Islamic Art: Introduction

- Arabs were a population of nomadic herdsmen and caravan merchants traversing, from ancient times

- The irresistible and far-ranging sweep of Islam had determined in large measure the political and cultural life of the ancient world

The Expansion of Islam- Muslim (one who is a believer in Islam)- 642, Byzantine army abandoned Alexandria, marking the Muslim

conquest of Lower Egypt- Relentless Muslim pressure against the shrinking Byzantine

Empire eventually caused its collapse in 1453, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople

The Religion of Islam- Muhammad, funder of Islam and revered as its greatest and final

prophet, critical of the polytheistic religion of Mecca, preached a religion of the one and only god, Allah

- Hejira (flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina due to strong opposition to his message); 622, beginning of Islam

- The essential meaning of Islam is acceptance of and submission to Allah’s will.

- Believers in Islam are called Muslims (“those who submit”).- The Qur’an (Koran), Islam’s sacred book - Jihad (holy war)- The Sunna, collections of the Prophet’s sayings and anecdotes

of his exemplary deeds are supplemental to the Qur’an- Islam drew much upon Judaism and Christianity; continuation,

completion, and reformation of these great Semitic monotheisms- Political structure as a theocracy, a new social order, replacing

the old, decentralized tribal one traditional with the Arabs; practice of uniting religious and political leadership continued after Muhammad’s death

EARLY ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE - Fertile Crescent (a crescent-shaped area of cultivable land that

extends from the eastern Mediterranean to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) was the political and cultural center of the Muslim world

- Caliphs based their claims to authority on their descent from the families of the Prophet or those of his followers

- Qur’an’s strictures against sumptuousness and license, caliphs were not averse to luxury, wealth and power

- Muslim religious architecture closely related to Muslim prayer , performance of which is an obligation

Tansey , Richard & Fred Kleiner. Art Through the Ages, 320-321 Umayyad Architecture in Palestine and SyriaDome of the Rock, Jerusalem, late 7th c.

- 1st major building of Umayyad dynasty; neither mosque nor palace

- Houses rock from which, as Muslims believe, Muhammad ascended to Heaven

- Rises from a huge, artificial platform to dominat the skyline of modern Jerusalem

- Domed octagon plan- Double-shelled wooden dome, 60 ft. across and 75 ft. in height- Domed cupola- Minaret- Restored exterior; tilework replaced original mosaic- Preserved rich mosaic ornament of interior

Quibla - direction (facing Mecca) towards which the prayer is addressed is important; prayer requires neither liturgical ceremony nor a special locale Zullahs – shaded areas, along the north and south sides, probably in the Prophet’s house for communal gatherings

- Thatched roofs supported by rows of palm trunksImam, leader of collective worship Minbar - pulpit near the quibla wall (khutba – both a sermon and an act of allegiance by the community to its leader) where Imam stands; represents secular authority even as it serves its function in worshipMihrab – semi-circular niche usually set into the quibla wall; often a dome over the bay in front of it signalized its position; origin, purpose, and meaning are still matters of debateMosque – (from masjid, a place for bowing down) origin is still in dispute, although one prototype may have been the Prophet’s house in Medina

Courtyard of the Great Mosque, Damascus, Syria, c. 705-715- Architecture of Greco-Roman and Early Christian Syria- Bounded by pier arcades- Constructed of masonry blocks- Capitals salvaged from early Roman and Early Christian

structures demolished to make way for mosque of caliph al-Walid- Square Roman tower converted into minaret- Muezzin (crier) calls faithful to prayer from elevated platform of

minaretDetail of a mosaic, Great Mosque, Damascus Syria, early 8th c.

