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Introduction to the Foundations of American Education, Thirteenth Edition, by James A. Johnson, Diann Musial, Gene E. Hall, Donna M. Gollnick, and Victor L. Dupuis.Published by Allyn and Bacon. Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Education in the NewsKnow Thy SubjectRonald A. Wolk, Teacher Magazine, November 2002

HOW STRANGE AND IRONIC IT IS THAT TEACHERS, WHO DISseM-inate knowledge, have so little time and opportunityto acquire it. Undergraduate teacher education is jus-tifiably criticized—even by its recipients—for its lack ofacademic content and rigor. Many students exit col-leges and universities insufficiently equipped to teacha specific subject. In a survey that asked teacherswhether they felt prepared to teach basic mathemat-ics, for example, the majority said no. Fewer than 20percent of elementary school teachers and half ofmiddle school teachers said they felt prepared. In fact,only three-fourths of high school math teachers saidthey know enough about the subject to teach itwell—and, presumably, they majored, or at least mi-nored, in it. This may be one of the reasons why fewerthan 30 percent of American students score at a pro-ficient level or better on the math portion of the Na-tional Assessment of Educational Progress.

The knowledge deficit that many teachers taketo their first jobs is difficult to overcome. Once theybegin their careers, they rarely have an opportunityto engage in the kind of professional developmentthat will increase knowledge of their discipline andimprove their practice.

“Professional development” is one of those“blah blah” terms that’s shorthand for somethingthat’s actually very important: continuous learningthat enriches one’s knowledge and improves one’s

craft. Traditionally, it comprises college coursestaken in the evenings or during the summer tomove up the salary scale and the hit-and-run work-shops schools hold once or twice a year, in whichoutside experts lecture to teachers. But these kindsof approaches do little, if anything, to improveteaching and, thus, student learning.

To be most effective, professional developmentneeds to be integrated into the workday of theteacher and the culture of the school. That meansfinding more time for teachers to work together onproblems, read and discuss relevant research, and an-alyze their practice. Finding time for those activitiesmeans reallocating (and probably increasing) fund-ing, changing schedules, rethinking teacher roles, re-vising curricula, and even negotiating changes inunion contracts.

States have invested heavily in standards-basedreform, the nation’s de facto strategy for improvingpublic education. They have established standardsand put in place accountability systems to monitorstudent performance. But they have done little toprepare faculty members to teach students whatthey are expected to know and be able to do. Unlessthose states realize the crucial importance of effec-tive professional development and move with someurgency to mandate and support it, standards-basedreform will fail.

Reprinted with permission from Teacher Magazine, November2002.

335

C H A P T E R

10Educational Theory inAmerican Schools:Philosophy in Action

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Introduction to the Foundations of American Education, Thirteenth Edition, by James A. Johnson, Diann Musial, Gene E. Hall, Donna M. Gollnick, and Victor L. Dupuis.Published by A llyn and Bacon. Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

This chapter introduces a number of significant educational theories that arebased on various philosophies and ways of knowing. It offers a number of bigideas or key concepts that will help you identify underlying views about knowl-edge and learning that are implicit in the way classrooms are organized andsubject matter is presented. Some of these big ideas include teacher-centeredlocus-of-control educational theories (such as perennialism, essentialism, be-haviorism, and positivism) and student-centered locus-of-control educationaltheories (such as progressivism, reconstructionism, humanism, and construc-tivism). Other big ideas are drawn from educational practices that flow from theapplication of educational theory to the classroom; these include the GreatBooks program, socialization, problem-based learning, and reinforcement.

Educational theory can be analyzed as the application of philosophy to theclassroom. The way curriculum is organized, the manner in which instruction isdelivered, the character of school environments, and the processes used in test-ing and grading are informed by the philosophical views held by educators, par-ents, and legislators. Such views vary greatly among school districts and states.Table 10.1 describes the relationships between four schools of philosophy—idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism—and education.

The four schools of philosophy described in Table 10.1 give rise to different,sometimes competing, learning foci, curricular goals, teaching methods, and ap-proaches to character and aesthetic development. Educational theorists attempt todevelop cohesive ideas about teaching and learning by drawing on one or morecompatible philosophies. They also attempt to clarify how these different ap-proaches to curriculum, instruction, and assessment work or do not work to-gether. For example, a behaviorist educational theorist could focus on the mind,the physical world, or the social world. On the other hand, it would be inappro-

336 Chapter 10 Educational Theory in American Schools: Philosophy in Action www.ablongman.com/johnson13e

Learning Outcomes

After reading and studying this chapter, youshould be able to:

1. Identify the major tenets of authoritarian edu-cational theories of perennialism, essential-ism, behaviorism, and positivism. (INTASC 1:Subject Matter)

2. Identify the major tenets of nonauthoritarianeducational theories of progressivism, recon-structivism, humanism, and constructivism.(INTASC 1: Subject Matter)

3. Compare authoritarian and nonauthoritarianeducational theories. (INTASC 2: Develop-ment & Learning)

4. Relate educational theories to learning andcurriculum development. (INTASC 2: Devel-opment & Learning)

5. State the relationship of progressivism todemocracy and society. (INTASC 5: Motiva-tion & Management; INTASC 9: Reflection)

6. Relate the tenets of critical pedagogy to soci-etal change. (INTASC 3: Diversity; INTASC 9:Reflection)

School-Based Observations

You may see these learning outcomes in actionduring your visits to schools:

1. This chapter contains examples of classroomactivities typically associated with various ed-ucational theories. As you work in the schools,take the class activity features with you and seewhether you can determine which theories youobserve in use. Then decide which educationaltheory you subscribe to and determine whetheryour own classroom activities are consistentwith your personal educational philosophy.

2. Interview several teachers who organize theirclassrooms and teaching materials differently.Using probing questions, try to uncover theeducational theory or theories that account forthe differing teaching approaches.

INTASC

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priate for the behaviorist to focus on personal choice because behaviorism essen-tially aims to control human behavior through teacher-directed reinforcement.

This chapter describes eight educational theories that draw on differentphilosophies. The educational theories are grouped according to the degree towhich they rely on external (teacher-based) versus internal (student-based) au-thority. This distinction between a teacher-centered versus a student-centered lo-cus of control can also be used to group schools of philosophy. As indicated inTable 10.1, the ideas and principles that surround idealism and realism imply thatexternal authority is important to the attainment of truth and goodness, whereaspragmatism and existentialism focus more on the innate worth of the individual.

Many teachers hold the view that the purpose of education is to train pupils’minds so that they can deal better with the intellectual concepts of life. Theseteachers emphasize the mastery of facts and information. The general notion ofthis point of view—the idea that any child can learn any subject at any level ifthe subject matter is properly presented—remains a strong challenge to teachersto arouse motivation for subject mastery among pupils. Teacher-centered locus-of-control educational theories suggest that, except for the few children whohave mental, emotional, or physical impairments, every child can master the en-tire curriculum of the school when adequate time and resources are provided.Continued attention to test scores, grade-level achievement, and other measuresof subject matter competency reflect the importance that is still attached to theteacher-centered locus-of-control view of education. School boards, parents, andthe general public increasingly demand that teachers provide concrete evidencethat their pupils have made progress in mastering subject matter that has beendeemed appropriate (by adults) for all students to learn.

In contrast, other teachers uphold John Dewey’s view that the mind is notjust a muscle to be developed. They accept the notion that human beings areproblem solvers who profit from personal experience. These educators also give

Educational Theory in American Schools: Philosophy in Action 337

TABLE 10.1 Educational Implications of Philosophy

Educational Aspect

Learning focus

Curriculum goal

Preferred teachingmethod

Characterdevelopment

Aestheticdevelopment

Realism

Subject matter of the physical world:mathematics, science

Mastery of lawsof universe

Teaching for mas-tery of informationand skills: demon-stration, recitation

Training in rulesof conduct

Study of designin nature

Idealism

Subject matter ofthe mind: literature,intellectual history,philosophy, religion

The same educationfor all

Teaching for thehandling of ideas:lecture, discussion

Imitation of exemplars, heroes

Study of the master-works; values of thepast heritage

Pragmatism

Subject matter of social experience

Creation of a newsocial order

Problem solving:project method,product development

Group decisionmaking in light ofconsequences

Participation in artprojects based oncross-cultural anduniversal values

Existentialism

Subject matter ofpersonal choice

Personal freedomand development

Individual explo-ration: discoverymethod, authenticpedagogy

Development ofindividual responsi-bility for decisionsand preferences

Development of apersonal view ofthe world; self-initiated activities

Teacher-Centered Student-Centered Locus-of-Control Philosophies Locus-of-Control Philosophies

Source: Adapted from Van Cleve Morris and Young Pai, Philosophy and the American School (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.Copyright 1976 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

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credence to the existential student-centered locus-of-control, position, whichemphasizes the importance of the individual and of personal awareness. Inlight of the fact that Dewey’s philosophical views have prevailed in U.S. teach-ers’ colleges for the past half century, it is not surprising that many schools inthe United States reflect this student-centered locus-of-control view more thando other schools throughout the world. When teaching techniques are focusedon student interactions, teachers may find that some students appear to be aim-less with regard to subject matter. In such instances, the teacher is challengedto arouse student interest through inquiry leading to subject content.

