iop style guide

8/11/2019 IOP Style Guide

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Section page

Spelling and sense 1

Hyphenation 6

En rules and minus sign 7

Word breaks 7

Abbreviations and contractions 8

Dates and times 9

Capitalization 10

Names 12

Numbers13

Units of measurement 14

Italic and bold 15

Spacing 16

Accents 16

Quote marks and quotations 17

Apostrophes 18

Cross-references 18Bibliographical references 19

Tables 21

Lists 21

Headings and standfirsts 22

Captions, labels and credits 22

Footnotes 23

Miscellaneous punctuation, grammar and style 24

Style decisions/exceptions 31

Addresses, etc 32

Institute name/logo variations 32

Recommended references 33

Contents


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1Style Guide Spelling and sense

1Follow the first spelling preference given in themost up-to-date edition of Chambers Science and Technology Dictionary or Chambers EnglishDictionary , unless this differs from the style guide.

For US titles, follow the first spelling preferencegiven in Websters College Dictionary , unless thisdiffers from the title-specific section of the styleguide.

London uses -ise endings

2Use -ize,-izer, -ized, -izing, -ization endings, exceptfor:advertise adviseaffranchise apprisearise chastisecircumcise comprisecompromise concisedemise despisedevise disenfranchisedisguise empriseenfranchise enterpriseexcise exerciseexpertise franchiseguise improviseincise merchandisemisadvise misprise

mortise practise (verb)precise premiseprise (open) promisereprise reviseseise (legal term) supervisesurmise surprisetelevise treatise

analyse catalysedialyse electrolysehydrolyse paralyse

3Spell proper names according to the country of origin (e.g. Pearl Harbor, Australian Labor Party,National Tritium Labeling Facility), except wherethis goes against common UK usage (e.g. Munichnot Mnchen).

4The following are common misuse problems (referto Fowlers Modern English Usage for more detail):accessary (as in crime) accessory (attachment)adaptation adaption (US)Afrikaans (language) Afrikaner (person)

aesthetic (relating to ascetic (austere person)sense of beauty)aeroplane (UK) airplane (US)affect (verb have an effect (noun result/

effect on) verb bring about)

aggravate (make worse, not annoy)alibi (being somewhere else, not an excuse)allusion (reference) illusion (false image)alternate (verb/ alternative(noun/

adjective: by turns) adjective: other)alternative (one of only two options)altogether (completely) all together (in one place)annex (verb) annexe (noun)anticipate (get ready/do expect (think something

something in advance) is coming soon)appendixes (internal appendices (in a book)

organs)appraise (estimate worth) apprise (inform)Argentine (noun/adjective) Argentinian (never)assure (make someone (see ensure and insure)

confident of something)augur (predict) auger (make holes)bicentenary (noun) bicentennial (adjective)biannual (half-yearly) biennial (two-yearly)bimonthly (both half-monthly and two-monthly)billion (thousand million)black (race/noun)blond (adjective/male noun) blonde (female noun)bogey (golf) bogie (trolley) bogy (ghost)born (of birth) borne (of bear, but exceptions)bourgeois (adjective) bourgeoisie (noun)Britain/UK (Great Britain Great Britain (England,

and Northern Ireland) Wales and Scotland)canvas (tent/painting) canvass (solicit votes)cashmere (fabric) Kashmir (place)

cast off (verb) cast-off (noun)censor (vet) censure (blame)centre center (US)check out (verb) checkout (noun)choice (cant be the only choice, because having achoice requires at least two optionschoose (present) chose (past)climb down (verb) climbdown (noun)common (same) mutual (reciprocal)common sense (noun) commonsense (adjective)complement (that which compliment (flatter(y))

completes)comprise (be made up of) consist (of: constitute)convince (someone of persuade (someone

the facts) to do something)contemporary (of the same period, not

necessarily modern)continual (repeated, continuous (unending,

not constant) unbroken sequence)cord (vocal) chord (musical)council (assembly) counsel (advice/adviser/advise)crescendo (build-up) climax (culmination)currently (now) presently (in a while)datum (singular) data (plural)defence defense (US noun)

defuse (render harmless) diffuse (spread about)dependant (noun) dependent (adjective)depositary (person) depository (place)desert (dry place) dessert (pudding)discomfort (unease) discomfit (thwart)

Spelling and sense


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Style Guide Spelling and sense2

discreet (circumspect) discrete (separate)disinterested (objective, uninterested (not

unbiased) interested)disused (no longer used) unused (not yet used)divorcee (male and female)draftsman (of document) draughtsman (of drawing)driving licence (not drivers licence)eerie (wierd) Erie (lake) eyrie (of eagles)effectively (with effect) in effect (essentially)emigrate (leave country) immigrate (arrive in

country)enormity (great crime/outrage, not synonymous

with large)enquire (ask) inquire (investigate)ensure (make sure) insure (take insurance)envelop (verb) envelope (noun)epicentre (point on Earths surface directly above

focus of earthquake/underground explosion, notthe centre or focus itself)

especially (particularly) specially (for a specialpurpose)

evangelical (fundamentalist evangelist (one whowing of Christianity) spreads the gospel)

everyday (adjective: every day (noun/adverb)commonplace)

execution (carrying out of death sentence by lawfulauthority, so a terrorist does not executesomeone)

expatriate (noun and verb)fair (just, etc) fare (price, etc)

fatwa (edict, not necessarily a death sentence)faze (intimidate/overwhelm) phase (stage)fiance (male) fiancee (female)fibre fiber (US)fibre optic (noun) fibre-optic (adjective)flammable/inflammable non-flammable

(will burn) (wont burn)flaunt (make a display, flout (show contempt for

e.g. of wealth) something)forbear (abstain) forebear (ancestor)for ever (for always) forever (continually)forgo (do without) forego (precede)fortuitous (by chance, not by good fortune)fulsome (disgusting by excess, so fulsome praise

should not be used in a complimentary sense)functionality (how function (purpose)

something functions)further (more advanced) farther (more distant)gambit (opening strategy, so opening gambit is

tautologous)gorilla (ape) guerrilla (soldier)go slow (verb) go-slow (noun)grisly (gruesome) grizzly (bear)hard line/hardliner (noun) hardline (adjective)historic (memorable) historical (of history)

hopefully (in a hopeful way, not I hope)imply (hint) infer (draw conclusion)impractical (possible impracticable (not workable,

in theory only) plan that failed)inchoate (just beginning/undeveloped, not chaotic)

independant (noun) independent (adjective)infinite (without limit, not very large)instinct (innate behaviour) intuition (insight)invariably (unchanging, not hardly ever changing)its (it is) its (possessive)jejune (naive, not necessarily young)judgement (non-legal) judgment (legal)kick off (verb) kick-off (noun)lager (beer) laager (South African encampment)led (past) lead (present)lens (singular) lenses (plural)licence (noun) license (verb/US noun)lie/lay/lain (intransitive) lay/laid/laid (transitive)

(e.g. he lies on the bed) (e.g. she lays the table)loan (noun) lend (verb)loathe (detest) loth (unwilling)lock out (verb) lock-out (noun)lose (mislay) loose (untethered)mackintosh (coat) Macintosh (computer)masterful (imperious) masterly (skilful)methodology (study or system method (technique)

of methods)metre meter (US)micrometer (measuring micrometre (micron)

instrument)militate (influence) mitigate (lessen an offence)mixture (noun) mix (verb)naught (nothing) nought (zero)obtuse (mentally slow) abstruse (hard to

understand)

ordnance (maps) ordinance (direction/decree)over (e.g. overprotective) overly (US)pedaller (cyclist) pedlar (hawker) peddler (drug

dealer)pendant (noun) pendent (adjective)peninsula (noun) peninsular (adjective)phenomenon (singular) phenomena (plural)Philippines (country) Philippine (adjective)Filipino (male) Filipinas (female)phosporus (noun) phosphorous (adjective)practice (noun) practise (verb)precede (go before) proceed (go on)premier (adjective: prime; premiere (first night)

noun: chief)prescribe (order) proscribe (prohibit)prevaricate (speak/act falsely procrastinate (put

with intent to deceive) something off)principal (main/head) principle (rule)print out (verb) print-out (noun)prise (force open) prize (verb:

value/noun:award

privy council privy counsellorprodigal (wasteful/extravagant, not returned

wanderer)

programme program (software/US)prophecy (noun) prophesy (verb)protege (male) protegee (female)radiographer (takes X-rays) radiologist (reads

X-rays)


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raise (lift/increase) raze (demolish)repellant (noun) repellent (adjective)round (usually circular/ around (on every side/

cyclical, e.g. winter came scattered, e.g. aroundround, drinks all round, and about, all aroundsleep the clock round, us, looking aroundI ran round, turn round) you, standing around

sex (male or female) gender (grammatical term)some time (at some time sometime (formerly)

or other)stationary (still) stationery (paper, etc)subconscious (dimly unconscious (without

conscious, imperfectly consciousness,aware) unaware)swath (to cut a...) swathe (baby clothes)swinging (e.g. pendulum) swingeing (huge, e.g. cuts)take off (verb) take-off (noun)tornado (storm) Tornado (aircraft)tortuous (e.g. winding torturous (e.g. painful

road) experienceturn over (verb) turnover (noun)usage (how something use (noun: employment/

is used) verb: employ)valence (as in valency) valance (as in bedclothes)verbal (of words, oral (of speech or

written or spoken) the mouth)whisky (UK) whiskey (Irish/US)wipe out (verb) wipeout (noun)wrack (seeweed) rack (with pain)