- Pictorial spaces filled with identifiable shapes, abstraction strangely dramatizes them

- No zoomorphic forms; religious strictures against the representation of fauna of any kind in sacred places

Abbasid Architecture in North Africa- 750, Abbasids drove out Umayyad caliphs and moved new

capital to Baghdad- Center of Arab culture for 300 years- Influence of Persian tradition in design of hypostyle mosque, a

many-columned structure reminiscent of apadana hallGreat Mosque, Qairawan, Tunisia

- Enclosure of slightly askew parallelogram of huge scale; some 148 x 88 meters

- Built of stone, walls have sturdy buttresses, square in profile- Arcaded forecourt entered through massive minaret

Courtyard of the Great Mosque, Qairawan, Tunisia

Umayyad Architecture in Spain- Abd-al-Rahman escaped Abbasid massacre and fled to Spain

and accepted as overlord by Arabs who overthrew Christian kingdom of Visigoths; founder of Spanish Umayyad dynasty

- Cordoba, capital that became center of cultureInterior of Mosque of Cordoba, Spain, 8th to 10th c.

- Begun in 786- 36 piers and 514 columns topped by unique system of double-

tiered arches that carried a wooden roof, now replaced by vaults

- Horseshoe shaped lower arches, adapted from earlier Near Eastern architecture or of Visigoths origin and now closely associated with Muslim architecture

Mihrab of mosque at Cordoba- Multilobed shaped arches- Other Islamic experiments with arch forms led to the pointed arch

Dome before mihrab of mosque at Cordoba- Emphasize axis leading to mihrab- Large ribs subdivide hemispheric surface of dome into smaller

sections primarily ornamental- Mosaics of domes and ribs show progressive reduction of

illusionistic forms that began in the Great Mosque at Damascus into abstract shapes in flat, textile-like patterns

Arabesque above portal of Mosque at Cordoba- Exterior with intersecting, polychromed horseshoe arches looping

over elegant blind arcade of leaf-shaped secondary arches, produced by intersection of main arches

- Arches enclose panels of alternating geometrical and vestigially floral shapes: the maze, meander, fret and swastika, checkerboard and star appear

- Arabesque (intricate system of decoration) that identifies art of Islam; renounces material world of shadow-casting objects, it expresses Islamic delight in the revelation and exploration of pure form, and the contemplation of it as the unity in the variety of the cosmos

The Early Palaces- Scattered remains have survived; illustrate way of life of

Muslim aristocrats and provide notion of decorative styles of Early Islamic Art

- Purpose not certain; built both in cities and open country- Rural palaces seem to serve similar function of Roman villas; to

avoid plague-infested cities as motivation of builders; nuclei for agricultural developments of conquered territories; symbols of authority over conquered and inherited lands

Palace at Ukhaydir, Iraq, late 8th c.- Separate entity within a fortified enclosure- Difference between mosque, palace, or caravansary (an inn

where caravans could rest) rarely were evident from the exterior

- High walls offered safety from marauding nomadic tribes; privacy and assertion of power

- Plan expresses residential and official functions- Elaborate entrance complex, consisting of monumentalized gate

and great hall between two small, domed rooms, leads onto large central court

- Most palaces provide bathing facilities with technical features such as heating systems, adopted from Roman system of baths

Portion of stone frieze, palace at Mshatta, Jordan, c. 743- Unfinished palace- Long band (15 feet high) decorated with series of triangles of

same size framed by elaborately carved molding; each triangle contains large rosette that projects from densely covered with curvilinear, vegetal designs

Islamic Architectural Ornament- Based on plant motifs, sometimes intermingled with

symbolic geometric figures and with human and animal shapes

- But natural forms become so stylized that they are lost in the purely decorative tracery of the tendrils, leaves and stalks

- Horro vacuii (crowded design, literally “fear of empty spaces”) tendencies

- Repetitive patterns serve to suggest divine infinity and indefinability

Floor Mosaic- Continued a long Mediterranean tradition- Colored tile became increasingly important

Floor mosaic, palace at Khirbat al Mafjar, Jordan, mid 8th c.- Set into square and rectangular fields covered with a rich variety

of floral and geometric patterns are medallions with extremely intricate abstract designs