Educational theorists explain how teacher-centered locus-of-control teach-ing and learning principles differ from those of student-centered locus-of-control principles. They also help clarify how each set of teaching and learningprinciples forms a cohesive whole. The eight educational theories consideredhere are perennialism, essentialism, behaviorism, positivism, progressivism,reconstructionism, humanism, and constructivism. To varying degrees, each ofthese educational views is used by classroom teachers and applied to the wayteachers organize their classroom, their instruction, and their assessments. Asyou study these different educational theories, you will find that one or more ofthem clearly meshes with your own views. Understanding your own position interms of known theory will be an invaluable asset as you develop your personalphilosophy of education.

TEACHER-CENTERED LOCUS-OF-CONTROLEDUCATIONAL THEORIES

Perennialism, essentialism, behaviorism, and positivism are educational theo-ries that espouse a teacher-centered locus of control. Each theory’s approach tosubject matter, classroom organization, teaching methods, and assessmentplaces most of the responsibility on the teacher, whose job it is to enable stu-dents to learn what is important. Although each educational theory forms a dis-tinct cohesive whole, all four are rooted in an authoritarian principle—that is,that truth and goodness are entities best understood by the person with exper-tise who is in authority. The students’ role is, then, to attempt to master and fol-low the directions of those in power who have experience and authority.

This chapter presents each educational theory’s ideas on curriculum, teach-ing, and learning. In addition, for each theory we will describe a representativeprogram along with an illustrative class activity. The class activity is further an-alyzed according to the nature of the learner (active or passive), the nature of thesubject matter, the use of the subject matter, and the type of thinking that is em-phasized (convergent or focused on right answers, or divergent or focused ondeveloping multiple perspectives).

PERENNIALISM

The basic educational view of perennialism is that the principles of knowledgeare enduring. The term perennial may be defined as “everlasting,” and the peren-nialist seeks everlasting truths. Although there are superficial differences fromcentury to century, the perennialist views nature, human nature, and the under-lying principles of existence as constant, undergoing little change. Because of itsemphasis on ageless truth, perennialism is closely associated with idealism.

Perennialists stress the importance of time-honored ideas, the great worksof past and present thinkers, and the ability to reason. To know reality, peren-nialists maintain, one must examine individual things and concepts so as tofind their essence. To find the essence, one must discard the particulars and


perennialismAn educational theory thatfocuses on enduring princi-ples of knowledge; nature,human nature, and the un-derlying principles of exis-tence are consideredconstant, undergoing littlechange.

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search for the unchanging underlying essentials. The essence of human beingslies in what they have in common: the ability to reason.

For the perennialist, the intellect does not develop merely by contact withrelevant experiences. The intellect must be nourished by contact with ideas be-cause truth ultimately resides in the nature of things rather than in the sensoryaspects of things. Perennialists contend that instead of focusing on currentevents or student interests, educators should teach disciplined knowledge, withparticular emphasis on students’ mastery of established facts about the greatideas and works found in literature, the humanities, mathematics, science, andthe arts. (See the Perennialist Class Activity.)

PERENNIALIST FOCUS OF LEARNING

The focus of learning in perennialism lies in activities designed to discipline themind. Subject matter of a disciplinary and spiritual nature, such as mathematics,language, logic, great books, and doctrines, must be studied. The learner is as-sumed to be a rational and spiritual person. Difficult mental calisthenics such asreading, writing, drill, rote memory, and computations are important in trainingthe intellect. Perennialism holds that learning to reason is also important—anability attained by additional mental exercises in grammar, logic, and rhetoric, aswell as through use of discussion methodologies. Reasoning about human mat-ters and about moral principles that permeate the universe links perennialism toidealism. As the individual mind develops, the learner becomes more like aspiritual being. The learner is closer to ultimate knowledge when he or she grad-ually assumes the mind qualities of God. Idealism also harmonizes with somefindings on the psychology of learning—findings suggesting that the mind cancombine pieces of learning into whole concepts that have meaning.

PERENNIALIST CURRICULUM

Perennialists believe that early schooling is best directed toward preparing chil-dren for maturity, and they emphasize the three Rs in the elementary schools.

Teacher-Centered Locus-of-Control Educational Theories 339

PERENN IAL I ST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Ms. Rosemont’s literature class had been studying the works of Henry DavidThoreau. In the classroom session on “Reading” from Walden, discussion fo-cused on the following questions:

Do the classics embody truth? Why or why not?Have all our emotions and problems been written about by great authors?Are none of our experiences unique? Why or why not?What makes a book great?Does popular literature ever serve a noble purpose? Why or why not?With whom can one talk about the best book?Can only great poets read the works of great poets? Why or why not?Does dealing with truth help us become immortal? Why or why not?How can we get the most benefit from our reading?

This lesson followed the Great Books procedure for questioning and could,therefore, be considered a perennialist investigation of human nature.1

In this perennialist class activity, the nature of the learner is active, the na-ture of the subject matter is structured, the use of the subject matter is cognitive,and the thinking approach is convergent.

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Some lay and ecclesiastical perennialists consider character training, enhancedthrough Bible study, to be as important as the three Rs at the elementary level.A perennialist program for the secondary level is directed more toward educat-ing the intellectually elite. Perennialism favors trade and skill training for stu-dents who are not engaged in the rigors of the general education program.Perennialists agree that the curriculum at the secondary level should provide ageneral educational program for the intellectually gifted and vocational trainingfor the less gifted.

THE GREAT BOOKS: A PERENNIALIST PROGRAM

The Great Books program, associated with Robert M. Hutchins and MortimerAdler, has brought attention to perennialism. Proponents of the Great Booksprogram maintain that studying the works of the leading scholars of history isthe best way to a general education. Perennialists debate the use of contempo-rary sources. Some contend that students can draw on modern sources to obtainknowledge and that the Great Books program should be flexible enough to in-clude newer works of literature, science, and so forth.

ESSENTIALISM

Essentialism holds that there is a common core of information and skills that aneducated person in a given culture must have. Schools should be organized totransmit this core of essential material as effectively as possible. There are threebasic principles of essentialism: a core of information, hard work and mentaldiscipline, and teacher-centered instruction. Essentialism seeks to educate byproviding training in the fundamentals, developing sound habits of mind, andteaching respect for authority. The back-to-the-basics movement is a truncatedform of essentialism because it focuses primarily on the three Rs and discipline.

Although essentialism shares many of the same principles as perennialism,there are several important differences. Essentialism draws equally from bothidealism and realism. Essentialists are not so intent on transmitting underlying,basic truths; rather, they advocate the teaching of a basic core of information thatwill help a person live a productive life today. Hence, this core of information


Perennialists focus learning on subject matter of a disciplinary and spiritualnature, such as mathematics, language, logic, great books, and doctrines.

essentialismAn educational theory thatholds that there is a com-mon core of informationand skills that an educatedperson must have; schoolsshould be organized totransmit this core of essen-tial material.

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D E B A T E

Should Today’s Education Be Relevant to Tomorrow’s Job Market?

Norish Adams, coordinator of curricu-lum and research at the Florida A&MUniversity Developmental ResearchSchool, has been a pioneer in theschool-to-work movement in her area.A veteran teacher, preservice instructor,and NEA activist, Adams can bereached at [email protected].

Janette Gerdes teaches English and lit-erature at Signal Hill School in Illinois.She was nominated for a Golden AppleAward in 1997 and recognized inWho’s Who Among American Teach-ers in 1998. A member of the BellevilleEducation Association, Gerdes can bereached at [email protected].

Over the course of my 30-year career, I’ve found no ap-proach to teaching—and I’ve tried dozens—that hasbeen as successful as one that ties subject knowledgeto career development.

When students explore the future job market as anauthentic component of learning, concepts take onmore meaning than when introduced as abstract rules,definitions, and manipulations.

Here’s what I’ve seen:

Linking school and work enriches curriculum. Thebeauty, creativity, and challenges of mathematics, forexample, are richly revealed when viewed from theperspective of a doctor, master carpenter, quilter, as-tronaut, political analyst, or artist.

Linking school and work motivates students. Someof my students participate in a five-day career shadow-ing program at a nearby corporation. They learn first-hand about becoming a computer scientist, engineer,human resource director, and support employee withthe space flight program.

Back in class, they write about their experiencesand file their work in “course/career portfolios” that fo-cus their thinking on school, work, and the connec-tions between the two.

