosevelt was small for his age and quite sickly. He had debilitating asth-ma, poor eyesight and was extremely thin. When he was twelve years old hisfather told him,

“You have the mind, but you have not the body, and without the help of the body themind cannot go as far as it should. You must make the body.”

Theodore Roosevelt began spending every day building his body as well as hismind. He worked out with weights, hiked, hunted, rowed, and boxed. Historycan attest: Theodore Roosevelt’s strength in mind and body contributed to hisstrength as the leader of our nation.

Another great leader of our nation was President John Fitzgerald Kennedy.Kennedy, like Roosevelt, acknowledged the benefits of physical activity foroptimal health.

“Physical fitness is not only one of the most important keys to a healthy body, it is thebasis of dynamic and creative intellectual activity.”

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WHO IS A PERSONAL TRAINER?The profession of personal training is a relatively newfield, which continues to expand and redefine itself itsboundaries. Prior to the early 1980s, no minimalrequirements existed to qualify or identify one as apersonal trainer. Those who engaged in training werestill an esoteric group. Many learned about trainingsolely through personal experiences in the gym.Recognizing the need for standardization and credi-bility, Dr. Sal Arria and Dr. Fred Hatfield pioneered apersonal fitness training program to merge gym expe-rience with practical and applied sciences.

Today a personal fitness trainer can be defined as anindividual who educates and trains clients in the per-formance of safe and appropriate exercises to effec-tively lead their clients to optimal health. Personaltrainers can be either self-employed or employed byhealth clubs, physicians’ offices, physical therapy clin-ics, wellness centers, hospitals, rehabilitation facilitiesand private studios.

WHO WANTS PERSONALTRAINING?Since 1998, the number of Americans belonging tohealth clubs has grown twenty-three percent or sevenmillion members according to the 2002 IHRSA/ASDHealth Club Trend Report. Health club membershipamong children under eighteen years of age hasjumped by one-hundred-and-eight-seven percentsince 1987. The number of clients considering per-sonal training services continues to grow. TheAmerican Sports Data Inc., a company that special-izes in sports and fitness research since 1983, project-ed that 4,021,000 people in the United States alonepaid for personal training services in 1998. The surveyrevealed the following:

• Three out of five clients are women.

• Clients report an average of 18 sessionswith a trainer.

• Clients pay an average fee of $34.00 persession.

• Average household income of clients:

Under $25,000 18%

$25,000 - $49,999 20%

$50,000 - $74,999 20%

$75,000 and up 42%

• Average sessions used in 12 months:

1 – 6 47%

7 – 11 12%

12 – 24 11%

25 – 49 8%

50 + 11%

Not Reported 11%

• Number of sessions clients used by age:

6 – 11 years old 22 sessions

12 –17 26 sessions

18 – 34 15 sessions

35 – 54 14 sessions

55 + 24 sessions

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These statistics support the growing trend and needfor personal training services. While those 4,021,000individuals who purchased personal training servicesare sold on the need for personal training, why is per-sonal training a necessity?

WHY PERSONAL TRAINING ISNECESSARY?The Office of the Surgeon General released its Reporton Physical Activity and Health in 1996. The reportstrongly supports the role of physical activity for goodhealth and prevention of major health problems. TheNational Institutes of Health released a ConsensusStatement on the importance of physical activity forcardiovascular health. The Healthy People 2000objectives list physical activity and fitness as the firstof twenty-two priority areas. The American HeartAssociation included physical inactivity and low fit-ness levels as primary risk factors along with smokinghypertension and high cholesterol. On the federalside, two health club-related bills stand out for possi-ble passage in 2004. The IMPACT Act (ImprovedNutrition and Physical Activity), approved byCongress before its last break, provides $250 millionin grants for eligible organizations to help address theobesity problem. Grants would be available to providehealth services for improved nutrition, increasedphysical activity and obesity prevention. The Senateapproved the bill (S. 1172) in December 2003 and theHouse will take up the bill (H.R. 716) in 2004.

Unfortunately even with the resounding benefits ofphysical activity and fitness being touted and report-ed, America is currently undergoing an obesity epi-demic with twenty-five percent of Americans stillremaining sedentary. This would equate to one out offour Americans still being sedentary. To make mattersworse, the federal resources and funds for physicalactivity have lagged far behind other aspects of health.Health and physical education in our schools are alow priority and are often the first programs to be cutin schools.