5Common spelling problems:abattoir aberrationabscess absorbentabsorption abysmalabyss accelerateaccessible accommodateacknowledgment acquaintanceacquiesce acquireaddress aficionadoaggregate allegeall right (not alright) allot(ted)Alzheimers disease ambassadoramok (not amuck) anaestheticanalagous ancillaryanemone annihilateAntarctic antimonyappal appallingArctic ascendancyascendant asphaltasymmetry authoritativeballotbanister ballotedbattalion befittedbefitting benefited

benefiting biasbiased bigotbigoted Caesareancalendar cannotcappuccino Caribbean

centring changeablechief choc-a-bloccircumference collinearcoloration combatingcommemorate commitmentcommitted committeecompetent condemnconnection conscienceconsciouscorrespondence consensuscorrespondent defencedefensible definitedependance descendantdescent desiccationdespoil despoliationdeterrent diarrhoeadiphtheria dirigiblediscernible disciplinediscolour discolorationdispensable disservicedrunkenness embarrassenforceable enrolenrolment enrollingenthral enthrallingenvironment exaggerateexhilarating existenceexpatriate extraordinaryextravagant Fahrenheitfascist fascismfeasible flak

fine-tooth comb fluorescencefluoride focslefocused focusingfoetus forecastforeign fortyfriend fulfilfulfilled fulfilmentgases gaugegovernor grammargranddaughter grandadgreat-grandfather guaranteehandkerchief harassharassment harebrainedhindrance humoristhumorous humourhygiene hypocrisyidiosyncrasies illegibleimpinge impingingimplement incorrigibleinnocuous inoculateindispensable installinstalment instilinstilled instillingirrelevant irreparableirresistible isosceles

jeopardy jewelleryjodhpurs keennesskhaki kiboshkow-tow largesselaureate leisure

3Style Guide Spelling and sense


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liaison liquefymanoeuvre manoeuvringmantelpieceMassachusetts meteorologyMediterranean millenniumMiddlesbrough mimic(ked)miniature minusculemiscellaneous mischievousmisogynist naivenaively naivetynecessary neverthelessnone the less occur(red)offence omeletteophthalmic opossumoverrule panelpanelled panellingparallel paralleledparaffin parliamentparliamentary pasteurizepavilion permissiblephosphorus picketedpicketing possessionprecede predilectionpreferred preparationprestigious privilegepros and cons Ps and Qspronunciation publiclypyjamas pyrrhicquestionnaire queuingrarefy rarefied

receipt regrettablereminiscence repertoirericochet ricochetedricocheting rigorousriveted rivetingrock n roll sacrilegioussanatorium satelliteseize sentenceseparate sheikhsiege sievesilhouette skiingskilful sovereigntystraitjacketstrait-laced subpoenasubpoenaed subtletysubtly supersedesurfeit symmetrytargeted targetingtaxiing tendencytendinitis tobaccoto-do tranquillitytyranny under wayu-turn vaporizevengeance vermilionveterinary vie vigorous

vying wagonweird wieldwithhold woollenyield xenophobe

6Singular/plural:addendum addendaaficionado aficionadosaide-de-camp aides-de-campaide-memoire aides-memoirealumnus alumnianalysis analysesantenna antennae (biological)

antennas (radio, etc)appendix appendicesaquarium aquariumsarchipelago archipelagosattorney attorneysaxis axesapex apexesbeau beauxbiceps (never bicep)buffalo buffaloesbureau bureaus (furniture) bureaux (firms)carcass carcasseschassis chassischateau chateauxconsortium consortiacriterion criteriadynamo dynamosembargo embargosEskimo Eskimosformula formulas (formulae in science)forum forums

fresco frescoesfungus fungigas gasesghetto ghettoesgraffito graffitihalo haloeshippopotamus hippopotamusesHQ HQindex indexes (indices in science/economics)innuendo innuendoes insigniaInuk Inuitlasso lassoeslibretto librettoslied liedermanifesto manifestosmedium mediamemento mementoesmemorandum memorandumsminimum minimamoney moneysmosquito mosqitoesmotto mottoesno noespaparazzo paparazzi

passerby passersbyphenomenon phenomenapigsty pigstiesplateau plateauxpotato potatoes

Style Guide Spelling and sense4


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Style Guide Hyphenation6

1Follow the Chambers dictionaries for thehyphenation of composite nouns (e.g. school-leaver), phrasal compounds (e.g. stick-in-the-mud)and compound adjectives (e.g. easy-going).

2Use hyphens where doing so avoids ambiguity (e.g.deep-blue sea, four-year-old children, 100-oddpeople, three-wheeled vehicles, geriatric-wardnurse), but avoid overuse, especially where therelationship between words is clear withouthyphenation (e.g. in situ experiment italics makerelationship between in and situ clear).

3Dont assume that similar words need to be treatedconsistently (e.g. lifebelt, life-jacket).

4Avoid too many floating hyphens by rewording orby their omission (e.g. 16th- and 17th-centuryexplorers could read explorers of the 16th and17th centuries), but retain floating hyphens wherethey are necessary for clarity (e.g. phosphorus- andsulphur-containing compounds).

5Use hyphens for attributive adjectives where thisavoids ambiguity (e.g. high-quality work, up-to-

date technology), but generally not for predicativeadjectives (e.g. work of high quality, technologythat is up to date).

6Dont use a hyphen where an adverb is modifyingan adjective (e.g. well known fact, fully qualifiedtechnician, very fast car very clearly qualifiesfast, not car, so the connection betweenvery and fast is obvious without having tohyphenate them), unless the meaning is ambiguous(e.g. little-used car).

7Use a hyphen to separate repeated vowels (e.g re-enter) or to avoid other awkward or misleadingcombinations (e.g. radio-iodine, de-adsorb, co-worker).

8Dont use a hyphen where part of the compound isa measurement (e.g. 3A fuse), except to avoidambiguity (e.g. 12 40-W lamps) where it cant berewritten for clarification. Note that a hyphen isappropriate with a noun that is not strictly a unit of

measurement (e.g. 32-bit screen, three-day week).

9Hyphenate whole numbers and fractions whenthese are spelled out (e.g. twenty-five, four-fifths).

10Use a hyphen in a word with a prefix where thisavoids ambiguity (e.g. recreation/re-creation,reform/re-form, resign/re-sign, recover/re-cover).

11Dont assume that you can treat commonlyoccurring prefixes (e.g. nano, hyper, ultra) in thesame way each time they occur, because in mostcases it is impossible to adopt a hard-and-fast rulethat is sensible. Follow the hyphenation given in theChambers dictionaries. If the word isnt given, treatas you would a similar example. If still in doubt,close it up unless it looks awkward or misleading.

12Avoid a hyphen/en rule at the end of more than twoconsecutive lines.

13Dont use an upper case character after a hyphenunless it is the accepted form of an establishment,tradename or proper noun (e.g. Institute for Solid-State Technology, Hewlett-Packard, sub-Poisson).

14Use a hyphen to join a prefix to a proper noun (e.g.anti-Darwinism).

15

Hyphenate centuries as follows: in the mid-14thcentury, in the early 14th century, in the late 14thcentury, a 14th-century explorer.

16Dont hyphenate chemical names when they arewritten in full (e.g. sodium hydrogen chloride),except where numbers occur (e.g. 1,2-chloro-3-bromobenzene).

17Hyphenate complex compass directions (e.g. north-west London, south-south-east).

18To denote keyboard keys and key combinations,use upper case initials and link individual keys withhyphens (e.g. Ctrl-Shift-l indicates that you shouldhold down the Control, Shift and 1 keyssimultaneously).

See alsoWord breaksEn rules and minus sign

Hyphenation


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Style Guide Abbreviations and cont ractions8

1Use abbreviations only where necessary, where theyare more familiar to the reader than the full versionor in tables or diagrams where space is limited.

2Where a definition is necessary, defineabbreviations on their first use by giving the term infull followed by the abbreviation in parentheses.Dont bother giving the abbreviation in brackets if it is not subesequently used in the story.

3In general, confine common abbreviations (e.g., i.e.)to parentheses, tables, lists, etc and write them outin full (for example, that is) in running text.

4Avoid ambiguous abbreviations (e.g. v. could beread as verse, volume, roman 5 or verso).

5Dont use full points in upper case abbreviations(e.g. NATO, AD).

6In general, punctuate lower case abbreviations (e.g.,i.e., et al., Prof., Rt Hon., a.m., p.m.), but noteexceptions (etc, p, pp, fax (Fax/fax/Tel/tel whenlisting number), plc, Co, Inc, Corp, lab, bus,

phone).7Dont use an apostrophe in plural abbreviations(e.g. 1990s, MPs), except where its omission mightbe confusing (e.g. dotting the is and crossing thets).

8Place BC after the date (e.g. 25 BC) and AD beforeit (e.g. AD 600) except where centuries areconcerned (e.g. 2nd century BC, 3rd century AD).

9Where an abbreviation is required, use 3D for boththe adjective (three-dimensional) and the noun(three dimensions).

10Use AC and DC, not a.c. and d.c.

11Dont use full points for someones initials, and usea non-breaking space between them (e.g. J R Smith).

12In general, spell out chemical names (at least attheir first mention), but give the symbols wherethey occur with their valencies, in equations, in listsor where they are repeated a lot or a well known.

13Use % in preference to per cent (never percent).

14Use US as both adjective and noun, apart from incontact details, where USA should be used.

15Dont use a space or punctuation for PhD, MSc,DPhil, MPhil, etc.

16Use a or an according to the pronunciation of the abbreviation (e.g. a NATO base, an MP) anduse the according to common usage (e.g. theBBC, the IRA, MENSA, ACAS).

17Use abbreviations for journal titles only where thesewill be easily recognized by the readership (e.g.Phys. Rev. ).

18If in. must be used instead of inch(es), include a fullpoint to avoid ambiguity.