As one of my most reluctant students said, “Thebest part of keeping the portfolio is that it helps me seehow all this required stuff fits into my life and helps tomake it better.”

Linking school and work keeps options open for allstudents, without “tracks.” At the public high school inTallahassee where I work, we don’t have separate vo-cational and academic paths for students, relegatingapplication to one and theory to the other.

Teachers should never allow the near-sacred mission oflearning to be polluted by letting the public schools be-come the minor leagues for corporate America.

The goal of public schools should not be to trainchildren to be worker drones. The goal should be toeducate them so that they may enjoy full, happy, andproductive lives.

If we educate kids to be thinkers, questioners, andproblem-solvers, they’ll do fine in the ever-changing,rarely predictable job market.

When I started teaching 10 years ago, the Internetwas still used almost exclusively by scientists and gov-ernment, a much smaller percentage of families ownedhome computers, and no one had even heard of any-thing called the World Wide Web.

Since then, we’ve seen huge changes in technol-ogy and the media, the Cold War has ended, andHMOs have overtaken American health care. Whatcould we have taught the class of 1988 that would berelevant to today’s job market anyway?

What we need to teach our students is how toread, write, think, question, and learn. Let the employ-ers handle the specifics of job training.

Of course it’s wholly appropriate to use technol-ogy to shape young minds. We should use whatevertools are available to turn kids on to learning, and kidslove computers.

But a student with a well-rounded education—rather than one targeted for a job market that’s likely tobe obsolete by the time she’s ready to enter it—has theadvantage in the job market and, more importantly,will be better prepared to lead a full, satisfying life.

Y E S N O

Educational theories hold competing views about the most valuable type ofknowledge. Perennialism values underlying principles; positivism values clear, pre-cise information that is verifiable in the physical world; and constructivism valuesthe importance of personal meaning. The debate over how relevant knowledgeshould be to the job market rages in the midst of these educational theories.

(continued)

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can and will change. This is an important difference in emphasis from the no-tions of everlasting truth that characterize the perennialist. In addition, essen-tialism stresses the disciplined development of basic skills rather than theperennialist goals of uncovering essences or underlying principles. (See the Es-sentialist Class Activity.)

ESSENTIALIST FOCUS OF LEARNING

Essentialism’s goals are to transmit the cultural heritage and develop good citi-zens. It seeks to do this by emphasizing a core of fundamental knowledge andskills, developing sound habits of mental discipline, and demanding a respect forauthority in a structured learning situation. The role of the student is that of a


D E B A T E

Students in academic classes need not ask, “Whenwill I ever really use this?” Teachers will never have to say,“You’ll understand next year when you go to college.”

Instead, we’re in the process of creating six careeracademies in the areas of business, health sciences, ar-chitecture and design, engineering, public policy, andeducation. These areas were selected based on job pre-dictions in Florida and the nation, as well as surveyedstudent interests.

Our goal: to give all students a rigorous educationin the basics, plus the skills they’ll need in problem-solving, technology, business, and public policy tothrive in today’s job market—and tomorrow’s.

Linking school and work helps students find their waywith a minimum of struggle and cost. Ninety percent ofour students go on to postsecondary education. Manymust work to help pay college costs, and they can’t af-ford the luxury of taking six or seven years to graduate.

Our schoolwide career development program en-sures that our graduates don’t enter college unpre-pared to make wise, informed choices about theirmajor, and that they don’t flounder or drop out duringthe first year or two of college.

Linking school and work is the best way to prepare stu-dents for whatever lies ahead. Young people who un-derstand the world they will work in will take theclasses, engage in the activities, do the reading, join theorganizations, and enter the competitions that will pre-pare them for the jobs of the 21st century—whateverthey may be.

NEA Today ran a cover story on the school-to-workmovement last spring, which included anecdotes ofstudents who became more motivated by participatingin career-based learning.

But I suspect there are also kids who were turnedoff. And, worse, students focusing on math classes as aprelude to careers as pilots still might not see the pointof studying literature or history.

This type of schooling sends such a terrible messageto students—that learning is meaningful only when con-nected to a future job.

We have to be better than that, better than ourmoney-obsessed culture. We have to show kids thatthere is more to life than a job, even a rewarding one.

There is the beauty of the natural world. There isfreedom and the history of the struggle to achieve it.There is the tapestry of diverse cultures. There are greatwriters who speak to us from across the decades andcenturies. And, yes, boys and girls, there is the im-mense pleasure of learning for its own sake.

I understand that people must have jobs to survive.But I will always teach my junior high English and liter-ature students that life is about more than survival. . . .

Source: “Should Today’s Education Be Relevant to Tomorrow’s JobMarket?” NEA Today (January 1999), p. 43.

Y E S N O

W H A T D O Y O U T H I N K ? Should today’s education be relevant to tomorrow’s job market?

To give your opinion, go to Chapter 10 of the companion website (www.ablongman.com/johnson13e) and click on Debate.

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learner. School is a place where children come to learn what they need to know,and the teacher is the person who can best instruct students in essential matters.

ESSENTIALIST CURRICULUM

The essentialist curriculum focuses on subject matter that includes literature,history, foreign languages, and religion. Teaching methods require formal dis-cipline and feature required reading, lectures, memorization, repetition, and ex-aminations. Essentialists differ in their views on curriculum, but they generallyagree about teaching the laws of nature and the accompanying universal truthsof the physical world. Mathematics and the natural sciences are examples ofsubjects that contribute to the learners’ knowledge of natural law. Activities thatrequire mastering facts and information about the physical world are significantaspects of essentialist methodology. With truth defined as observable fact, in-struction often includes field trips, laboratories, audiovisual materials, and na-ture study. Habits of intellectual discipline are considered ends in themselves.

Essentialism envisions subject matter as the core of education. Severe criti-cism has been leveled at U.S. education by essentialists who advocate an empha-sis on basic education. Essentialism assigns to the schools the task of conservingthe heritage and transmitting knowledge of the physical world. In a sense, theschool is a curator of knowledge.

With the burgeoning of newknowledge in contemporary society,essentialism may be contributing tothe slowness of educational change.In this context, essentialism has beencriticized as obsolete in its authori-tarian tendencies. Such criticism im-plies that essentialism does notsatisfy the twenty-first-century needsof U.S. youth. Essentialist educatorsdeny this criticism and claim to haveincorporated modern influences inthe system while maintaining aca-demic standards.

ESSENTIAL SCHOOLS MOVEMENT

The Essential Schools movement is acontemporary school reform effortdeveloped by Dr. Theodore Sizer.Sizer contends that students need tomaster a common core of information


ESSENT IAL I ST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Mr. Jackson’s second graders had just learned to count money. He decided to letthem play several games of “musical envelopes.” There was one envelope perstudent, each containing a different amount of paper “nickels,” “dimes,” “quar-ters,” and “pennies.” When the music stopped, students had to count themoney in their envelopes. The one with the most money for each game got aspecial prize.2

In this essentialist class activity, the nature of the learner is passive, the na-ture of the subject matter is structured, the use of the subject matter is cognitive,and the thinking approach is convergent.

Essentialist teaching methods require formal discipline through emphasis onrequired reading, lectures, memorization, repetition, and examination.

The business of education isnot to make the youngperfect in any one of thesciences, but so to open anddispose their minds as maybest make them capable ofany, when they shall applythemselves to it.

John Locke

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and skills, and he encourages schools to strip away the nonessentials and focuson having students “use their minds well.” The Essential Schools movementdoes not specify what content is essential in a given culture at a given time.Rather, “essential schools” are required to analyze clearly what this core of in-formation should be and to change the curriculum to emphasize this core.

The Coalition of Essential Schools (www.essentialschools.org) promotes avision of schooling in which students engage in in-depth and rigorous learning.Essential schools select a small number of core skills and areas of knowledgethat they expect all students to demonstrate and exercise broadly across contentareas. Ten common principles have been developed by Dr. Sizer in collabora-tion with essential school participants to guide the efforts of the coalition.These principles include using the mind well; a focus on clear, essential learn-ing goals; an attempt to apply these goals to all students; personalized teachingand learning; emphasis on student-as-worker; student performance on real taskswith multiple forms of evidence; values of un-anxious expectation; principaland teachers as generalists first and specialists second; budgets that do not ex-ceed traditional schools by more than 10 percent; and nondiscriminatory poli-cies and practices.