- Creating illusion of downward projection of dome or half-domeColored Tile

- Revived by Abbasids- Luster ware (tiles with a metallic sheen); used as veneer over a

brick core sheathe entire buildings, domes and minaretsDome of Masjid-I Shah, Isfahan, Iran, 1612-1637

- Tilework adjusted to shape of dome ; tiles are curved to conform to shape of architecture

- Rich and subtle design of spiraling tendrils enveloping the dome without overpowering it; enhances dome form without obscuring it

Prayer hall of Masjid-I Shah- Glazed tilework- Architectural forms resemble tentlike canopies- Starlike spangling of minute floral motifs upon surfaces evoke

constellations of night skyStucco Relief

- Method of decoration that is cheap, flexible, and effective- Basic material (wet plaster) particularly adaptable to execution of

freely flowing lineCourt of the Lions, the Alhambra, Granada, Spain, 1354-1392

- Stucco decorations- Court portioned into Golden Mean (Golden rule or section) is a

system of measuring in which units used to construct esigns are subdivided into two parts in such a way that the longer subdivision is related to the length of the whole unit in the same proportion as the shorter subdivision is related to the longer subdivision

- Framed by rhythmically spaced single, double, and triple columns with slender, reedlike shafts that carry richly decorated block-capitals and silted arches of complex shape

- Colored stucco moldings cover all surfaces above the columns- Buoyant, airy, almost floating appearance- Muqarnas “stalactite” decorations break up structural

appearance of arches, transforming into near-organic forms

Later Islamic Architecture: Mosque, Madras, MausoleumMadrasa and attached mausoleum of Sultan Hasan, Cairo, Egypt, 1356-1363

- Expresses different architectural concept- Madrasa (higher theological college adjoining and often

containing a mosque)- Actually four madrasas, one in each corner devoted to a major

school of Islam jurisprudence- Hypostyle mosque with open central court

- Mausoleums (central-plan domed structures); simple cubical structure covered by dome attached to quibla side of madrasa; built as memorials to holy men or for secular function of commemorating Islamic rulers

Mosque of Sultan Hasan, mihrab and minbar- Decoration of main building confined to moldings around wall

openingsTaj Mahal, Agra, India

- Built by Shah Jahan as memorial to his wife, Mumtaz Mahal- Architectural metaphor for Paradise and the Throne of God- Massive, cubical structure- Cream-colred marble- Plan of Asian/Iranian garden pavilion- Minarets

Ottoman Architecture- Established in Anatolia, founded by Osman I (1290-1326); by mid

15th c became one of the great world powers- Ottoman art expressed itself primarily in terms of architecture - Developed a new type of mosque with a square prayer hall

covered by a dome as its core- Ottoman style is geometric and formalist rather than ornamental- 1453 Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople (renamed it

Istanbul), established their architectural code- 1520s, Development moved toward centralized quatrefoil

(cloverleaf) mosque- Sinan, the Great (c.1491-1588) carried Ottoman architecture to

the height of its classical period; experimented with cloverleaf plan

InteriorSelimiye Cami (mosque of Selim II), Edirne, Turkey

- Sinan’s efforts to overcome the limitations of a segmented interior found their ultimate expression in this structure

- Mihrab is visible from almost any spot- Commemorate Ottoman conquest of Cyprus- Massive dome, effectively set off by four slender, pencil-shaped

minarets (each more than 200 ft. high)- Most important mosques had numerous annexes, including

libraries, and schools

- Preceded by rectangular court called avlu (a courtyard forming a summer extension of the mosque) is surrounded by porticoes formed by domed squares

- Islamic tendency to disguise structural function of architectural elements is minimized and confined to a “honeycomb” treatment of the squinches

Object Art And Textile- Metal, wood, glass, and ivory- Enameled glass used with striking effect in mosque lamps- Richly decorated ceramics- Luster painting (a new and original technique of polychrome

painting that gives a metallic sheen to a surface- Designs based on motifs found in architectural decoration- Textiles serve more than utilitarian or decorative purposes; serve

as gifts, rewards, and signs of political favor- Art of carpet-making for protection against winter