Consider the following as well. Americans spendmore than $600 billion dollars annually for healthcare. This meteoric figure translates into an expendi-

ture of almost $3,000 for every individual in theentire population. Regrettably, this financial commit-ment neither has shown signs of abating, nor has itproduced totally acceptable results with regard totreating a wide variety of chronic health problems.

Attempts to identify the factors which have beenmajor contributions to this virtual epidemic of med-ical problems have produced a litany of probable rea-sons why such a large number of individuals are soapparently unhealthy; poor eating habits, a sedentarylifestyle, stress, poor health habits (i.e., smoking), adinfinitum. At the same time, a number of studieshave been undertaken to identify what, if anything,can be done to diminish either the number or theseverity of medical problems affecting the public.These studies have provided considerable evidencethat exercise has substantial medicinal benefits forindividuals of all ages.

Two of the most widely publicized efforts to investi-gate the possible relationship between exercise anddisease were longitudinal studies, each of which

INTRODUCTION 3



involved more than 10,000 subjects. Several years ago,in a renowned study of 17,000 Harvard graduates,Ralph Paffenbarger, MD, found that men who expend-ed approximately 300 calories a day; the equivalent ofwalking briskly for 45 minutes, reduced their deathrates from all causes by an extraordinary 28% andlived an average of more than two years longer thantheir sedentary classmates. A more recent study con-ducted by Steven Blair, PED, of the Institute ofAerobics Research in Dallas documented the fact thata relatively modest amount of exercise has a significanteffect on the mortality rate of both men and women.The higher the fitness level, the lower the death rate(after the data was adjusted for age differencesbetween subjects in this eight-year investigation of13,344 individuals). An analysis of the extensive datayielded by both studies suggests one inescapable con-clusion … exercise is medicine!

Accepting the premise that regular exercise can play akey role in reducing your risk of medical problemsand in decreasing your ultimate costs for health careis critical. Despite the vast number of individuals wholead a sedentary lifestyle, the need for and the value ofexercising on a regular basis is an irrefutable fact oflife (and death). For example, Paffenbarger concludedafter a detailed review of the results of his long-terminvestigation that not exercising had the equivalentimpact on your health as smoking one and one-halfpacks of cigarettes a day. Fortunately, with few excep-tions, most people are too sensible to ever considerravaging their health by smoking excessively.Unfortunately, many of these same people fail to rec-ognize the extraordinary benefits of exercise in theprevention of medical problems.

Any listing of the medical problems and health-relat-ed conditions that can be at least partially treated andcontrolled by exercise would be extensive. Among themost significant of these health concerns and themanner in which exercise is thought to help alleviateeach condition are the following:

• Allergies. Exercise is one of the body’s mostefficient ways to control nasal congestion (andthe accompanying discomfort of restrictednasal blood flow).

• Angina. Regular aerobic exercise dilatesvessels, increasing blood flow — therebyimproving the body’s ability to extract oxy-gen from the bloodstream.

• Anxiety. Exercise triggers the release ofmood-altering chemicals in the brain.

• Arthritis. By forcing a skeletal joint tomove, exercise induces the manufacture ofsynovial fluid, helps to distribute it over thecartilage and forces it to circulate through-out the joint space.

• Back Pain. Exercise helps to both strength-en the abdominal muscles and the lowerback extensor muscles and stretch the ham-string muscles.

• Bursitis and Tendonitis. Exercise canstrengthen the tendons — enabling themto handle greater loads without beinginjured.

• Cancer. Exercise helps maintain idealbodyweight and helps keep body fat to aminimum.

• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Exercise helpsbuild up the muscles in the wrists and fore-arms — thereby reducing the stress onarms, elbows and hands.

• Cholesterol. Exercise helps to raise HDL(the “good” cholesterol) levels in the bloodand lower LDL (the undesirable lipoprotein)levels.

• Constipation. Exercise helps strengthenthe abdominal muscles, thereby making iteasier to pass a stool.

• Depression. Exercise helps speed metabo-lism and deliver more oxygen to the brain;



INTRODUCTION 5


the improved level of circulation in the braintends to enhance your mood.

• Diabetes. Exercise helps lower excess bloodsugar levels, strengthen muscles and heart,improve circulation, and reduce stress.

• Fatigue. Exercise can help alleviate thefatigue-causing effects of stress, poor circu-lation and blood oxygenation, bad posture,and poor breathing habits.

• Glaucoma. Exercise helps relieve intraocularhypertension — the pressure buildup on theeyeball that heralds the onset of glaucoma.