BEHAVIORISM

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), the Harvard experimental psychologist and philoso-pher, is the recognized leader of the movement known as behaviorism. Skinnerverified Pavlov’s stimulus-response theory with animals and, from his research,suggested that human behavior could also be explained as responses to externalstimuli. (See the Behaviorist Class Activity.) Because of its focus on the carefulexamination of environment, behaviors, and responses, behaviorism is closelylinked to realism. Other behaviorists’ research expanded on Skinner’s work inillustrating the effect of the environment, particularly the interpersonal envi-ronment, on shaping individual behavior. In the words of Charles Wolfgangand Carl Glickman,

Behaviorists share a common belief that a student’s misbehavior can be changed andreshaped in a socially acceptable manner by directly changing the student’s envi-ronment. The Behaviorist accepts the premise that students are motivated by the fac-tor that all people will attempt to avoid experiences and stimuli that are not pleasingand will seek experiences that are pleasing and rewarding.3

BEHAVIORIST FOCUS OF LEARNING

Behaviorism is a psychological and educational theory that holds that one’s be-havior is determined by environment, not heredity. This suggests that education


BEHAVIOR IST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Students in Mr. Drucker’s civics class were given merit tokens for coming intothe room quietly, sitting at their desks, preparing notebooks and pencils for theday’s lesson, and being ready to begin answering comprehension questions intheir workbooks. On Fridays students were allowed to use their tokens at an auc-tion to buy items that Mr. Drucker knew they wanted. Sometimes, however, stu-dents had to save tokens for more than two weeks to buy what they liked best.

In this behaviorist class activity, the nature of the learner is passive, the na-ture of the subject matter is amorphous (unstructured), the use of the subjectmatter is affective (having to do with feelings) or cognitive, and the thinking ap-proach is convergent.

Education makes a peopleeasy to lead, but difficult todrive, easy to govern, butimpossible to enslave.

Franklin DelanoRoosevelt

behaviorismA psychological theory thatasserts that behaviors repre-sent the essence of a personand that all behaviors canbe explained as responses tostimuli.

A teacher affects eternity; hecan never tell where hisinfluence stops.

Henry Adams

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can contribute significantly to the shaping ofthe individual because the teacher can con-trol the stimuli in a classroom and therebyinfluence student behavior. Behaviorists be-lieve that the school environment must behighly organized and the curriculum basedon behavioral objectives, and they hold thatknowledge is best described as behaviorsthat are observable. They contend that em-pirical evidence is essential if students are tolearn and that students must employ the sci-entific method to arrive at knowledge. Thetask of education is to develop learning envi-ronments that lead to desired behaviors instudents.

REINFORCEMENT: A BEHAVIORISTPRACTICE

The concept of reinforcement is critical toteacher practices in behaviorism. The behav-iorist teacher endeavors to foster desired behaviors by using both positive rein-forcers (things students like, such as praise, privileges, and good grades) andnegative reinforcers (things students wish to avoid, such as reprimands, extrahomework, and lower grades). The theory is that behavior that is not reinforced(whether positively or negatively) will eventually be “extinguished”—will ceaseto occur. In general, behaviorists contend that learning takes place when ap-proved behavior is observed and then positively reinforced.

A teacher may provide nonverbal positive reinforcement (smiling, noddingapproval) or negative reinforcement (frowning, shaking the head in disapproval).Similarly, nondirective statements, questions, and directive statements may bepositive or negative. Both children and adults respond to the models other peo-ple (peers, adults, heroes) represent to them by imitating the model behavior. Be-haviorists contend that students tend to emulate behaviors that are rewarded.

The behaviorists have supplied a wealth of empirical research that bears onthe problems of attaining self-control, resisting temptation, and showing con-cern for others. Behaviorists do not attempt to learn about the causes of stu-dents’ earlier problems. Rather, the teachermust ascertain what is happening in theclassroom environment to perpetuate or ex-tinguish students’ behavior.

POSITIVISM

The educational theory of positivism stemsfrom what the social scientist Auguste Comte(1798–1857) described as “positive knowl-edge.” Comte divided the thinking of hu-mankind into three historical periods, eachof which was characterized by a distinct wayof thinking. The first was the theological era,in which people explained things by refer-ence to spirits and gods. The second was themetaphysical era, in which people explainedphenomena in terms of causes, essences, andinner principles. The third was the positiveperiod, in which thinkers did not attempt togo beyond observable, measurable fact.


Behaviorists contend that learning takes place when approvedbehavior is observed and then positively reinforced.

Positivism focuses learning on acquisition of facts based on carefulempirical observation and measurement of the world.

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The positivist position rejects essences, intuition, and inner causes thatcannot be measured. Empirical verification is central to all proper thinking.This theory rejects beliefs about mind, spirit, and consciousness and holds thatall reality can be explained by laws of matter and motion. In sum, positivismlimits knowledge to statements of observable fact based on sense perceptionsand the investigation of objective reality. Positivism became a rallying point fora group of scholars in Vienna. Because the group consisted largely of scientists,mathematicians, and symbolic logicians, positivism became known as logicalpositivism.

POSITIVIST FOCUS OF LEARNING

Practiced as an educational theory, positivism focuses learning on the acquisi-tion of facts based on careful empirical observation and measurement of theworld. Positivism requires schools to develop content standards that representthe best understandings of experts who have already uncovered important ideasbased on their own observation and measurement. Students are encouragedboth to master these expert understandings and to develop their own skills ofobservation, classification, and logical analysis.

OBJECTIVE FORCED-CHOICE TESTING: A POSITIVIST REQUIREMENT

Testing students’ acquisition of content standards is a valued activity for thepositivist educator. Creating objective tests that are free from bias is critical toeducation. Because empirical knowledge is proven by years of careful analysis,there is a set of truths that students should master and understand according toa clear set of criteria. The only way to ensure that such knowledge has been at-tained and understood is to test all students according to the same objective setof criteria. (See the Positivist Class Activity.)

DIRECT INSTRUCTION: A POSITIVIST APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

Direct instruction is a teaching and learning approach that requires teachers toclearly and precisely identify and state what a student needs to learn and mas-ter, as well as to restate this expectation through different media and assign-ments. It is a teaching and learning approach that places the responsibility forclear, precise expectations on the teacher. Once a teacher has identified pre-cisely what students should know and be able to do, the teacher is expected toclearly describe to students exactly what they should know and be able to do.Teachers are encouraged to use repetition and have students practice and prac-tice again, recite and recite again, what is to be learned. Teachers are further en-couraged to have students repeat the main ideas of the instruction by usingdifferent media: oral recitation, writing, restating, drawing, and so forth. The


POS IT IV I ST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Humberto Diaz introduced the meaning of surface tension to his junior high sci-ence students. During class he then distributed eyedroppers, water, and penniesto the students. He directed the students to determine how many drops of watercould fit on the surface of the penny before spilling over. Students were to collectdata and develop a data table and corresponding charts. At the end of the class,Mr. Diaz asked the students to discuss their findings and draw a conclusion.

In this positivist class activity, the nature of the learner is active, the natureof the subject matter is structured, the use of the subject matter is cognitive, andthe thinking approach is convergent.

positivismA social theory that limitstruth and knowledge towhat is observable andmeasurable.

What we have to learn todo, we learn by doing.

Aristotle

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key ingredient for this approach is the use of clear, uncluttered statements andrestatements about the focus of learning.

This approach to teaching and learning fits the positivist educational theorybecause in such an educational approach knowledge is considered somethingthat is clear and precise. If all knowledge is clear, precise, and the same for all,then teachers can be expected to require all students to learn the same knowl-edge. Direct instruction is possible because all knowledge that is worthy is alsoclear and precise.

STUDENT-CENTERED LOCUS-OF-CONTROLEDUCATIONAL THEORIES

Progressivism, reconstructionism, humanism, and constructivism espouse astudent-centered authority approach to subject matter, classroom organization,teaching methods, and assessment. Although each theory forms a distinct cohe-sive whole, all four are rooted in an internal locus-of-control principle, that is,the belief that truth and goodness belong to all persons no matter what their sta-tion. Teachers are learners and learners are teachers, and education is the processthrough which individuals help one another to clarify personal meaning.

As with the teacher-centered positions, we will present each student-centered locus-of-control theory’s ideas on curriculum, teaching, and learning.In addition, for each theory we will describe a representative program alongwith an illustrative class activity. The class activity is further analyzed accord-ing to the nature of the learner (active or passive), the nature of the subject mat-ter, the use of the subject matter, and the type of thinking that is emphasized(convergent or focused on right answers, or divergent or focused on developingmultiple perspectives).