19Use m and bn for million and billionwhen quoting amounts of money (e.g. 12m,

$33 bn) but use trillion and thousand ratherthan an abbreviation (though k is admissible intables, etc). For other values use the terms in full(e.g. 3billion units).

20After using a persons full name once, use only thesurname thereafter, unless this might be perceivedby the reader as offensive (e.g. in personalcomments at the end of an obituary).

21Avoid using an ampersand except in names (e.g.Brel & Kjaer) and abbreviations (e.g. R&D).

22Dont use full points in contractions (e.g. Mr, Ltd,cf (confer), St (Saint), but use St. (Street) and no.(numero) to avoid ambiguity).

23Tailor the use of cant, dont, etc instead of cannot, do not, etc to whether you are dealingwith technical or informal writing.

24For versions of software, give just the number afterthe name (e.g. WordPerfect 5.1) but add v. if this isnecessary for clarity (e.g. Fortran 77 v.3).

Abbreviations and contractions


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9Style Guide Abbreviations and contractions/Dates and times

25Dont use a comma between a name and anattribution (e.g. Gillian Shepherd MP).

26Spell out points of the compass (e.g. west-north-west, not WNW).

27Avoid the use of small capitals.

28Use Jr and Sr for Junior and Senior.

29Where associated with a number, abbreviate pageto p and pages to pp (e.g. p5).

See alsoCapitalizationUnits of measurementBibliographical referencesHeadingsCross-references

1Use the form 26 May 1993 for dates.

2Write centuries in short form (e.g. 20th century).

3Use a closed-up en rule between dates within asingle month (e.g. 1416 March), but a spaced enrule where the dates span more than one month(e.g. 23 September 30 October).

4Dont elide BC dates.

5For decades use the form 1960s and 1970s (not1960s and 70s), but in informal writing allowsixties.

6Hyphenate centuries as follows: in the mid-14thcentury, in the early 14th century, in the late 14thcentury and a 14th-century explorer.

7Use an oblique with maximum elision instead of anen rule to denote an academic year, fiscal year orfootball season (e.g. 1995/6 not 1995/96 or19951996), but give obituary dates in full (e.g.

19001982).8Place BC after the date (e.g. 25 BC) and AD beforeit (e.g. AD 600).

9Dont use an apostrophe in decades (e.g. 1990s).

10Use upper case initials for geological and historicalperiods (e.g. Carboniferous Period, Iron Age, FirstWorld War, Middle Ages; but ice age).

11In informal writing about time, use words (e.g.12 oclock) or figures with a.m. and p.m. (e.g.12.45 p.m.), but use midday and midnight not12.00 a.m. and 12.00 p.m. In more technicalmaterial use the 24 hour clock (e.g. 1700 h),specifying GMT or local time, where necessary.

See alsoAbbreviations and contractionsNumbers

ApostrophesBibliographical referencesCaptions, labels and credits

Dates and times


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Style Guide Capitalization10

1In general, keep upper case initials for titles,institutions, ranks and administrative posts to aminimum (e.g. Prince Philip the Duke of Edinburgh, the Lord Mayor of London, GeneralEisenhower, the Board of Trade). Dont use anupper case initial where a title is given in shortenedform (e.g. the duke, the mayor, the general, theboard), or where more than one title of the sameform is given (e.g. the dukes of Gloucester andMonmouth; Reading and Sussex universities).

2Use upper case initials for titles, etc when theseform part of a contact address.

3Use upper case initials for both parts of acompound title (e.g. Vice-President Dexter).

4Use upper case initials for titles of distinctgeographical regions or political divisions (e.g.Western Australia, the West, the West End, theMiddle East, South-East Asia), but not for moregeneral areas (e.g. southern England, the west of Scotland, northern hemisphere).

5Use upper case initials for geological and historical

periods (e.g. Carboniferous Period, Iron Age, FirstWorld War, Middle Ages; but ice age).

6Use an upper case initial for generic but not specificnames (e.g. Homo sapiens ).

7Use an upper case initial for Sun, Moon and Earthin an astronomical context when referring to ourown galaxy, but use a lower case initial foruniverse, galaxy, solar system, etc.

8Where possible, follow the original capitalization of tradenames (e.g. Sellotape, QuarkXPress, adidas),but ignore the idiosyncratic use of typeface, typesize, bold, italic, etc (e.g. Bhs, not B h s; Toys R Us,not Toys Us).

9Use lower case initials for cross-references (e.g.figure 4, chapter 2).

10Use an upper case initial for the first word andproper nouns in headings, with the rest lower case.

11Dont use an upper case character after a hyphen

unless it is the accepted form of an establishment,tradename or proper noun (e.g. Institute for Solid-State Technology, Hewlett-Packard, anti-Darwinism).

12Use upper case for acronyms (e.g. NATO, CLEO).

13Use upper case initials for the main words in thetitle of a publication (e.g. My Life: a Soldiers Tale ),but not for the title of an article or chapter.

14Dont use accents on capital letters.

15Follow the Chambers dictionaries and the Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors for rules of capitalization where the example isnt covered bythe Style Guide.

16In tables, use an upper case initial for the first wordof column headings but lower case initials for otherentries, unless they are whole sentences, but makeall entries consistent.

17In vertical lists, be consistent about the

capitalization of the initial of the first word of eachitem (upper case if full sentences or proper nouns,lower case if not).

18Use lower case initials for figure labels, except forproper nouns.

19Use an upper case initial for river, abbey, etcwhen it is part of the name (e.g. River Thames,Westminster Abbey).

20Use an upper case initial for adjectives derived fromproper names when the connection with the nameis still felt to be alive (e.g. Christian, sub-Poisson),but not when the connection is remote orconventional (e.g. quixotic).

21Use a lower case initial for theories, laws, prizesand awards (e.g. Ohms law, Pythagorass theoree),but note exceptions (e.g. Nobel Prize, Nobel PeacePrize, Nobel Prize in Physics).

22Use a lower case initial for ordinary nouns (e.g.spring, summer, autumn, winter, nature).

R R

Capitalization


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11Style Guide Capitalization

23Use upper case initials for titles of events, such asconferences and conference sessions, workshops,summer schools, training courses, exhibitions,festivals, etc.

24In foreign names like Graeme le Saux and Pierrevan Hooijdonk, le and van are lower caseunless the surnames alone are given, in which casethey become Le Saux and Van Hooijdonk.

25E-mail and web addresses should be given as lowercase, not in quotes (e.g. e-mail iop@ulc. ac.ukc; webiop.org/mags), but website names should be italic(like magazine titles, e.g. optics.org ) with theupper/lower case style decided by the editor. Theseaddresses can be split only where punctuationoccurs and not by adding hyphens

26It is often very difficult to decide when capitalinitials should be used. The following is a suggestedlist of examples:Act of ParliamentClinton administrationOfficial Secrets Actthe alliesthe armed forces

the armythe British Armyart decoart nouveauthe Biblethe cricketers biblebiblicalbill of rightsthe Board of Tradeboard of directorsthe budgetthe cabinetshadow cabinetcabinet ministerCaesareancapitalismchairman of the Foreign Affairs Select CommitteeChancellor of the Duchy of LancasterChancellor of the ExchequerChannel tunnelCheddar cheesechief executive of the Institute of Physicschief constable (job, not title)ChristianChristianity

Christmas Daya church/the (established) ChurchcommunismcommunistCommunist Party

US/Institute of Physics CongressConservative Partythe continentCornish pastythe CrownKent County CouncilCouncil (of the Institute)cubismdadaismdean of scienceDepartment of Physics/physics departmentDepartment of Trade and Industrythe devildirector of the Centre for Liquid Crystal ResearchDuke of Norfolkthe dukeeditor of the Guardianeducation secretaryequatorthe exchequerRussian foreign ministrythe Foreign OfficeGodgothicIBM fellow emeritusRoyal Society research fellowGeneral Eisenhowergeneral secretary of the TUCgovernmenthead of physics

northern hemispheresouthern hemispherethe Home OfficeHouse of Commons Trade and Industry CommitteeHouse of LordsHouse of Representativesimpressionismthe Institute (The Institute of Physics)the institute (all others)the Labour Partythe Labour spokesmanthe Laurence reportmanaging director of IBMLord Mayor of Londonthe mayorminister of transport/transport ministernavythe Royal NavyNazinazismnew yearNew Years DayNobel PrizeNobel Prize in PhysicsNobel Peace Prize

the oppositionopposition spokesman on educationparliamentthe Popethe Queen (England)


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pre-RaphaelitephysicsArnold Wolfendale, president of the Institutethe US presidentPresident Bill Clintonpresident of the Institute of PhysicsPrime Minister Tony Blairacting prime ministeremeritus professor of physicsSterling professor of scienceRoyal Society research professorthe Right/LeftUS state departmentsecretary of statesecretary to the treasurytrade and industry select committeesenior lecturer in astronomysenior scientific officer at RALshadow home secretarysocialismsocialistSupreme CourtThird Worldthe treasurytropic of cancertropic of capricornUtopiautopianUS vice-presidentvice-chancellor of Oxford University

White PaperYorkshire pudding

See alsoAbbreviations and ContractionsTablesListsHeadingsCaptions, labels and creditsCross-references

Style Guide Capitalization12

1Spell proper names according to the country of origin (e.g. Pearl Harbor, Australian Labor Party,National Tritium Labeling Facility), except wherethis goes against common UK usage (e.g. Munichnot Mnchen). We may be writing for a Europeanor international readership, but unless we want togive the impression that were not a UK magazinethen we should adopt normal UK practice.

2Use fixed spaces between somoneones title, initialsand surname to prevent them from being splitbetween lines of text.


4Apply suffixes to company names consistently either all names should include the relevant suffix(e.g. plc, Co, Corp, Inc, Pty) or none of themshould. Companies themselves are usuallyinconsistent, so its not sufficient to rely on suppliedcopy being accurate.