• Headaches. Exercise helps force the brainto secrete more of the body’s opiate-like,pain-dampening chemicals (e.g., endor-phins and enkephalins).

• Heart Disease. Exercise helps promotemany changes that collectively lower therisk of heart disease — a decrease in bodyfat, a decrease in LDL, an increase in the effi-ciency of the heart and lungs, a decrease inblood pressure and a lowered heart rate.

• High Blood Pressure. Exercise reducesthe level of stress-related chemicals in thebloodstream that constrict arteries andveins, increases the release of endorphins,raises the level of HDL in the bloodstream,lowers resting heart rate (over time),improves the responsiveness of blood ves-sels (over time), and helps reduce bloodpressure through bodyweight maintenance.

• Insomnia. Exercise helps reduce musculartension and stress.

• Intermittent Claudication. Exercisehelps improve peripheral circulation andincreases pain tolerance.

• Knee Problems. Exercise helps strengthenthe structures attendant to the knee —muscles, tendons and ligaments — therebyfacilitating the ability of the knee to with-stand stress.

• Lung Disease. Exercise helps strengthenthe muscles associated with breathing andhelps boost the oxygen level in the blood.

• Memory Problems. Exercise helps toimprove cognitive ability by increasing theblood and oxygen flow to the brain.

• Menstrual Problems and PMS. Exercisehelps to control the hormonal imbalancesoften associated with PMS by increasing therelease of beta-endorphins.

• Osteoporosis. Exercise promotes bonedensity — thereby lowering an individual’srisk of suffering a bone fracture.

• Overweight Problems. Exercise is anappetite suppressant. It also increases meta-bolic rate, burns fat, increases lean musclemass and improves self-esteem.

• Varicose Veins. Exercise can help controlthe level of discomfort caused by existingvaricose veins and help prevent getting anyadditional varicose veins.

Are the positive effects that result from exercising reg-ularly worth the required effort? Absolutely. Shouldyou make exercise an integral part of your daily regi-men? Of course, you should. In countless ways, yourlife may depend on it. The meteoric rise of health careand health problems makes your success as a person-al trainer predictable.

Implications for CertifiedFitness Trainer ProfessionalsThe need for personal training services continues togrow. As future ISSA fitness professionals it is imper-


ative that we keep up with the ever-changing andevolving recommendations for health and physicalfitness that have a direct application for fitness pro-grams and exercise recommendations. With theemergence of the latest technologies informationregarding health and fitness is easily accessible.However, because of the nature of the media’s use ofvague and brief headlines in conjunction with radioand TV sound bites that provide only limited, confus-ing and often conflicting recommendations, it isimportant that we can help our clients, friends andfamily members put each new study or report inproper perspective. Personal trainers today are com-mitted to a long-term career in health and fitness andare increasing their knowledge through additionalcourses in post-rehabilitation, corporate wellness,youth fitness, senior fitness, and pre and post-natalspecializations to better serve their clients in achiev-ing and living the fitness lifestyle. As you can see, weas personal trainers have an inherent responsibility topositively shaping and influencing the health and fit-ness attitudes of those around us and it is our hopethat individually and collectively we can bring healthand fitness to the masses and make the dream of opti-mal health a reality for all.

WHAT SHOULD A PERSONALTRAINER KNOW?As the industry continues to expand its boundariesand the realm of scientific knowledge concerning thehuman response and adaptation to exercise continuesto grow, it is essential that personal fitness trainers arecompetent in:

• Exercise Programming

• Exercise Physiology

• Functional Anatomy and Biomechanics

• Assessments and Fitness Testing

• Nutrition and Weight Management

• Basic Emergency Procedures and Safety

• Program Administration

• Human Behavior/Motivation

Our ability as fitness professionals to educate andeffectively draw our clients into the fitness lifestyleand optimal health comes from a plan that is based in

the aforementioned areas as well as the knowledge ofmuscular, cardiopulmonary and metabolic adapta-tions. These adaptations are known as the trainingeffect. The “training effect” is our body’s adaptation tothe learned and expected stress imposed by physicalactivity. Our bodies begin to change at the cellularlevel, allowing more energy to be released with lessoxygen. Your heart and capillaries become strongerand more dispersed in order to allow a more efficientflow of oxygen and nutrients. Your muscles, tendonsand bones involved with this activity also strengthento accommodate a better proficiency at performingthis activity. In time your body releases unnecessaryfat from its frame and your stride and gait becomemore efficient. Your resting heat rate and blood pres-sure drop. These adaptations can be achieved throughan educated trainer who can develop an appropriatefitness and health plan.