PROGRESSIVISM

In the late 1800s, with the rise of democracy, the expansion of modern scienceand technology, and the need for people to be able to adjust to change, peoplein Western societies had to have a new and different approach to acquiringknowledge in order to solve problems. A U.S. philosopher, Charles S. Peirce(1839–1914), founded the philosophical system called pragmatism. This phi-losophy held that the meaning and value of ideas could be found only in thepractical results of these ideas. Later, William James (1842–1910) extendedPeirce’s theory of meaning into a theory of truth. James asserted that the satis-factory working of an idea constitutes its whole truth. Pragmatism was carriedmuch further by John Dewey (1859–1952), who was a widely known and influ-ential philosopher and educator. Dewey insisted that ideas must always betested by experiment. His emphasis on experiment carried over into his educa-tional philosophy, which became the basis for what was usually described asprogressive education. Progressivism is an educational theory that emphasizesthat ideas should be tested by experimentation and that learning is rooted inquestions developed by learners.4

From its establishment in the mid-1920s through the mid-1950s, progres-sivism was the most influential educational view in the United States. Progres-sivists basically oppose authoritarianism and favor human experience as a basisfor knowledge. Progressivism favors the scientific method of teaching andlearning, allows for the beliefs of individuals, and stresses programs of studentinvolvement that help students learn how to think. Progressivists believe thatthe school should actively prepare its students for change. Progressive schoolsemphasize learning how to think rather than what to think. Flexibility is im-portant in the curriculum design, and the emphasis is on experimentation, with

Student-Centered Locus-of-Control Educational Theories 347

Progressivism, the educa-tional theory developed byphilosopher John Dewey(1859–1952), emphasizesthat ideas should be testedby experimentation andthat learning is rooted inquestions developed by thelearners.

progressivismAn educational theory thatemphasizes that ideasshould be tested by experi-mentation and that learningis rooted in questions devel-oped by the learner.

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no single body of content stressed more than any other. This approach encour-ages divergent thinking—moving beyond conventional ideas to come up withnovel interpretations or solutions. And because life experience determines cur-riculum content, all types of content must be permitted. Certain subjects re-garded as traditional are recognized as desirable for study as well. Progressivisteducators would organize scientific method-oriented learning activities aroundthe traditional subjects. Such a curriculum is called experience-centered orstudent-centered; the essentialist and perennialist curricula are considered sub-ject-centered. Experience-centered curricula stress the process of learning ratherthan the result.

Progressivism as a contemporary teaching style emphasizes the process ofeducation in the classroom. It is more compatible with a core of problem areasacross all academic disciplines than with a subject-centered approach to prob-lem solving. It would be naive to suggest that memorization and rote practiceshould be ruled out. In progressive teaching, however, they are not stressed asprimary learning techniques. The assertion is that interest in an intellectual ac-tivity will generate all the practice needed for learning. (See the ProgressivistClass Activity.)

PROGRESSIVISM AND DEMOCRACY

A tenet of progressivism is that the school, to become an important social insti-tution, must take on the task of improving society. To this end, progressivism isdeemed a working model of democracy. Freedom is explicit in a democracy, soit must be explicit in schools. But freedom, rather than being a haphazard ex-pression of free will, must be organized to have meaning. Organized freedompermits each member of the school society to take part in decisions, and allmust share their experiences to ensure that the decisions are meaningful.Pupil–teacher planning is the key to democracy in classrooms and is the processthat gives some freedom to students, as well as teachers, in decisions about whatis studied. For example, the teacher might ask students to watch a film about anissue of interest and have them list questions about the issue that were not an-swered by the film but that they would like to investigate. Students and theteacher can then analyze the questions and refine them for research. Such ques-tions can become the basis for an inquiry and problem-solving unit of study.However, even if pupil–teacher planning is not highlighted as a specific activity,any progressivist lesson allows students to give some of their own input in waysthat influence the direction of the lesson. In that sense, progressivist lessons al-ways involve pupil–teacher planning. For instance, asking students to makestatements about life in 1908, using copies of pages from 1908 Sears and Roe-buck catalogs as their information source, allows students to focus on any itemsthey choose from the catalogs, not items determined by the teacher.


PROGRESS IV I ST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Ms. Long’s second graders read “Recipe for a Hippopotamus Sandwich” fromWhere the Sidewalk Ends: Poems and Drawings of Shel Silverstein (New York:Harper & Row, 1974). Ms. Long asked each student to draw a picture of the hip-popotamus sandwich. For homework she instructed the children to read thepoem to someone, show the picture, and then tell about the person’s reaction onthe following day.5

In this progressivist class activity, the nature of the learner is active, the na-ture of the subject matter is structured, the use of the subject matter is cognitive,and the thinking approach is divergent.

The one real object of edu-cation is to have a man inthe condition of continuallyasking questions.

Bishop MandellCreighton

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Progressivism views the learner as an experiencing, thinking, exploring in-dividual. Its goal is to expose the learner to the subject matter of social experi-ences, social studies, projects, problems, and experiments that, when studiedby the scientific method, will result in functional knowledge from all subjects.Progressivists regard books as tools to be used in learning rather than as sourcesof indisputable knowledge.

PROGRESSIVISM AND SOCIALIZATION

Many people believe that the socialization aspect of progressivism—the fact thatit represents the leading edge of society and helps students learn how to managechange—is its most valuable aspect. However, progressivism is criticized forplacing so much stress on the processes of education that the ends are neglected.Its severest critics contend that progressive educators have little personal com-mitment to anything, producing many graduates who are uncommitted and whoare content to drift through life. Progressivists counter by stating that their edu-cational view is relatively young and that therefore they expect criticism; afterall, trial-and-error methods are a part of the scientific method. The advent of pro-gressivism as a counterview to the more traditional educational views providedexciting discussions that continue among thinkers in education.

RECONSTRUCTIONISM

Reconstructionism emerged in the 1930s under the leadership of George S.Counts, Harold Rugg, and Theodore Brameld. Reconstructionism recognizedthat progressivism had made advances beyond essentialism in teacher–pupil re-lations and teaching methodology. However, progressivism fixated too heavilyon the needs of the child and failed to develop long-range goals for society.Spurred by the Great Depression of the 1930s, reconstructionism called for anew social order that would fulfill basic democratic ideals. Advocates believethat people should control institutions and resources and that this could hap-pen if there were an international democratic world government. Reconstruc-tionism draws on both pragmatism (like progressivism) and existentialism.

CRITICAL PEDAGOGY: A RECONSTRUCTIONIST CURRICULUM

An education for a reconstructed societywould require that students be taught to ana-lyze world events, explore controversial is-sues, and develop a vision for a new andbetter world. Teachers would critically exam-ine cultural heritages, explore controversialissues, provide a vision for a new and betterworld, and enlist students’ efforts to promoteprograms of cultural renewal. Although teach-ers would attempt to convince students of thevalidity of such democratic goals, they wouldemploy democratic procedures in doing so.(See the Reconstructionist Class Activity.)

A contemporary version of reconstruc-tionism is rooted in the work of Henry Giroux,who views schools as vehicles for socialchange. He calls teachers to be transformativeintellectuals and wants them to participate increating a new society. Schools should prac-tice “critical pedagogy,” which unites theoryand practice as it provides students with thecritical thinking tools to be change agents.6


Reconstructionists teach students to critically analyze world events,explore controversial issues, and develop a vision for a new andbetter world.

reconstructionismAn educational theory thatcalls on schools to teachpeople to control institu-tions and to be organizedaccording to basic democra-tic ideals.

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RECONSTRUCTIONISM AND WORLD REFORMATION

A persistent theme of reconstructionism is that public education should be thedirect instrument of world reformation. Reconstructionism accepts the conceptthat the essence of learning is the actual experience of learning. Reconstruc-tionism espouses a theory of social welfare designed to prepare learners to dealwith great crises: war, inflation, rapid technological changes, depression. Basedon the experiences of World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II, re-constructionist educators believe that the total educational effort must be seenwithin a social context.

As we indicated earlier, John Dewey had an immense influence on pro-gressivism. Dewey also made major contributions to reconstructionist philoso-phy with his efforts to define the individual as an entity within a social context.Reconstructionists go further in urging that individuals, as entities within a so-cial context, engage in specific reform activity. Reconstructionist classroomteachers tend to use affective (emotion-related) emphases and moral dilemmasin directing students’ attention toward social reform.

Paulo Freire (1922–1997) was a contemporary social reconstructionist whodedicated his life to freeing society from an educational system that he saw asdevised by the dominant class “for the purpose of keeping the masses submergedand contained in a culture of silence.”7 Having experienced hunger and povertyfirsthand in the 1930s, Freire worked among the poor to assist them in improv-ing their lot in life. He proposed a problem-posing approach to education, to re-place what he called the “banking” method—in which one privileged classknows the truth and deposits it in the appropriate amounts into the empty andlimited minds of the unwashed or dispossessed. Freire advocated an educationthat expands every human being’s ability to understand and transform the world.

HUMANISM

Humanism is an educational approach that is rooted both in the writings ofJean-Jacques Rousseau and in the ideas of existentialism. Rousseau (1712–1778),the father of Romanticism, believed that the child entered the world not as ablank slate but with certain innate qualities and tendencies. In the opening sen-


RECONSTRUCT ION IST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Mr. Brandese Powell asked his second graders to look at a cartoon that pictureda well-dressed man and woman in an automobile pulled by a team of twohorses. The highway they were traveling along passed through rolling farmlandwith uncrowded meadows, trees, and clear skies in the background. He led adiscussion based on the following questions:

1. What is happening in this picture?2. Do you like what is happening in the picture? Why or why not?3. What does it say about the way you may be living when you grow up?4. Are you happy or unhappy about what you have described for your life as

an adult?5. How can we get people to use less gasoline now?6. What if we could keep companies from making and selling cars that could

not travel at least forty miles on one gallon of gasoline? How could we workto get a law passed to do this?