5Dont quote peoples titles if they are simple (e.g.Mr, Mrs, Ms or Miss) but be consistent aboutquoting the less common ones (e.g. Dr, Prof., Sir) toavoid causing offence.

6On first mentioning someones name, quote in full(at least first name and surname, e.g. Joe Bloggs).In subsequent mentions use only the surname (e.g.Bloggs) unless the first mention was so far backthat the reader will need to be reminded of the fullname. On occasion (e.g. when summing up anobituary on a personal note) it is appropriate to usejust the first name of the full name after the firstmention (e.g. Joe will be missed hugely by hisfamily, friends and colleagues).

7Note the difference between the following: (Great)Britain England, Scotland and Wales; the UnitedKingdom (UK) England, Scotland, Wales andNorthern Ireland; the British Isles: England,Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

See alsoAbbreviations and contractionsCapitalizationSpacing

R R

Names


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13Style Guide Numbers

1In general, spell out one to nine and thereafter usefigures.

2In general, dont mix digits and words for numbers.

3Spell out large, round numbers that are usedimprecisely (e.g. there were hundreds of people).

4Use digits with units of measurement (e.g. 2 cm)and dates (e.g. 6 July 1998, 20th century).

5Use digits for cross-references (e.g. chapter 4,figure2, box 3, p5).

6In general, use digits in a sequence of numbers, orwhere many numbers fall in the same paragraph(e.g. 15 transistors, 2 resistors and 4 diodes), exceptfor round, imprecise numbers, which should bespelled out. Two series of numbers can combineboth forms for clarity (e.g. twelve wards with 6beds and five wards with 8 beds).

7Dont use spaces with the numbers 1000 to 9999,

but use a fixed space for 10000 upwards.8Dont elide ranges of numbers unless absolutelynecessary, including dates (apart from academicyears, fiscal years and football seasons). Where it isnecessary, use maximum elision (e.g. pp2528 notpp 25258), except for teens (e.g. pp21118).

9Use figures in a vertical list of numbers, makingsure that each has the same number of digits afterthe decimal point, unless the number of decimalplaces indicates the level of accuracy.

10Use from 12 to 18 mg, 1218 mg or in the1218 mg range, not from 1218mg, andlikewise between 1914 and 1918, from 1914 to1918 or in the years 19141918, not between19141918.

11Dont start a sentence with a figure, but either(preferably) rewrite the sentence so that the number

falls elsewhere or spell it out.

12Use a mixture of digits and words for millions andfractions of millions (e.g. 2.5 million), but use digits

for precise large numbers (e.g. 2573586) and usem and bn for currencies (e.g. $12 m, 35 bn).

13Use a hyphen for whole numbers and fractionswhen it is necessary to spell these out (e.g. twenty-five, four-fifths).

14Use fractions where convention dictates (e.g.31 / 2 inch disk), use decimals where other decimalfigures occur (e.g 2.5 not 2 1 / 2) and for millions (e.g.3.5 million), and spell out fractions in informalwriting where few other figures occur (e.g. two-thirds full).

15Avoid using numbers to itemize the points invertical lists. Use bullets or shoulder headings,unless numbers are required to allow you to cross-reference items in the list.

16For ratios use a colon not to (e.g. a ratio of 3:1).

17Use Tony Blair, 47 not Tony Blair, aged 47.

See alsoHyphenation

Abbreviations and contractionsCapitalizationDates and timesUnits of measurementSpacingEn rules and minus signTablesListsCross-references

Numbers


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14 Style Guide Units of measurement

1Where precise measurements are important, use SIunits or, if supplied as imperial, give the SIequivalent too, but use imperial where it is theaccepted form (e.g. 3 1 / 2 inch disk, Fahrenheit forfurnace temperatures), and be consistent within asingle story.

2In general, abbreviate units according to ChambersScience and Technology DictionaryA (amp) acreatm (atmosphere) barbit byteBq (becquerel) C (coulomb)C (degrees Celsius) cal (calorie)cd (candela) cm (centimetre)cwt (hundredweight) dyneeV (electron volt) F (farad)fs (femtosecond) ft (foot)g (gram) gal (gallon)Gbit GbyteGflop (gigaflop) h (hour)H (henry) ha (hectare)hp (horsepower) Hz (hertz)inch J (joule)K (kelvin) kbitkbyte kg (kilogram)kHz (kilohertz) knotl (litre) lb (pound)

lm (lumen) lx (lux)m (metre) MbitMbyte Mflop (megaflop)MHz (megahertz) m (micron)mile min (minute)mol (mole) monthN (newton) nm (nanometre)! (ohm) oz (ounce)Pa (pascal) ps (picosecond)rad (radian) s (second)S (siemen) Sv (sievert)tonne (t if necessary) T (tesla)Tbit TbyteTHz (terahertz) TorrV (volt) W (watt)yard (yd if necessary) year (yr if necessary)

3In technical text you can use the form mm s 1 inpreference to mm/s, but in any case be consistent.

4Dont punctuate abbreviated units, except for in.(where inch isnt appropriate) to avoid ambiguity.

5Use the same form for singular and plural (e.g.65 lb, not 65 lbs), except where the units are writtenin full (e.g. acres).

6Leave a fixed space between digits and units of measurement (e.g. 24mg, 20 C), except forpercentages and compass degrees (e.g. 29% and20N).

7Leave a fixed space between the elements of acompound unit of measurement (e.g. sq. mm,mm s1, kWh).

8Use ft and inch(es) rather than " and "". Avoidin. where possible.

9Where ft needs to be written in full, note thatwhere an adjective or the word inches follows,feet is substituted for foot (e.g. she is five foottwo, it is six feet long, he is five feet eleven inches).

10Use % in preference to per cent (never percent).

11In a table, if all items in a column are values of thesame unit of measurement, put the units in thecolumn heading rather than repeating them forevery item.

12Note that 4mm 2 is the same as 4sq. mm (e.g. asquare that is 2 # 2mm).

13Use units in full when values are imprecise (e.g. afew millimetres), but use in the TeV/GeV region.

14Use the 24 hour clock for time in technical work(e.g. 1700 h), but otherwise a.m. and p.m. (e.g.4.00 p.m.)

15Use tonne not ton. The metric tonne is1000kg (2204.62 lb), the British ton is 2240 lb andthe US ton is 2000 lb, so usually there is no need toconvert.

16Use year, month, week, day, hour, minute andsecond in a non-technical context.

17Knots are nautical miles per hour, so dont refer to

knots per hour.

18Use the symbols or standard (not ISO)abbreviations for units of currency: C$ (Canadian

Units of measurement


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dollars), h (euros; h 0.50 not h 50c), , SKr(Swedish krona) , SwFr (Swiss franc), (Japaneseyen), $ (US dollar), NT$ (Taiwanese dollar).

19Amounts of money should be quoted in the relevantcurrency throughout a story but a conversion inbrackets to euros (UK titles) or US dollars (UStitles) should be given at the first mention.Currencies without values should be written aslower case (e.g. euros, dollars, pounds sterling).

20Dont use a hyphen where part of the compound isa measurement (e.g. 3A fuse), except to avoidambiguity (e.g. 12 40-W lamps) where it cant berewritten for clarification. Note that a hyphen isappropriate with a noun that is not strictly a unit of measurement (e.g. 32-bit screen, three-day week).

21Use m and bn for million and billionwhen quoting amounts of money (e.g. 12m,$33 bn) but use trillion and thousand ratherthan an abbreviation (though k is admissible intables, etc). For other values use the terms in full(e.g. 3billion units).

22For two or more values of the same unit of measurement quoted together you should use the

unit once (e.g. 4 and 7mm widths, between 30 and40%).

23Use the following prefixes:d deci 10 1 T tera 10 12c centi 10 2 G giga 10 9m milli 10 3 M mega 10 6

micro 10 6 k kilo 10 3n nano 10 9 h hecto 10 2p pico 10 12 da deda 10 1f femto 10 15a atto 10 18

See alsoHyphenationAbbreviations and contractionsNumbersDates and timesSpacingEn rules and minus sign

15Style Guide Units of measurement/Italic and bold

1Avoid using italic and bold for emphasis and avoidtheir use on the web, disregarding the rules below.

2Use italic (plus upper case intials) for names of published books, journals, magazines, newspapers,plays, films, works of art and long poems (e.g.Chambers English Dictionary , Physics World , theGuardian , Hamlet , The 39 Steps , PicassosGuernica , Paradise Lost ) but quotes for chaptertitles, articles, songs and short poems. Titles of conferences or sessions at conferences take initialcaps but no italic, bold or quote marks.

3In newspaper titles use The only for The Timesand The Economist (e.g. the Guardian , the Mirror,the New York Times ).

4Use italics for generic and specific biological names(e.g. Salmonella bongor , Homo sapiens ) but not forgeneric names when they are used in a general sense(e.g. salmonella poisoning).

5Use italics only for foreign words and abbreviationsnot yet naturalized (e.g. in vivo , in vitro , in situ ,inter alia , non sequitur , ab initio ), not for those

used in everyday English (e.g. vice versa, etc, e.g.,i.e.) and not for proper nouns, but in any caseavoid the unnecessary use of foreign words. Followthe Oxford English Dictionary s recommendations,because Chambers English Dictionary makes none.

6Use italics for names (but not types) of ships (e.g.HMS Ganges ).

7Use italic for et al .

8Use bold for volume (and part) numbers of journalsin bibliographical references (e.g. 6(4) ).


10Website names should be italic and lower case (e.g.optics.org ).

See alsoBibliographical references

R R

Italic and bold


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16 Style Guide Spacing/Accents

1Dont use full points for someones initials, and usea non-breaking space between them (e.g. J R Smith).