Carpet from the tomb-mosque of Shah Tamasp, Iran, 1540- Approx. 34 ½” x 17 ½”- Medallion type; design massed large elements surrounded and

enhanced by a wealth of subordinated details; field of rich blue covered with leaves and flowers (chiefly peonies, a Chinese influence)

- Ardebil carpet; made for mosque; excludes human and animal figures

- Large sculpture in the round and mural or panel painting are rare in Early Islamic art

- Nomads traditionally preferred small movable objects to large-scale works of art

- Painting developed in small scale of book illuminationThe Art of Calligraphy

- Art of ornamental writing; more revered than art of textiles in Islamic world

- Suras (verses) of Qur’an- Esthetic achievement also lies in perfect union with system of

Islamic ornamentation of arabesqueMihrab, Isfahan, c. 1354

- Mosaic tile decoration; composite body, glazed, sawed to shape and assembled in mosaic; height 11’3”

- Expresses strength and happiness of union of calligraphy and arabesque

- Pointed arch bears inscription from Qur’an in Kufic (an early form of Arabic alphabet)

- Muhaqqaq (one of cursive style of calligraphy) frames outer rectilinear frame of mihrab

- Geometrical and abstract motif occupies curving surface of the niche, and the transom above the arch

- Harmonious consolidation of both calligraphic and geometrical elements

Caligraphic, illumination of a page of poetry, Iran, 16th c.- Ink, colors, gold on paper, 5 ¼” x 8 ¼”- Ornamented with arabesque compartments that center the script- For the letters are a work of decoupage; painted or drawn

directly upon the surface of the page, but have been previously cut out and then pasted to it, an astonishing technique of almost superhuman difficulty

Brass candlestick, Salavid period, Iran, 1608- 11 1/8”, engraved with Persian poem- Integrate arabesque and calligraphy in a unity of shape and figure- Optical and tactile, the form and function, and the literary and

decorative harmonize exquisitelyThe Art of Book Illustration

- Figurative illustration developed almost accidentally, as a by-product of their practice of translating and copying illustrated Greek scientific texts, mostly in Iraq and Syria 1200

- Drawn by scribes who copied the texts- Persian rulers were lovers of fine books and maintained

calligraphers and artists- Although rulers were Muslims, the orthodox Islamic restrictions

regarding the depiction of human figure were interpreted rather literally by them and did not affect the secular arts

- Scenes of their life of pleasure – the hunt, feast, music and romance, and battle scenes

- Provided a sort of portable museum for travelling rulers

- Would take over calligraphy and arabesque to harmonize with their two-dimensional patterning

Laila and Majnun at School, 1524-1525- Miniature from a manuscript from the Khamsa of Nizami- Ink, colors. And gold on paper - Represents school in a mosque- Mullah (teacher) seated on a rug, the customary sitting postures

of the East- Figures of lively scene, along with whole setting, accommodate to

the rules of arabesque; lie flat on surface like paper cutouts, without interior modeling, and cast no shadows, because there is no source of illumination

- Linear mode of representation; figuration done in simple outlining containing intensely colored shapes; space is as two-dimensional as the figures

Knights jousting, from a book on veterinary medicine, Egypt, 14th c.

- Battle scene- Symmetrically confronted, sharply profiled figures have strong

outlines anfd flat, strong colors of the linear mode- Minimal poses and gestures

Horsemen and Helicopters, Islamabad, Pakistan- Fringed and figured textile- Theme of Soviet war; few figures, simplified in shape and pose

placed on superposed levels and silhouetted against neutral grounds

“Schoolmen”- Christian scholars of the 12th and 13th centuries studied Arabic

translations of Greek writers- Through Arabs, Greek thought and experimentation were made

known to the West; laid foundations of arithmetic and algebra; contributions to astronomy, medicine, and natural sciences have made long lasting impression