In this reconstructionist class activity, the nature of the learner is active, thenature of the subject matter is structured, the use of the subject matter is affec-tive, and the thinking approach is divergent.

Paulo Freire (1922–1997)was a social reconstruction-ist who advocated educa-tional reform that affirmsthe needs of all children, notjust those from privilegedfamilies.

humanismAn educational theory thatcontends that humans areinnately good—that theyare born free but becomeenslaved by institutions.

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tence of Émile, Rousseau’s famous treatise on education, he states that “Godmakes all things good; man meddles with them and they become evil.”8 Thus,Rousseau believed in basic goodness at birth. He also believed that humans areborn free but become enslaved by institutions. Humanistic education minglessome of these ideas from Rousseau with the basic ideas of existentialism.

Humanistic educational theory is concerned with enhancing the innategoodness of the individual. It rejects a group-oriented educational system andseeks ways to enhance the individual development of the student. (See the Hu-manist Class Activity.)

Humanists believe that most schools de-emphasize the individual and therelationship between the teacher and the student. Humanists claim that as ed-ucators attempt to predict behavior of students, they turn individuals into ob-jects to be measured. According to the humanist, education should be a processof developing a free, self-actualizing person—a process that is centered on thestudent’s feelings. Therefore, education should not start with great ideas, theworld, or humankind, but with the individual self.

HUMANISTIC CURRICULUM

Because the goal of humanism is a completely autonomous person, educationshould be without coercion or prescription. Students should be active and shouldbe encouraged to make their own choices. The teacher who follows humanistictheory emphasizes instruction and assessment based on student interests, abili-ties, and needs. Students determine the rules that will govern classroom life, andthey make choices about the books to read or exercises to complete.

Humanists honor divergent thinking so completely that they delay givingtheir own personal opinions and do not attempt to persuade students to partic-ular points of view. Even though they emphasize the affective and thereby maymake students feel a certain urgency about issues, it is always left to the indi-vidual student to decide when to take a stand, what kind of stand to take,whether a cause merits action, and, if so, what kind of action to engage in.

HUMANISTIC SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS

Martin Buber’s writings describe the heart of humanistic school environments. InI and Thou, Buber portrays two different ways in which individuals relate to the


HUMANIST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Ms. Fenway wanted her ninth graders to think about the effectiveness of televi-sion and radio advertising. She asked students to write down any five slogansor jingles they could remember and the products advertised. Ms. Fenway se-lected from their items at random and tested the class. For each slogan, classmembers had to identify the product advertised. The test was corrected in classby the students, who were very surprised to find the grading scale reversed.Those who had all correct answers received Fs, and those who had only onecorrect answer received As. When asked why she had reversed the grades, Ms.Fenway responded, “Why do you think advertising is so effective?” She askedwhether students resented some companies’ selling tactics. Then she told stu-dents to help her make a list of questions to ask themselves in order to avoidspending money in ways they might later regret. She also asked for specific ex-amples of spending money for items they later wished they had not bought.9

In this humanist class activity, the nature of the learner is active, the natureof the subject matter is structured, the use of the subject matter is affective, andthe thinking approach is divergent.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau(1712–1778) is the fatherof Romanticism andbelieved that humans areborn free but becomeenslaved by the structures of society.

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outside world. In the I–It relationship, one views something outsideoneself in a purely objective manner, as a thing to be used and ma-nipulated for selfish ends. In contrast, I–Thou relationships arecharacterized by viewing other people as sacred entities who de-serve profound respect. Such relationships focus on the importanceof understanding and respecting diverse, subjective, personal mean-ings. Buber was deeply concerned that people were treated as ob-jects (Its) rather than as Thous, especially in business, science,government, and education.10

Many students today believe that educators treat them as So-cial Security numbers stored in a computer. In college classes of100 or more, it is difficult for teachers to remember students’names, let alone get to know them as individuals. Often teachersassign material, mark papers, and give grades without ever reallyconversing with students. When the semester ends, students leaveclass and are replaced by other, equally anonymous students. Bu-ber did not believe that schools had to be this way. He contendedthat in a proper relationship between teacher and student, there isa mutual sensibility of feeling. There is empathy, not a subject–object relationship.

A humanistic school environment is one in which people(both teacher and student) share their thoughts, feelings, beliefs,fears, and aspirations with one another. Nel Noddings labels thisan environment of caring. According to humanists, this kind ofcaring relationship should pervade the educational process at alllevels as well as society at large.

In his book Summerhill, A. S. Neill provides a radical picture of a school en-vironment that focuses on the development of caring, I–Thou relationships. Neilldescribes schools that treat teachers and students as individuals, allow studentsto create their own rules, make class attendance optional, and stress caring rela-tionships over academic achievement. A number of schools in England andCanada were modeled after Summerhill, and some are still in existence.11

Inspired by humanism, many educators attempt to personalize education inless radical ways. Examples include individualizing instruction, open-accesscurriculum, nongraded instruction, and multi-age grouping. Each of these ap-proaches attends to the uniqueness of the learner. Block scheduling permitsflexibility for students to arrange classes of their choice. Free schools, storefrontschools, schools without walls, and area vocational centers provide humanisticalternatives to traditional school environments.

Educational programs that address the needs of the individual are usuallymore costly per pupil than traditional group-centered programs. Consequently,as taxpayer demands for accountability mount, humanistic individualized pro-grams are often brought under unit-cost scrutiny. Nonetheless, growing num-bers of educators are willing to defend increased expenditures to meet theneeds of the individual learner within the instructional programs of the schools.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism is an educational theory that emphasizes hands-on, activity-based teaching and learning. Constructivism is closely associated with existen-tialism. The American Psychological Association (APA) has encouraged teachersto reconsider the manner in which they view teaching. The APA contends thatstudents are active learners who should be given opportunities to construct theirown frames of thought. Teaching techniques should include a variety of differ-ent learning activities during which students are free to infer and discover theirown answers to important questions. Teachers need to spend time creating these


Humanists believe that education should bewithout coercion or prescription and thatstudents should be active learners and maketheir own choices.

constructivismAn educational theory thatemphasizes hands-on, activity-based teaching andlearning during which stu-dents develop their ownframes of thought.

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learning situations rather than lecturing. Constructivist educators consider truelearning to be the active framing of personal meaning (by the learner) ratherthan the framing of someone else’s meaning (the teacher’s).

Such a view of teaching and learning has profound ramifications for theschool curriculum. If students are to be encouraged to answer their own ques-tions and develop their own thinking frame, the curriculum needs to be recon-ceptualized. Constructivist theorists encourage the development of criticalthinking and the understanding of big ideas rather than the mastery of factualinformation. They contend that students who have a sound understanding ofimportant principles that were developed through their own critical thinkingwill be better prepared for the complex, technological world.

CONSTRUCTIVIST CURRICULUM

Constructivist ideas about curriculum stand in sharp contrast to the authoritar-ian approaches we described earlier. Traditionally, learning has been thought ofas a mimic activity, a process that involves students repeating newly presentedinformation. Constructivism, on the other hand, focuses on the personalizedway a learner internalizes, shapes, or transforms information. Learning occursthrough the construction of new, personalized understanding that results fromthe emergence of new cognitive structures. Teachers and parents can invitesuch transformed understandings, but neither can mandate them.


P R O F E S S I O N A L D I L E M M A

Should I Use Homogeneous or HeterogeneousAbility Grouping?

The issue of how to group students for instruction can bevery controversial. Some propose homogeneous group-ing and others argue for heterogeneous grouping. Ho-mogeneous ability grouping is a practice that seems tohave merit. Permitting students who require the samelevel of instruction to be clustered in a single settingmakes planning and resource allocation much easier.Such grouping patterns permit students to receive in-struction that is tied to their specific needs, because theyare with others who need the same information or skilldevelopment.

Those who oppose homogeneous ability groupingcontend that labeling students and placing them insimilar ability groups based on their academic skill setsup structures that often inhibit future growth and de-velopment. Both teachers and parents begin to viewstudents according to these labels; and, once trackedby ability, students seldom break out of the initial labelsassigned at an early age. These critics call for multiabil-

ity or heterogeneous grouping. They believe that hav-ing students from a variety of backgrounds and abilitylevels work together is more in keeping with a demo-cratic society. Furthermore, such multiability groupingpermits students to help one another, fostering coop-erativeness and caring among those from differentbackgrounds. Indeed, opponents of tracking programshave pointed to the disproportionate number of mi-nority and low-income students who seem to make upthe lower-level groups.