2Use a fixed space for 5billion, 20000, kWh,c.1600, AD 600, mm s 1, VDC.

3Use a fixed space for units of measurement (e.g.1 cm, 5.00a.m.) and currency denoted by two ormore characters (e.g. SwFr 3bn, SwFr 3 billion), butclose up the symbols for percentage, compassdegrees and currency denoted by a single character(e.g. 35%, 67, $50).

4Use a fixed space either side of mathematical signsin a mathematical expression (e.g. 4 ! 3=12).

5Where double and single quote marks open or closeadjacent to each other, separate them with a fixedspace (e.g. Live and let live is such a clich, shesaid.).

6Use a closed-up en rule between dates within asingle month (e.g. 1416 March) but a spaced enrule where the dates span more than one (e.g. 23

September 30 October).7Dont use a space in PhD, MSc, etc.

8Use three closed-up points for an ellipsis, and closethe ellipsis up to the adjacent text (e.g. He beganwith the following words: Unaccustomed as Iam...).

9Use a large fixed space between a bullet and thetext that follows it.

10Use a fixed space to prevent characters from beingsplit between lines, where this might look awkward(e.g. DOS 3.0, 20 months).

See alsoAbbreviations and contractionsNumbersDates and timesTables

Preparing text for DTP

Spacing

1Use accents according to Chambers EnglishDictionary (e.g. role, clich, pied--terre, protg)cafe.

2Dont use accents on upper case characters.

Accents


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17Style Guide Quote marks and quotations

1Use double quote marks for quoted material andsingle quote marks for a quote within a quote.

2Use double quote marks for highlighting words, butuse sparingly.

3Use single quote marks in headings.

4Use a full point outside the closing quote mark foran incomplete sentence (e.g. He described thefeature as a load of old bobbins.), but insidewhere the quote forms a full sentence (e.g. Theeditor replied: I think the feature is a load of oldbobbins.)

5Where he said or similar follows a quote that is acomplete sentence, a comma should replace the fullpoint inside the closing quote mark (e.g. I havealways liked Scotland at this time of the year, hesaid.).

6Where he said or similar comes in the middle of a quote, there should be a comma inside the firstclosing quote mark only if this exists in the original

text (e.g. Father, he said, youre looking welltoday.;Father, he said, is looking well today.).

7Use other punctuation outside the closing quotemark (e.g. Can you believe that he said: Sheshould come with us?), unless it is clearly part of the quotation (e.g. He said to her: Will you comewith us?).

8Use square brackets for additions to quotations(e.g. this [experiment] has produced some unusualresults).

9Use three closed-up points for an ellipsis to indicateomission, closed up to the adjacent text (e.g. hebegan with the following words: Unaccustomed asI am...). An ellipsis is not necessary at thebeginning or end of a quotation where the omissionis implicit in how the quotation reads and/or in thepresence of an upper case initial or closingpunctuation.

10Use real opening and closing quotes ( ) not tickmarks ().

11Use a colon following words introducing directspeech (e.g. They answered: Here we are.; Thedelegates were addressed with the following words:Ladies and gentlemen....).

12In conversation, start a new paragraph with eachchange of speaker.

13For genuine reported speech, use the past tense andquote marks (e.g. This is a major breakthrough,he said), but for attributed views or facts use thepresent tense and no quote marks (e.g. Prof. Martinsays that he hopes to continue this line of work inthe future).

14Where double and single quote marks open or closeadjacent to each other, separate them with a fixedspace (e.g. Live and let live is such a clich, shesaid.).

15Within reason, apply house style to quoted material(e.g. -ize endings) but dont change the structure ormeaning.

16

If the original text contains an error you can quoteit verbatim but include [sic] after the error (e.g.The affect [sic] of this was to speed up the process).

17Where a quote comprises more than one paragraph,begin each paragraph with opening quote marks,but use a closing quote mark at the end of the lastparagraph only.

18Use quote marks for chapter titles, articles, songsand short poems when referred to in the text, butnot in a list of bibliographical references (e.g. SeeAdvanced methods, Lateral thoughts,Products.).

19Use the following format for quoted conversation(e.g. from a play):Tim How do you know its yours?Gareth Because its got my name on it in Tippex.In an interview, substitute bold for italic:

Journalist How big is your laser?Boffin Unfeasibly large.


Quote marks and quotations


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18 Style Guide Apostrophes/Cross-references

1Dont use an apostrophe in the name of a historicalevent (e.g. Hundred Years War).

2Use an apostrophe in most possessives (e.g. he gaveme five minutes start), but not for its, yours, ours,theirs and hers.

3For possessives of plural nouns, add an apostropheafter the s (e.g. four hours work, HospitalPhysicists Association). For possessives of singularnouns ending in s (most commonly propernouns), add a second s where the sound of thelast syllable is s (e.g. Thomass) but dont wherethe sound is z or with classical names (e.g.Flowers, Bridges, Moses, Socrates, Euripedes),but note exceptions (e.g. St Jamess).

4Tailor the use of cant, dont, isnt, etc instead of cannot, do not, is not, etc to whether you aredealing with technical or informal writing.

5Dont use an apostrophe in plural abbreviations(e.g. MBEs, 1990s, mind your Ps and Qs), exceptwhere ommission might be confusing (e.g. dot theis and cross the ts).

6Use real apostrophes () not tick marks ().

7In a compound possessive (comprising more thanone noun), a single apostrophe should follow thelast noun only (e.g. William and Marys reign, myfather-in-laws house). Dont be tempted to take thisrule too far, but rewrite instead (e.g. the mandown the roads dog should read the dogbelonging to the man down the road).

Apostrophes

1Where possible, include at least one in-textreference to each illustration, box, table or otheritem of display material.

2Number display material where this is helpful tothe reader, but try to be consistent.

3Refer to cross-references in full with a lower caseinitial (e.g. chapter 2, figure 1.4, p4). Omit theword see unless this is required to make sense(e.g. see box).

4For an in-text reference to an article in anotherissue of the same publication, use the form(C Bowden 1994 Optical switching withoutmirrors Physics World December 2425, orPhysics World December 1994 pp2425), but omitthe year if it is the same as the current issue.

5For vertical lists, only use numbers if they arerequired to allow you to cross-reference items in thelist. Otherwise use bullets or shoulder headings.

6Use quote marks for the title of a chapter or article

where this is given as an in-text reference or cross-reference (e.g. See Advanced methods, Lateralthoughts, Products), but not in the furtherreading list.

See alsoAbbreviations and contractionsNumbersBibliographical references

Cross-references


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19Style Guide Bibliographical references

1For in-text references where there is a furtherreading list, use (see Jones and Smith et al . 1999 inFurther reading) or just (Jones and Smith et al .1999). The date should be included to ensure thatthe material inside parentheses is clearly areference.

2Where the work is multiauthor, you shouldnormally use et al . in the text and, if there are morethan three authors, in the further reading list also.For reasons of politics, it may be appropriate to listmore authors names.

3For in-text references where there is no furtherreading list, use:

book: (A Jones 1994 Manual of Physics vol. 2 ch. 23436)journal: (L Smith 1992 J. Phys. A. 38 1428)same publication: (I Bache et al . 1994 Electroniccommunications for students Physics World September 3740) or ( Physics World September1994 p37) or (J Bloggs Saving the world p67) or(Products p51).unpublished information: (H Peterson, privatecommunication)Where only part of the reference is to be includedin the brackets, stick to the same order (e.g. Alan

Jones and colleagues carried out this work (1994Nature 34 65).

4Use upper case initials for the main words in thetitle of a publication but not for the title of anarticle or chapter. However, for foreign languagepublications, follow the original capitalization.Note that text following a colon in the title of apublication does not automatically take a capitalinitial (e.g. International Cooperation in Space: theExample of the European Space Agency ).

5Use quote marks for the title of a chapter or articlewhere this is given as an in-text reference or cross-reference (e.g. In Surfing the superhighway,Hillman addresses a different subject; see Lateralthoughts and Products).

6Use abbreviations for journal titles if these will beeasily recognized by the reader (e.g. Phys. Rev. ).(For a list of the most common abbreviations,including those for Institute journals, see the

journals style guide.)

7Use vol. for volume; ed. for editor; eds for editors;edn for edition; 1st, 2nd, etc for first, second, etc

(editions); ch. for chapter; and omit p and pp forpages (except for incomplete same publicationreferences, e.g. Physics World April 1997 pp2327).

8Use italic for book and journal titles.

9Use the original spelling dont apply house style.

10Use bold for volume and part numbers of journals.Part numbers can be omitted, if preferred, to makethe reference list look less like that of a journal.

10For book titles the form should be as follows,regardless of how they are given on the book cover:Millennium: a New Century (i.e. two-part titlesshould be separated by a colon, not an en rule, anda, the, etc should be lower case).

11Where more than one full reference occurs in asingle set of brackets, separate each by a semicolon(e.g. R Moseley and M Dunn Lasing turnedupside-down Physics World January 1995 3034;

J Z Simon 1994 The physics of time travel Phys.Rev. 61(4) 2735).

12For the further reading list use:

book: K Smith 1992 Protons and neutrons Manual of Physics 2nd edn vol. 1 ed. J Bloggs (Academic,New York) 116.journal: J Jones, G Smith and F Smith 1992Quantum cryptography J. Phys. 153 810.conference: H Bloom 1976 Tame Vacuums Trans.3rd Conf. Amer. Vac. Soc. (Pergamon, London)8790.conference series: C Green 1984 Gallium Arsenideand Related Compounds (St Louis) 1976 (Inst.Phys. Conf. Ser. 33b) 345354.unpublished work: R Taylor (unpublished) Electronphysics (University of Manchester).work in press: D Moore (in press) X-raycrystallography Am. J. Phys.submitted work: B Willis (submitted) Thin films.dissertation/thesis: A Roberts 1970 PhD thesis(University of Bristol).patent: Hewlett-Packard Ltd 1966 Improved digitalfrequency counter US Patent Specification30320033.organizational report: P Gray 1989 BSIRA

Research Report M18.miscellaneous references: include as muchinformation as necessary for identification and in aform as similar as possible to the more standardreferences.

