IR1001 – Week 2Colonialism

Dr. C. HeristchiF43 EWB, c.heristchi@abdn.ac.uk

Consultation times: Wednesdays 10am-noon

Introduction: structure of the lectures

DefinitionsChronologyAnalysis

Definitions 1

Imperialism: process through which a state attempts to control the economic and/or political and cultural makeup of another state.

Colonialism: the most developed form of Imperialism whereby the controlling state invades another state/region so as to exploit its resources and/or for the purposes of large-scale immigration

Colonialism: extension of territorial control through either settler colonies or administrative dependencies:

indigenous pop. (in)directly ruled or displaced Imperialism: extension of political control

policy of extending control over foreign entities to acquire and/or maintain empires

Colonialism is one way of achieving more general goal of imperialism

Definitions 2 Colony

Territory under direct political control through the extension of a state’s sovereignty over territory beyond its original borders.

Cf. Dependent Territory: formally cedes part of its sovereignty Protectorate

P. established through formal agreement placing one state in an unequal relationship with another. The latter ‘protects’ the former (diplomatically, militarily), which accepts specified obligations.

N.B.: UK often also controlled local government. Condominium

Arrangement in which two (or more) states share sovereignty over a third. E.g. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899-1956)

Definitions 3: Mandates & Trusts (20th Century)

Mandates (post WWI) Def.: League of Nations Covenant (Art. 22) disposes of

territories of Ottoman & German Empires defeated in WWI. Mandates justified with necessary transitional period to

‘prepare’ for independence. Only Mandatory territory still not independent: Palestine

Trusts (post WII) UN Charter (ch. 11-13) establishes control of “non self-

governing territories” intended to “promote the welfare of the native inhabitants, and advance them toward self-government.”

N.B. Justification for Trusts virtually identical to that for Mandates!

Colonialism and the ‘Imperial Age’ Process was both extensive (in many parts of the

world) and intensive Where: European Empires in the Americas, South

and South East Asia, and Africa Who: Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, Holland,

Belgium and to a certain extent Germany and Italy When: era of exploration from the late 15th Century -

colonial empires reach their peak in the 19th Century, formal independence comes mostly after WW2.

How: underpinned by superior military might and apparatus for control – threat and use of violence never far from the surface

Why: motivated by economic interests (new materials to be exploited)

Chronology: 15th-17th Century

S & P divide world: Treaty of Torsedillas (1494)

Portugal: trader colonialism Informal, settlements/outposts coast of Africa & Asia; 1st & longest-lived global empire

(1415-1999). Spain: settler colonialism

try to assimilate local cultures deeper impact

South & Central America Debate: Do Amerindians have

souls…?…or rights? (slavery!)

Portuguese Empire at height, 16th C

Spanish Empire at height, 1790

Chronology: 18th Century The Netherlands

trader C: Dutch Indies Trading Cos., followed by state

Rise in patriotism (struggle against Spain)

Britain Migration: wars of religion start

‘afresh’ (N.Am.) Slave trade: agricultural economies

(sugar, cotton, tobacco) Gain: New France (1760), Aus.

(1788), NZ (1840) Lose American colonies (1776-83) 1757: UK E. India Co. conquers

Bengal

France: Fall of 1st Empire …Rise of Nationalism

(1789+) Industrial Revolution

‘First’ British Empire, 1760

Dutch Empire, 18th Century

Chronology: 19th Century

Britain: mass migration India: 1857 ‘Mutiny’ direct rule Africa: ‘Cape to Cairo’ Divide & Rule: Ireland, India,

Zimbabwe, Uganda, Iraq France

Algeria 1830 (settler/assimilation) Indochina, French Africa

Scramble for Africa ‘Long Depression’ (1873-96)

+ protectionism↑ African markets solve deficits Increasing strategic rivalries …Informal formal col.

British Empire, 1921

French Empires: First Empire (■15th-18th C) and

Second (■19th-20th C)

Chronology: 20th Century

Japan: ‘Co-Prosperity Sphere’ Econ. & ideological reasons ‘anti-imperial imperialism’

WW2…beginning of end… United Nations Trusteeship

Council

UK, France, and WWI Ottoman fall: Sykes-Picot, 1916 League of Nations:

Liberal discourse, Colonial Practices… …Revolutionary consequences (soon)

Italy: Libya, Eritrea, Somalia Fascism & Roman Empire

League of Nations Mandates, League of Nations Mandates, 19201920

Military dimensions of Empire

Superiority in military technology is vital, as it allows force projection, and thus leverage:

extract and enforce favourable terms of trade (e.g. ‘Capitulations’)

control vastly superior numbers of native inhabitants. Naval technology: Control of the seas: Spain &

Portugal (15-17th C); Ned., UK, France (18thC) e.g.: importance of Suez Canal

Industrial revolution military technology (cannons, repeat rifles, coal- & oil-powered commercial & military navies) & mass production capacity

UK, France

Economic role of Colonies trader colonialism: metropolitan states drawn in to protect

‘terms of trade’ (i.e. trading companies’ profits) Slavery: settler colonialism relied on ‘cheap’ labour, either

subjugated locals or ‘imported’ slaves Trading companies: Granted monopolies by metropole, had own

armed forces and independent foreign policy E.g.: UK’s East India Trading Company

re-structuring local economies provide raw materials (e.g. Egyptian & American cotton, Caribbean

sugar) or luxury goods (S. American gold, Chinese opium) provide markets for metropolitan economies (Sheffield textile mills) fund local elites’ reform (Muhammad ’Ali’s new Egyptian army)

Economics, poverty and revolution industrialisation (urbanisation & pauperisation) = increase in

inequality social & political tensions E.g.: Egypt 19-20C, Iran under Shah

Political impact of Colonialism Arbitrary boundaries: historically separate, if not

antagonistic cultures, languages, ethnicities and political systems E.g.: Lebanon, Nigeria, Maghreb, Afghanistan –cf.

Kurdistan’s split Loss of ‘experience’: robbed of organic political

development for centuries Strategies of rule

divide & rule internal divisions both before and after independence

India, Iraq Assimilation (settler colonialism, longer-term effects on

indigenous cultures)Algeria, North & South America, Australia, Southern

Africa Association (trading outposts, shorter-term effects)

Macao

Dilemmas/ambiguities of ‘modernity’

How to separate ‘modernity’ from Westernisation and ‘Westoxification’ (cultural imperialism)?

Loss of language and values – can they be retrieved after centuries?

‘Modernisation’ equated with ‘Westernisation’, and used as excuse for domination by colonial powers and local elites…

E.g. Iranian Revolution, ‘Beijing consensus’

How was colonialism justified by invaders in ‘moral’ terms?

Racial arguments: were native populations subhuman/less human? No moral obligations (e.g.slavery)

Religious arguments: non-Christians were worth less in the eyes of God and they had less moral worth

Cultural arguments: inferior cultures would benefit from influence of superior ones: colonialism carried a ‘civilising mission’

Conclusion Timeline

From trade to settlement and industry Self determination (UN) is a recent concept

Hidden world history? History written by the victors of colonialism, myths of the

benefits of colonialism, silenced voices of the colonised Aspects & Consequences

Military, Economic, Political legacies are clear: will become apparent in later parts of the course

The Contradictions of Decolonisation... Decolonisation is successful but emancipation is partial Is colonialism replaced by a more subtle form of Neo-Imperialism?