List other pros and cons of homogeneous abilitygrouping that you can think of. List other pros andcons of heterogeneous ability grouping.Should one type of grouping be used in all in-structional settings or circumstances, or shouldthe types of grouping be varied according to taskand context?

To answer these questions on-line and e-mail your answers to your professor, go to Chapter 10 of theCompanion Website (www.ablongman.com/johnson13e) and click on Professional Dilemma.

Few high school studentslook upon the languagewhich they speak and writeas an art, not merely a tool,yet it ought to be, thenoblest of all arts, lookedupon with respect, evenwith reverence, and usedalways with care, courtesy,and deepest respect.

Mary Ellen Chase

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Accepting this simple proposition—that students learn by shaping theirown understandings about their world—makes the present structure of theschool difficult. According to constructivist principles, educators should invitestudents to experience the world’s richness and empower them to ask theirown questions and seek their own answers. The constructivist teacher proposessituations that encourage students to think. Rather than leading students towarda particular answer, the constructivist teacher allows students to develop theirown ideas and chart their own pathways. But schools infrequently operate insuch a constructivist way. Typically, schools determine what students will learnand when they will learn it.


R E L E V A N T R E S E A R C H

Increasing Student Achievement through Essential Schools

STUDY PURPOSE/QUESTIONS: The Coalition ofEssential Schools (CES) completed a series of studiesinvestigating the impact of an essential school ap-proach on students’ academic achievement. The studyfocuses on twenty-two schools in Ohio, Michigan,Massachusetts, and Maine that agreed to implementthe ten essential schools principles and had receivedawards in 1998 to implement the tenets of essentialschools. These schools typically serve students whostart out with low standardized test scores, come fromdiverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, and live inpoverty. All twenty-two schools received formal profes-sional development and on-site coaching from the CESregional center in their states. The centers are the Cen-ter for Essential School Reform in Ohio; Michigan Coali-tion of Essential Schools; the Center for CollaborativeEducation in Boston; and the Southern Maine Partner-ship in Gorham, Maine.

STUDY DESIGN: Throughout 1999–2000 teachersused essential schools principles to redesign and im-plement their instructional approaches. The curriculumwas reorganized to focus on essential concepts andskills. Students were provided a consistent approachwith all teachers espousing the ten principles of essen-tial schools. At the end of the academic year, studentswere tested on a variety of academic achievementmeasures including performance on standardized testsfrom the four states’ Department of Education web-sites. Of the twenty-two schools, nineteen schools’scores were available on their states’ websites.

STUDY FINDINGS: Student achievement data fromthese CES schools were compared to statewide aver-ages and with averages from all other schools that re-ceived funding to improve their school’s academic

achievement beginning in 1999–2000, but whichworked with other school reform organizations. Thedata from these two comparison groups allow the CESresearchers to analyze student achievement in CESschools in the context of the achievement trendswithin their states. Achievement test score data wereanalyzed from a total of seventeen tests in the subjectsof mathematics, reading, and writing. In some cases,the data were sufficient to make reasonable claimsabout the progress achieved by schools. In others, thedata allowed the researchers to make initial observa-tions but were insufficient to provide a complete pic-ture. Here are the findings:

The percentage of students in essential schoolspassing state achievement tests increased substan-tially from the initial year of testing.Essential schools are making significant progress inclosing the gap between the percentage of theirstudents who are passing and the state average ofstudents passing the tests. On four tests in twostates, CES schools not only narrowed the gap butalso surpassed the state averages.

IMPLICATIONS: Based on the initial, positive find-ings in favor of essential schools approaches, it is rea-sonable to consider the essential schools approach as alegitimate method for enhancing student achievement.However, further research is needed to follow students’progress throughout a longer time period. Unexpectedconsequences would also need to be analyzed so thatthe full effect of such a program is understood.

Source: Coalition of Essential Schools, Students Thrive in Schools ThatPromote Intellectual Rigor and Personalize Learning, A Report on theCoalition of Essential Schools’ Work with Comprehensive School Re-form Demonstration (CSRD) Schools in Ohio, Maine, Massachusettsand Michigan, 2001.

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Schooling doesn’t have to be this way, however. Schools canbetter reflect the constructivist point of view by allowing studentsto search for their own understanding. Nel Noddings writes:

Having accepted the basic constructivist premise, there is no point inlooking for foundations or using the language of absolute truth. Theconstructivist position is really post-epistemological and that is whyit can be so powerful in inducing new methods of research and teach-ing. It recognizes the power of the environment to press for adapta-tion, the temporality of knowledge, the existence of multiple selvesbehaving in consonance with the rules of various subcultures.12

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: A CONSTRUCTIVIST PEDAGOGY

Problem-based learning has recently emerged as a student-centeredteaching and learning approach that is in keeping with construc-tivist tenets. Based on Dewey’s concept of teaching through student-centered problems, this educational methodology centers studentactivities on tackling authentic contemporary problems. Problem-based learning is a radical approach in that it challenges educatorsto focus curriculum on student interests and concerns rather thanon content coverage. (See the Constructivist Class Activity.)

In a problem-based experience, students are presented with a“hook.” The hook might be a letter from a civic group, a requestfrom an environmental agency, or any other motivating beginning.The hook describes a contemporary dilemma and requests stu-dents to take on some real-life role to solve the problem. Problem-based learning usually requires students to spend time finding thecore problem, clarifying the problem, assessing what is and is notknown about the problem, gathering needed data to complementwhat has been uncovered, and finally presenting a position state-ment and/or suggesting a solution. Throughout the process, teachers act asguides or coaches and give great latitude to student interest. Students learncontent and skills within the problem context. Teachers spend time selectingproblems that are compatible with student maturity levels and curricular needs.


Constructivist educators invite students toexperience the world’s richness and empowerthem to ask their own questions and seektheir own answers. Problem-based learning isan example of constructivist pedagogy.

CONSTRUCT IV I ST CLASS ACT IV ITY

Reiko Nishioka’s sophomore biology class had just completed reading MichaelCrichton’s novel Jurassic Park when a letter from movie producer Steven Spiel-berg arrived addressed to each student in the class. The letter requested eachstudent’s assistance in Spielberg’s effort to determine what aspects of the novelwere or were not scientifically accurate with regard to dinosaurs. The letterasked students to prepare a written summary and to send the summary, alongwith proper documentation, to Spielberg’s production company. Because timewas limited, Spielberg requested that the summaries be completed within threeweeks. Reiko provided time for her students to think about the letter and thenasked them to determine what they would do next.

In this constructivist class activity, the nature of the learner is active, the na-ture of the subject matter is unstructured, the use of the subject matter is au-thentic to real life, and the thinking approach is divergent.

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This chapter provided an overview of eight leading educa-tional views that are held in part or entirely by teachers inU.S. schools. The teacher-centered locus-of-control educa-tional theories include perennialism, essentialism, behav-iorism, and positivism. Each of these theories emphasizesthe importance of controlling the subject matter content,thinking processes, and discipline procedures within theclassroom setting. Teachers are held responsible for con-trolling these areas of the school environment.

The student-centered locus-of-control educational theo-ries include progressivism, reconstructionism, humanism,and constructivism. Each of these theories places lessemphasis on the external control of the teacher and moreemphasis on student control. Progressivism promotes in-dividual student inquiry, whereas reconstructionism en-courages critical thinking and promotes social activism.Humanism stresses student freedom, and constructivismemphasizes the importance of supporting personal meaning.

S U M M A R Y

GLOBAL PERSPECT IVES

Looking beyond the BoundariesThroughout this chapter, educational theories have been presented as consis-tent sets of ideas linked together logically. This kind of categorization isstrongly related to the types of writings that were part and parcel of the work ofEuropean thinkers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is no surprisethat current educational theories in the United States tend to display a Western-style of thinking. Such thinking tends to create clear sets of distinctions. Thisalso comes as no surprise, because in large part immigrants to this country dur-ing the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and part of the twentieth centurycame primarily from Germany, Poland, Ireland, Scandinavia, England, France,Italy, and Switzerland.

This emphasis on Western-style, categorical thinking has begun to change.The last half of the twentieth century expanded the European focus. Faster andbetter communication, the opening of once-closed societies, and increased in-terdependence have permitted differing thinking schemes to intermesh and attimes conflict with one another.