Bibliographical references


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21Style Guide Tables/Lists

1Use vertical lists where the information is betterillustrated as a list than as body text or a table.

2Be consistent about the punctuation used tointroduce a vertical list (often a colon, but generallynot if the items are complete sentences); to markthe end of each item (nothing or a comma if singlewords, a semicolon if each is less than a fullsentence, a full point if each is one or more fullsentences); and to mark the end. The use of a colonto introduce a run-on list depends on theconstruction of the sentence introducing the list (e.gDiscussions will cover the balance of core skills andcontent; mixed ability teaching and differentiation;and inspection and quality audits (no need for acolon); Presentations will be given on the followingtopics: the biosphere, the physics of environmentalhealth, remote sensing and climate change (colon isnecessary)).

3Be consistent about the capitalization of the initialof the first word of each item of a list (upper case if a full sentence or a proper noun, lower case if not).

4Make sure that each item in the list is in the sameform and reads logically (e.g. not Watson applies

five stages: analysis of the signal...; removingredundant wavelets...; linking wavelets...; linkage of transients...; instead, each should either begin withthe present participle (analysing, removing, linking)or the noun (analysis, removal, linkage), not amixture).

5Use bullets or shoulder headings to highlight pointsin a vertical list, unless numbers are required toallow you to cross-reference items in the list.

6Use a large fixed space between a bullet and thetext that follows.

7Where possible, put items in a list in a meaningfulsequence (e.g. alphabetical or numerical order). If alphabetical order is followed, Mc should betreated as if it were spelled Mac.

See alsoPreparing text for DTP

Lists

1Ensure that all columns in a table have a headingand that no cells are empty, unless an empty cellindicates absence in a presence/absence table.

2Use an en rule in a table to represent none.

3Line numbers up by their decimal points.

4Where the numbers 10 000 and above occur, leaveout the fixed space so that they align neatly.

5Ensure that the table has a heading or caption (buteither way be consistent within a particular title).

6If a table has just one column, make it into avertical list instead.

7If all items in a column are values of the same unitof measurement, put the units in the columnheading rather than repeating them for every item.

8Use upper case initials for column headings and

lower case initials for other entries, unless they arewhole sentences, but be consistent.

9Use entries that are consistent in style (e.g. sametense, full sentences or not, active or passive).

10Treat sources of tables as you would picture credits(e.g. Department of Transport) or in-text references(e.g. B Crystal 1992 Road and Rail 4548).

11Where possible, put table entries in a meaningfulsequence (e.g. alphabetical or numerical order). Thesame principle should normally apply to thesegments in pie charts (starting from 0, whichshould be at 12oclock, the segments shoulddecrease in size clockwise) and multiple bars inhistograms.

See alsoNumbersSpacingLists

Tables


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22 Style Guide Headings and standfirsts/Captions, labels and credits

1Use an upper case initial for the first word andproper nouns in headings, but leave the rest inlower case.

2Use single quotes and use other punctuationsparingly in headings.

3Dont use full points at the end of headings.

4Avoid using abbreviations, except for the mostcommon (e.g. UK), in main headings andstandfirsts.

5Never allow word breaks in headings.

6Use quote marks when referring to a sectionheading (e.g. see Advanced methods, Lateralthoughts, Products).

7Avoid using words that can be either a noun or averb (e.g. project, target) and might therefore beambiguous.

8Use a full point at the end of a standfirst.

9As a general rule, headings should be active,describe what the story is about and be in the formA does B to C or A does B (e.g. French uselasers to clean artefacts; Telecoms market hitsrock bottom).

See alsoCapitalizationNumbers

Headings and standfirsts

1Use a full point at the end of captions but notcredits.

2Use lower case initials for figure labels, except forproper nouns.

3Dont use a full point at the end of a label unless itcomprises more than one sentence, but try to keeplabels consistent in form .

4For picture credits or sources for tables, give thesource and the agency, as appropriate (e.g. FHenderson/Science Photo Library), or thebibliographical reference (e.g. B Crystal 1992 Road and Rail 4548).

See alsoCapitalizationBibliographical references

Captions, labels and credits


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23Style Guide Footnotes

1If more than one footnote occurs, use the noteindicators in the following order: * || ||

2Place in-text indicators after punctuation (e.g.Although this discovery was made in 1968, * thepatent was not established until 1984. )

3Where a footnote includes a bibliographicalreference, this should be in the same form as if itwere in the further reading list.

4Use superscript indicators in the main text andnormal indicators in the footnotes.


Footnotes


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24 Style Guide Miscellaneous punctuation, grammar and style

In general, grammar should be simple and clear,punctuation should be kept to a minimum (butwithout making the text ambiguous or hard toread) and style should be interesting but not quirky,with the aim that the reader should only need toread something once to understand it and shouldnot be distracted from the content by inconsistency.

Full pointA full point should, strictly, be used to define theend of a proper sentence. Views on what constitutesa proper sentence differ, but in general it shouldcontain a verb, a subject and an object. Whilesentences without verbs are commonplace in fictionand popular writing (e.g. So far so good.; Nowfor his final arguments.), in science writing theyshould be avoided in technical work and restrictedto more informal pieces that are written in adistinctive style.

See alsoAbbreviations and contractionsQuote marks and quotations

Ellipses

SeeQuote marks and quotations

Exclamation mark

Use sparingly. Overuse is a sign of poor writing thatneeds to use the exclamation mark instead of making the sense/emphasis explicit in the way thatthe text is written.

SemicolonA semicolon is lighter than a full point and heavierthan a comma. Use (instead of a full point) toseparate two sentences that could stand separatelybut that are closely connected in sense (e.g. To erris human; to forgive is divine.). Use (instead of acomma) to separate phrases that would not standas sentences but that would be confusing if onlyseparated by commas (e.g. The strikers agreed toresume work immediately if a tribunal were formedto investigate their grievances; if an undertakingwere given that there would not, either now or inthe future, be any victimization; and if theirrecommendations were put into forceimmediately.).

See alsoLists

ParenthesesParentheses should be used for material that can beskipped without changing the meaning of thesentence, such as an afterthought, a by-the-wayremark, a definition or a reference.

There should never be a comma directly before anopening parenthesis. There should be a commaafter a closing parenthesis only if it would be therein the absence of the parentheses.

There should be a full point (or other closingpunctuation) before a closing parenthesis only if thetext inside the parentheses is a complete sentence(e.g. The experiment was a success (as a result of the students hard work).; The experiment was asuccess. (This was the result of the students hardwork.))

See alsosquare brackets inQuote marks and quotations

ColonUse a colon to link two grammatically completeclauses to mark a step forward, from introductionto main theme, from cause to effect, or frompremise to conclusion (e.g. The circumstances hadchanged: the staff had left and funding hadstopped.).

See alsoLists

DashesUse a spaced en rule as a parenthetical dash to

mark an interruption in the structure of a sentence(e.g. He was not though you may disagree anideal candidate.). The text between dashes tendsto be of a more abrupt nature than that betweencommas and is generally more pertinent to the restof the sentence than text in parentheses. Dashes canalso occur singly (e.g. Beckhams foot injurycoincided with the World Cup a tragedy forEnglish football.).

See alsoHyphenationEn rules and minus sign

Quotation marks

SeeQuote marks and quotations

Apostrophe

SeeApostrophes

CommaThis is the most problematic area of punctuation.As a rule, like other punctuation, the commashould be used to aid the reader and not be insertedso as to cause an unnecessary break in a sentence.Commas are commonly used where they are not

Miscellaneous punctuation, grammar and style


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25Style Guide Miscellaneous punctuation, grammar and style

needed, especially in longer sentences (e.g.Strangest of all the new sensations, was thisuprising of physical virility) or where a heavierstop is needed (e.g. The dog is a very faithfulanimal, it will usually do anything for its masterwould be better written with and, a semicolon ora full point instead of the comma).

Seebelow andQuote marks and quotations

Comma and howeverThe meaning will change according to how commasare used with however (e.g. However it isportrayed it will sell.; However, it is portrayed sothat it will sell.; The product, however, willsell.; These incidents, however trivial inthemselves, are liable to lead to more seriousdemonstrations.).

Comma and andA comma should not normally be used beforeand (e.g. red, white and blue), except forclarity in long or complex sentences (e.g. egg andbacon, cheese and tomato, and fish and chips).

Comma and that isThere is often no need for a comma after that is,but often the need for one before (e.g. the

division, that is the oilwater interface, should servethis purpose).

Comma and for exampleThere should be a comma before and after forexample where it forms a parenthetical phrase onits own (e.g. sodium chloride, for example, isideal). There should normally be a comma afterfor example when it introduces something (e.g.For example, Philip Jones will talk on the originof black holes.) In some cases, however, thecomma is best left out after for example to keepthe punctuation simple (e.g. A number of reagents,for example sodium chloride, potassium chlorideand calcium carbonate, can be used.).

Comma and introductory phrase/wordThere is often no need for a comma after anintroductory phrase/word, such as a date (e.g. In1921 Peter Kapitza arrived in England.), exceptfor clarity (e.g. When you are editing, the text...;When you are editing the text...; In 1982, 1918seemed a long time ago. Meanwhile the situationis steadily deteriorating.; Meanwhile, unless thegovernment takes firm action, the situation will

steadily deteriorate.).