The plan must include the basic principles of fitnesstraining: overload, specificity, individual differences,reversibility, periodization, rest, over-training, andstimulus variability. The plan requires a thoroughunderstanding of the major muscles of the body andhow they work and an understanding of metabolism;how the body converts food energy into other formsof energy the body can use at rest and during exercise.Additionally, we must learn about the function andregulation of the lungs, heart, blood vessels, hor-mones, brain, and nerves, as well as the weight controland temperature regulation systems at rest and dur-ing exercise. Once we have the knowledge and sup-port to develop a comprehensive, individualized andperiodized plans that effectively produce the trainingeffect, then we will be able to effectively draw ourfriends, family members and future clients into thefitness lifestyle and optimal health.

ISSA CODE OF ETHICSAND STANDARDSPrinciples and PurposesUpon receipt of the ISSA Certificate, membersbecome, in effect, de facto representatives of theleader in the fitness certification industry, and assuch are expected to conduct themselves according tothe highest standards of honor, ethics and profes-sional behavior at all times. These principles are



intended to aid ISSA members in their goal to pro-vide the highest quality of service possible to theirclients and the community.

Academic Standards

Requirements for Graduation1. Certification will not be issued to any stu-

dent/member who does not successfullycomplete or meet all pertinent qualificationsor has not achieved passing scores on therelevant ISSA examinations.

2. Certification will not be issued to anyclient/member unless they have successfullycompleted CPR training as evidenced by acurrent and valid CPR card.

3. Certification will not be issued until all feesare paid in full.

Professional Standards

ISSA members will:1. Serve clients with integrity, competence,

objectivity and impartiality, always puttingthe clients’ needs, interests and requestsahead of his/her own. Members mustalways strive for client satisfaction.

2. Recognize the value of continuing educa-tion by upgrading and improving theirknowledge and skills on an annual or semi-annual basis. Members must keep abreast ofrelevant changes in all aspects of exerciseprogramming theory and techniques.

3. Not knowingly endanger his or her clientsor put his or her clients at risk. Unless theyhave allied health care licenses, membersmust stay within the realm of exercise train-ing and lifestyle counseling with clients.Clients with special medical conditions mustbe referred to proper medical professionals.

4. Never attempt to diagnose an injury or anyother medical or health-related condition.

5. Never prescribe or dispense any kind ofmedication whatsoever (including over-the-counter medications) to anyone.

6. Never attempt to treat any health conditionor injury under any circumstance whatsoev-er (except as standard first aid or CPR pro-cedure may require).

7. Never recommend exercise for anyone witha known medical problem without firstobtaining clearance to do so and/or instruc-tions from the attending qualified medicalprofessional.

8. Ensure that CPR certification and knowl-edge of first aid procedures is current.

9. Work towards the ultimate goal of helpingclients become more self-sufficient overtime, reducing the number of supervisedtraining sessions.

10. Respect client confidentiality. All clientinformation and records of client cases maynot be released without written releasefrom the client.

11. Charge fees that are reasonable, legitimateand commensurate with services deliveredand the responsibility accepted. All addi-tional fees and services must be disclosed toclients in advance.

12. Adhere to the highest standards of accuracyand truth in all dealings with clients, andwill not advertise their services in a decep-tive manner.

13. Not get intimately involved with theirclients. Minimize problems by always main-taining a professional demeanor, notbecoming overly friendly with clients, par-ticularly of the opposite sex, and docu-menting training sessions, evaluations, andtraining programs. We cannot overempha-size this point: Be a professional and donot get involved with clients!

Dr. Sal Arria and Dr. Fred Hatfield had a vision to pio-neer a personal fitness trainer program that wouldmerge in-gym experience with practical and appliedsciences more than fifteen years ago to share the ben-efits of the fitness lifestyle with the masses. As the pro-fession continues to grow and expand it boundaries,for the ISSA trainer of today and the ISSA trainer oftomorrow education and support is vital. It is thehope and vision of the ISSA that through this coursetext and the support provided by the entire ISSA staff,our trainers will be well rounded and more educatedthan in the past and will be knowledgeable on exerciseand how it relates to optimal health and fitness.

INTRODUCTION 7



Section OneANATOMYand

PHYSIOLOGY


issa cft chapter one

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