Such clashes, although uncomfortable, help educators break through or atleast readjust the limitations of clear and neat categorical boundaries. The com-fort of categories can cause stagnation or even imprison one’s thinking. Neatsets of proven ideas provide sets of solutions, but these solutions are limited bythe original thinking schemes that generated them. Calling into question thesecategories of thought is hard to do without the infusion of other types of think-ing. The influx of Asian, African, and other types of Eastern thinking is espe-cially helpful in breaking down the rigidity of thought boundaries. Thethinking schemes from these Eastern cultures do not require such rigid bound-ary sets. Eastern thought is more concerned with the unification of ideas ratherthan the separation of ideas. The big ideas that are generated from a more en-compassing way of thinking challenge the narrower ideas and categories. Thesebigger ideas provide more flexible thinking schemes and offer a type of cohe-sion different from that of strict logical distinctions. In what way does the ideaof “harmony” influence the way you might study educational theories? In whatway does the idea of “balance” influence the distinction between teacher-centered and student-centered loci of control? How does the concept of learner-centeredness challenge or cause you to reconsider the distinction betweenteacher-centeredness and student-centeredness?


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This chapter further illustrates the relationship of cur-rent educational views to the classical philosophies anddescribes the educational views in terms of the learner,subject matter orientation, and external versus internal locus-of-control tendencies.

Although your ultimate teaching style might not becompletely committed to a single educational theory, thebasic description of these views will help you to identifyyour personal preferences.

Preparation for Certification 357

1. What were the characteristics and behaviors of one ofyour favorite teachers who was authoritarian towardstudents? Of a favorite teacher who was focused onstudent-centered locus of control?

2. When might a teacher focus on personalized situationsinvolving such things as death or injustice to stimulatestudent learning? How would such a strategy relate tothe back-to-basics expectations of many U.S. schools?

3. The concept of reinforcement is influential on theteacher practices of behaviorists. How would you usepositive reinforcers and negative reinforcers whileteaching your subject area?

4. Experienced teachers often advise a beginning teacher:“Be firm with the students and let them know at thebeginning how you intend to teach your classes.” Isthis advice good or bad? Discuss the pros and cons ofsuch a procedure.

5. Constructivism rules out some of the conventional no-tions about educating youth. It emphasizes students’construction of personalized understandings of theworld rather than an established curriculum. What im-plications does constructivism have for grouping stu-dents?

D I S C U S S I O N Q U E S T I O N S

1. Schools are being challenged to develop students whocan achieve in a complex business world. Interviewbusiness executives from two different companies todetermine the importance of ethics in the operationsof the businesses. Determine the extent to which theexecutives’ ethical values were influenced by teachers.In your journal, list recommendations for teachersmade by the executives. Describe a teaching approachthat responds to these recommendations.

2. Describe the teaching method and classroom environ-ment that you believe has been most effective for youas a learner. Identify the educational theory or theoriesthat would encourage the teaching method and envi-ronment you have selected. Create a graphic that visu-ally represents your own theory of teaching andlearning.

J O U R N A L E N T R I E S

1. Develop a hands-on, activity-based lesson in a subjectthat you enjoy. Type up the entire lesson, with teacherand student directions and activity pages. Then writean introductory rationale that describes which educa-tional theories are supported by the way you designedthe lesson. Include this lesson in your portfolio as anexample of your ability to analyze lessons in terms oftheories.

2. Select one major concept from one of the nationalstandards documents (available at your college li-brary). Describe the teaching methods you would useto help students attain an understanding of that par-ticular concept. Then annotate the teaching methods,explaining their theoretical foundations. Include thisin your portfolio to illustrate your ability to apply the-ory to practice.

P O R T F O L I O D E V E L O P M E N T

EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

1. One of the topics in the Praxis II Principles of Teach-ing and Learning (PLT) test is “encouraging students toextend their thinking” through the use of a “repertoire

of flexible teaching and learning strategies” (for exam-ple, teacher-directed instruction, cooperative learning,independent study, laboratory/hands-on approaches).In this chapter, you learned about eight major educa-tional theories and the various teaching and learning

P R E P A R I N G F O R C E R T I F I C A T I O N

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approaches, classroom practices, and educational pro-grams of study related to each theory. Review each ofthe theories, paying particular attention to the rela-tionship between how students learn and the teachingand learning strategies consistent with each theory.Which theory seems most compatible with your ownbeliefs and philosophy? Which theory seems leastcompatible?

2. Answer the following multiple-choice question,which is similar to items in Praxis and other state cer-tification tests. If you are unsure of the answer, rereadthe chapter.

Ms. Jones, a second-grade teacher, began a lan-guage arts lesson by reading the beginning andmiddle of a story to the children. Instead of read-ing the end of the story, however, she asked thestudents to create an ending of their own. Thechildren wrote their own endings and then readthem aloud. Ms. Jones then read the book’s end-ing, and she and the class talked about the many

ways a story can end. Which educational theoryappears to guide Ms. Jones’s lesson?

(A) behaviorism(B) constructivism(C) positivism(D) reconstructionism

3. Answer the following short-answer question, which issimilar to items in Praxis and other state certificationtests. After you’ve completed your written response,use the scoring guide in the Test at a Glance materialsto assess your response. Can you revise your responseto improve your score?

What is meant by the terms teacher-centered locusof control and student-centered locus of control?Give three examples of teaching practices orlearning activities that you might observe in twoclassrooms—one dominated by teacher-centeredlocus of control and the other dominated bystudent-centered locus of control.


www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/Educational -Theory/purpose.asp Educational Theory is aquarterly publication that fosters the continuingdevelopment of educational theory and encour-ages wide and effective discussion of theoretical

problems within the education profession. You will findthis journal filled with contemporary concerns that relateto teaching and learning.

www.funderstanding.com/constructivism.cfmFunderstanding contains a variety of theories on learn-ing, instruction, assessment, influences, history of edu-cation, learning patterns, educational reforms, as well asadditional links.

www.imsa.edu/team/cpbl/cpbl.html The IllinoisMathematics and Science Academy Center for Problem-Based Learning offers programs, ideas, examples ofproblem-based learning in classrooms, access to aproblem-based learning teachers’ network, and other re-sources that relate to the use of problem-based learningin contemporary schools.

www.summerhillschool.co.uk This is the official web-site for A. S. Neill’s Summerhill School. The site presentsthe ideas of A. S. Neill and news about contemporaryschools that follow a humanistic approach to education.

W E B S I T E S

Joyce, B. R., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2000). Models ofTeaching (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Thisbook describes the relationship between different ap-proaches to teaching and various educational theories.It shows that most teaching methods tend to drawfrom several related educational theories rather than asingle educational theory.

Kohn, Afie. (1993). Punished by Rewards: The Troublewith Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise, and OtherBribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Dr. Kohn describesthe unexpected consequences of using reinforcementpractices and cautions against the dangers of provid-ing rewards to enhance good behavior.

Raines, Peggy, and Shadiav, Linda. (1995, May/June ). “Re-flection and Teaching: The Challenge of Thinking be-yond the Doing.” The Clearing House, 68(5), p. 271.This article describes how regular reflection about

what has really occurred in the daily life of the class-room protects teachers from unexpected outcomes.

Strike, Kenneth A., and Soltis, Jonas F. (1985). The Ethicsof Teaching. New York: Teachers College Press. A care-ful analysis of the ethics surrounding the life of ateacher. Drs. Strike and Soltis provide thoughtful ques-tions and ideas that help teachers reassess their ownethical positions.

Torp, Linda, and Sage, Sara. (2002). Problems and Possi-bilities: Problem-Based Learning for K–16 Education(2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development. Provides a specific ap-proach to the implementation of problem-based learn-ing. The approach is supported by educationaltheories, and a clear set of steps for developing aproblem-based learning unit is presented.

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Notes 359

Expand your knowledge of the concepts discussed in this chapter by reading current andhistorical articles from the New York Times by visiting the Themes of the Times! section ofthe companion website (www.ablongman.com/johnson13e).

T H E M E S O F T H E T I M E S !

1. Lloyd Duck, Instructor’s Manual for Teaching withCharisma. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1981, Item 4,pp. 53–54.

2. Duck, Instructor’s Manual, Item A, p. 40.3. Charles H. Wolfgang and Carl D. Glickman, Solving

Discipline Problems: Strategies for Classroom Teach-ers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1980, p. 121.

4. John Dewey, Democracy and Education. New York:Macmillan, 1916, pp. 1–9.

5. Duck, Instructor’s Manual, Item D, p. 41.6. Henry A. Giroux, “Teachers as Transformative Intel-

lectuals,” Social Education 49 (1985), pp. 376–379.

7. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York:Continuum Press, 1989.

8. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Émile, trans. Alan Bloom. NewYork: Basic Books, 1979.

9. Duck, Instructor’s Manual, Item C, pp. 50–51.10. Martin Buber, I and Thou, trans. Ronald G. Smith.

New York: Charles Scribner, 1958.11. A. S. Neill, Summerhill. New York: Hart, 1960.12. Robert B. Davi, Carolyn A. Maher, and Nel Noddings,

“Constructivism Views on the Teaching and Learningof Mathematics,” Journal for Research in MathematicsEducation, Monograph No. 4 (1990), p. 27.

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