Comma and adjectives/adverbsWhere there are several adjectives/adverbsqualifying a noun/verb, commas should be used to

separate them where this improves clarity, such aswhen adjectives qualify a noun in the same way(e.g. a cautious, eloquent man). They should notbe necessary where adjectives qualify a noun indifferent ways (e.g. a distinguished foreignauthor) or where other punctuation serves to linkor separate other adjectives (e.g. expensive low-power ground-glass light microscope).

In some cases the inclusion or omission of a commacan change the sense completely (e.g. Theyrevealed a third, unknown source., i.e. there werethree sources in total and the other two wereknown; They revealed a third unknown source.,i.e. the other two sources were also unknown.).

Comma and parenthetical phrase/wordCommas can be placed round a parentheticalphrase/word in the same position as curvedparentheses would occur (e.g. I walked home,some five miles away, because my bike had apuncture; The researchers from Stuttgart,Germany, have developed a new technique.)However, the use of parenthetical commas can alterthe meaning (e.g. His daughter (Margaret) wasseven can be written His daughter, Margaret, wasseven, but these are each only correct if the manhas only one daughter. If he has more than onedaughter, the parentheses/commas should beomitted).

Comma and defining/non-defining clausesThe use of a comma can change a defining to anon-defining clause, and thus alter the meaning(e.g. William was the son of John who started abusiness, i.e. it was William who started abusiness; William was the son of John, whostarted a business, i.e. it was John who started abusiness).

See alsoThat/which/who

Word order Avoid ambiguity by paying attention to the order inwhich words and phrases occur (e.g. differentialabsorption lidar (DIAL) is the topic of chapter 3and, as with the previous chapter, containsextensive technical, scientific and applicationdetails. As it stands, DIAL contains the details.This is better rewritten to make clear that it is thechapter that contains the details: Chapter 3 coversdifferential absorption lidar (DIAL) and, as withthe previous chapter, contains extensive technical,

scientific and application details; the authors, incommon with most other published methods, tendto.... To avoid suggesting that the authors arepublished methods, this is better written: Bloggs et al. , in common with the authors of most other


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26 Style Guide Miscellaneous punctuation, grammar and style

published methods, tend to....).

Be careful when using a pronoun (e.g. she, them, it)that it is clear what the pronoun refers to (e.g. If the baby does not like fresh milk, boil it.).Usually a date is better placed at the beginning of asentence (e.g. Joseph Hadley of LawrenceLivermore National Laboratory in 1994 publishednew results reads better as In 1994 JosephHadley of Lawrence Livermore NationalLaboratory published new results).

In general, save the end of a sentence for the mostimportant words (e.g. As I was walking to workthis morning I was hit by a car has more impactthan I was hit by a car as I was walking to workthis morning).

Dangling participlesYou get a dangling participle when the subject of the participle (-ing verb) and the subject of thesentence dont agree (e.g When discussing race,sensitivity is necessary suggests that sensitivity isdiscussing race. It is better written Whendiscussing race, you should be sensitive; Havingdied, they buried him suggests that they ratherthan him died).

Position of adverbPut adverbs where you would put them in normal

speech. This is usually after the verb (e.g. I walkedquickly to the bus stop), but may be before the verbto create a different emphasis (e.g. I slowly turnedround).

Position of only/even/just, etcThe meaning of a sentence will usually changeaccording to the position of words like only (e.g.only carpets cleaned on Saturday/carpets onlycleaned on Saturday/carpets cleaned only onSaturday/carpets cleaned on Saturday only).

Split infinitivesAvoid split infinitives (e.g. change to boldly go toto go boldly) unless there is no better way of structuring the sentence.

Either/or, neither/nor, both/and, notonly/but alsoIn an either/or phrase, the either and orparts should have a parallel structure (e.g. it mayeither be disposed of to landfill or used in buildingmaterials should read it may either be disposedof to landfill or be used in building materials).

Similarly, the neither and nor parts of a phraseshould be parallel (e.g. which neither suits him norme should read which suits neither him nor me).

Not only/but also phrases should also be parallel

(e.g. it involved hard work, not only by thesecretary but also by her boss, or it involved hardwork by not only the secretary but also her boss).The same applies to a sentence involving both(e.g. who both knew him and me should readwho knew both him and me).

Neither and nor (not neither and or)should appear together (e.g. he neither liked himnor wished to like him).

In an either/or phrase there should be only twoalternatives (e.g. in when confronted with thisfigure, many managers either deny it, express a lackof options or blame employees, either should beomitted because here there are three possibilities).

And/or Avoid using or where and is more appropriate(e.g. He had to choose between red and blue).

Double negativesAvoid double negatives (e.g. The subtleties did notgo unnoticed). Be more direct (e.g. The subtletieswere noticed).

Personal pronounsContrary to popular belief, John and I is notalways the correct form; it depends on theconstruction of the sentence (e.g. John and I are

going to town, i.e. same construction as I amgoing to town/the car belongs to John and me,i.e. same construction as the car belongs to me).

Use simple pronouns (e.g. I, me, him, you) insteadof myself, himself, yourself, etc (e.g. You can talkto me, not You can talk to myself), exceptwhere there is no alternative (e.g. I want to be bymyself).

Avoid using gender-specific pronouns (e.g. Anathlete must train hard to reach his peak), exceptwhere the sex of the individual is obvious or hasalready been established. Avoid using their andthey in the singular (e.g. A guest is entitled totheir privacy). His/her, he/she and him/herare acceptable when used sparingly.

When a gerund (word with -ing ending that acts asa noun) is qualified, it must be preceded by anadjective (e.g. I dont like you leaving should readI dont like your leaving).

Use it not she for ships, countries and otherinanimate nouns.

That/which/whoUse that in a defining relative clause (e.g. hestopped the car that was driven by a woman i.e.he didnt stop just any car, only the one driven by a


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woman). Use which (following a comma) in anon-defining relative clause (e.g. he stopped thecar, which was driven by a woman i.e. hestopped a car, and, incidentally, it was driven by awoman) That defines (e.g. This is the house that

Jack built) and which informs (e.g. This house,which Jack built, is falling down).

If the subject is a person (or people) instead of athing, then that or which can be replaced bywho (e.g. he spoke to the man who was wearinga red rose, i.e. he didnt speak to just any man,only the one wearing a rose/he spoke to the man,who was wearing a red rose, i.e. he spoke to theman, and, incidentally, the man was wearing arose).

Use that and which but not who forcompanies, organizations, countries, etc.

If the subject is a collective noun that comprisespeople, that/which or who can be used,depending on whether the noun is being treated assingular or plural (e.g. the orchestra, who wereclapping loudly, stood up on the conductorsarrival; the batallion, which was founded in the19th century, still exists today; the team thatwon came from Derby).

Might/may

Note that the meaning of a sentence will changeaccording to whether might or may is used(e.g. no-one called the police, action that mayhave saved lives, i.e. lives were probably savedbecause no-one called the police/no-one called thepolice, action that might have saved lives, i.e. if someone had called the police, lives wouldprobably have been saved).

Can/may Can is used to indicate the ability/capacity to dosomething (e.g. You can see for miles.), whilemay is used to suggest a possibility (e.g. Youmay (or may not) see for miles.) or as a substitutefor can in formal writing or speech (e.g. Youmay use my car.).

Will/shallThe choice between will and shall (or wouldand should) depends on whether or not thesubject is first person and whether the context is astatement or a prediction (e.g. They will be homesoon.; I shall be 30 next year.), or whether it isan expression of intention or obligation (e.g. I willdo no such thing.; They shall keep quiet while I

am working.).

Who/whomWho should be used for the subject, whom forthe object (e.g. Who brought David?; Whom

have you brought?; He knew who he was.; Shekissed the children whom she knew.). As a quickcheck, in most cases you should be able tosubstitute he/she/they for who andhim/her/them for whom (e.g. who didit?/he did it?; you gave it to whom?/yougave it to him?; Blair was attacked for criticizingHague, whom he despised/he despised him;Blair criticized Hague, who he thought waswrong/He thought he was wrong).

Whose/of whichThe use of whose with inanimate objects shouldbe avoided where possible, unless to incorporateof which or similar into the sentence is clumsy(e.g. change the device, whose scale was marked inmilligrams, was ideal to the device, the scale of which was marked in milligrams, was ideal).

Singular/pluralTreat collective nouns as singular (e.g. Thegovernment/ group/range/company is featured.),unless the noun is clearly being used to refer toseparate individuals rather than to a united body(e.g. The cabinet is reconvening./The cabinet areresuming their places round the table.; Thefamily was shocked./The family were scratchingtheir heads.). Note also that sports teams areusually treated as plural (e.g. Manchester werebottom of the division.).

Treat whereabouts as plural (e.g. Herwhereabouts are not known.).

See alsoThat/which/whoPersonal pronouns

Treat none, neither, either, every andeach as singular (e.g. None is found in theliterature.; Neither is allowed.; Either issufficient.; Every one is available.; Each issuitable.), but note apparent exceptions (e.g.Neither the Danes nor the Saxons werevictorious.).

Treat number as singular or plural according tothe context (e.g. The number is increasing daily.;A number of theories are being put forward.).

For nouns with the ending -ics, treat according tocontext (e.g. Acoustics is fascinating. (i.e. thesubject of acoustics is fascinating)/The acoustics of the hall are appalling.).

If the subject and complement are different, theverb should generally agree with the subject (e.g.Our only guide was the stars.; The stars wereour only guide.), but note exceptions (e.g. Sixmonths was the time allowed. (i.e. a period of six


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months was allowed); Fish and chips is a popularmeal.; He is one of the most famous writers whohave ever lived.). A compound subject should betreated as plural (e.g. The president and hisadvisers are to make a visit.), but dont be swayedby a parenthetical clause following the subject (e.g.The president, together with his advisers, is tomake a visit.).

Transitive/intransitive verbsA transitive verb takes a direct object: it showsaction on something (e.g. He hit the ball). Anintransitive verb takes no direct object: it needsonly a subject to make sense (e.g. He slept). Becareful not to use a transitive verb as if it wereintransitive (e.g. He reduced the price and Theprice was reduced are correct, but The pricereduced is not, because reduce is transitive,while He decreased the price, The price wasdecreased and The price decreased are allcorrect, because decrease can be transitive orintransitive).

Missing prepositions, etcAlthough leaving out prepositions, etc is oftenaccepted in some constructions (e.g. all [of] theexamples, near [to] the relevant text, the lasttime [that] I saw Paris), this should be practisedwith care because it can sometimes cause the readerto falter (e.g. all the people know could be all of

the people know or all that the people know).For the sake of avoiding ambiguity and consistencyit is generally best to keep them in.

Correct prepositionsPrepositions are commonly misused (e.g. differentfrom, not to or than/centre in or on,not around (but revolve around)/bored with orby, not of/in not under circumstances).

Note the difference between into and in to,and between onto and on to (e.g. drop theminto the bag/he bumped in to her, they walkedon to Thame/the lorry drove onto the ferry).

Use compare with when you are drawingattention to the (perhaps suspected) difference, butcompare to when you are stressing the similarity(e.g. She compared the properties of solution Awith those of solution B.; He compared her voiceto that of a lark.).

Use in comparison with not in comparison to,and in contrast with not in contrast to.

Use provided (that) not providing.

Use try to not try and, unless you mean twoseparate actions (e.g. try to aim high, or you maytry and fail). Similarly, use help to not help

and.

Use incorporate into not incorporate in.

Use of with consist but not comprise (e.g.the menu consists of/comprises three courses).

Use enamoured of not enamoured with orenamoured by.

Use fed up with not fed up of.

Use I should have not I should of.

Due to/owing toUse owing to when you mean because of anddue to when you mean caused by (e.g. Owingto illness, he missed the game.; His missing thegame was due to illness.).

Less/fewer than, over/more thanLess should be applied to things that aremeasured by amount (e.g. in response to thequestion How much?: less courage, less than200, less money) while fewer should be appliedto things measured as numbers of individual items(e.g. in response to the question How many?:fewer opportunities, fewer than a hundred people,fewer coins).Less and fewer than are preferable to under,

and more than is preferable to over (e.g. morethan four days).

...as much as/more thanFive times as much does not mean the same asfive times more than (i.e. six times as much) the first is multiplicative, the second additive butthe latter is frequently written when what is meantis the former. When the values involved are large(e.g. a hundred times as much/more than), thedifference between the two meanings is minimal;but when the values are small, the difference can besignificant (e.g. Is it reasonable to suggest that if Albert Einstein had received five times as muchmoney, he would have discovered five morerelativity theories? If the idea behind thissuggestion is reasonable then, no, he would havediscovered four, not five, more theories). Worse stillis the use of ten times less than, when what ismeant is a tenth. This may seem pedantic, but inscience we have a duty to be accurate whendiscussing numerical values.

High/greatHigh (perhaps as a short form of high level) is

increasingly being used where great would bemore appropriate, but this should be avoided (e.g.the danger of this is especially high should readthe danger of this is especially great).

Style Guide Miscellaneous punctuation, grammar and style28


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Clich and overuseThe following are overused and should therefore beavoided where a better word/phrase can be found,where they add nothing to the meaning or wherethey may even mislead:actual/actually as it werebasically completelydefinitely etcextremely getin fact in terms of in the order of moreovernew nowquitereal/really sort of/kind of the fact that totallyunique use/utilizevery wide range/variety

Long words/phrases and redundancy Dont use a long word/phrase where a short onewill do just as well, e.g:at the present time (now) it can be seen thatin order to (to) so as to (to)as to whether (whether) as yet (yet)several different utilization (use)is able to (can) is capable of (can)a number of (several) utilize (use)currently (now; or just use the present tense)

equally important as (as important as/equallyimportant)in actual fact (in fact)

RepetitionThere are different types of repetition, some moresubtle than others. All forms should be avoidedwhere this is possible without misleading the readeror where there isnt a good reason for it (such asthere being a specific term that cannot be describedprecisely enough in any other way).

Repetition of the same word or phrase can usuallybe avoided. Less obvious but just as annoying to areader who is paying attention to what s/he isreading is repetition of the same point but usingdifferent words. This often occurs in long sentences.For example:You no longer have a single testing phaseanymore. no longer and anymore areperforming the same function.Although FGD technology has been criticized asan end-of-pipe solution that fails to address theproblems of growing energy consumption andfossil-fuel combustion, nevertheless FGD is set to

reduce significantly the UKs SO 2 emissions. although and nevertheless are performing thesame function.These include, among others: calibration, loopverification, wiring-error diagnosis, range changes,

start-up times, zero checks, troubleshooting,repairs, down-time and failures, etc. include,among others and etc are all performing thesame function.Id like to know the reason why the reasonand why are performing the same function (Idlike to know the reason and Id like to knowwhy are both better).

TenseEnsure that the text doesnt wander between tenses(e.g. in pre-industrial times, carbon depositsshow... (pre-industrial times (past) conflicts withshow (present), so it should read carbondeposits dating from pre-industrial times show...)).

When somehing that was said in the present tenseremains true when it is reported, there is no needfor the tense to change (e.g. direct speech: Mostwild animals avoid man, the gamekeeper told him;reported speech: He told me that most wildanimals avoid man). If it no longer remains truethen the tense changes (e.g. direct speech: Ourtable is ready, she said; reported speech: She toldme that the table was ready).

See alsoQuote marks and quotations

Subjunctive

Use the subjunctive when proposing a hypothesiscontrary to fact (e.g. If pigs were able to fly, baconwould be a lot more expensive.), but not if thehypothesis may be true (e.g. If these results arewrong, we will be glad we didnt publish them.).Also use the subjunctive when would orshould occurs in the main clause (e.g. If I wereto win the lottery, I should be very happy.).

Electric(al), etcThe members of such pairs of adjectives sometimeshave a fairly distinct difference in meaning. Forexample economic is associated witheconomics (i.e. profitable) and economicalwith economy (i.e. thrifty). Sometimes the twoforms are indistinguishable (e.g. geometric andgeometrical). More often, however, the differenceor similarity is not so clear cut and there may besome overlap in use.In many cases the shorter (e.g. optic) form tends tobe more closely associated with the root of theword (i.e. of the eye or sight; e.g. nerve, lobe,atrophy) than the longer (e.g. optical) form (i.e.pertaining to sight or light; e.g. fibre, illusion,activity, disk, microscope).

Use the form that is most commonly used in aparticular context (e.g. electrical guitar is neverheard). If in doubt, use the form given in theChambers dictionaries. If the term isnt listed youmay be able to follow the form of a similar term


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Style Guide Miscellaneous punctuation, grammar and style30

(e.g. electric kettle is listed, suggesting thatelectric toaster is appropriate). Failing this, useyour judgement according to the examples givenhere and whether the short or the long form soundsbetter.For example:Government: minister, body, paper, policyGovernmental: responsibility, dutyEducation: system, ministerEducational: video, holidayElectric: battery, blanket, chair, charge, constant,current, discharge, flux, motor, potential, eel, eye,fence, field, fire, guitar, ray, shaver, shock, storm,torch.Electrical: appliance, energy, engineering.

A/anOn the whole the rule should be to use a, exceptwith words beginning with a vowel or where h issilent, but note exceptions related to pronunciation(e.g. a eutrophic lake, a unit, a eulogy, a one-manband, an hour, an H-bomb, an MP, an SEM).

Bias and parochialismsAvoid gender-specific words where sex isunspecified and where they might cause offence(e.g. the reader will find that he... is betterrewritten, because the reader can be of either sex),but use where they are clearly appropriate (e.g.The womans car was her own.; Mr Smith, the

spokesman...). Where rewriting is not possible, usehis/her, him/her, s/he, etc.

Avoid stereotyping/patronizing language accordingto age, sex, race, etc that might cause offence (e.g.avoid career woman, male nurse, housewife,lady doctor, illegitimate child; and usefirefighter not fireman; PC not WPC;humankind or humanity not mankind).

Remember the foreign readership (e.g. instead of this country or our use UK).

Take care not to offend by saying England orEnglish when you mean Britain or British.

Be specific about dates (e.g. instead of recentlyuse in December 1998).

Where possible, spell proper names according tothe country of origin (e.g. Pearl Harbor, AustralianLabor Party), unless this goes against common UKusage (e.g. Munich not Mnchen, Turin notTorino).

Use the first person when the author is reporting(e.g. in the authors opinion should read in myopinion).

Use artist, not artiste; comedian, not

comedienne; actor, not actress. Waiterand waitress are still acceptable.

Use disabled or people with learningdifficulties, not handicapped.

Use schizophrenia/schizophrenic only in amedical context, never to mean in two minds,which is both wrong and offensive to people withthe illness.

Do not use spastic but use cerebral palsysufferer instead.

AnthropomorphismAvoid using anthropomorphisms (e.g. The atomknows about the mirror because it reacts to theever-present fluctuations in the vacuum.; As thesatellite passes through the cusp, it sees an energyspectrum of particles that are aligned with thefield.).

See alsoPersonal pronounsWhose/of which

And/but to open sentenceBeginning a sentence with and or but isbecoming more acceptable, but unless contextualdislocation is the deliberate aim it should be

avoided or at least used sparingly.I/meBeginning a sentence with and or but isbecoming more acceptable, but unless contextualdislocation is the deliberate aim it should beavoided or at least used s

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