investigating the critical factors for the adoption of e...

Investigating the Critical Factors for the

Adoption of E-Government

in Saudi Arabia

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Ayman Fehaid Almukhlifi

Bachelor of Computer Science (King Saud University)

Master of Business Process Management (Queensland University of

Technology)

School of Business Information Technology and Logistics

College of Business

RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

July 2019

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Declaration

I, Ayman Almukhlifi, hereby declare that,

a. I am the sole author of this thesis, except where due acknowledgement has been

made,

b. the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any

other academic award, and

c. the content of this thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the

official commencement date of the approved research program.

Ayman Fehaid Almukhlifi

10 July 2019

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Acknowledgement

)لهمنيوأ مكنني هللا أن لوال ألفعل كنت وما(

I would like to dedicate my thesis to my beloved country, Saudi Arabia. I could not

accomplish writing this thesis without the generous financial assistance and support

provided by the Saudi government to support me in the journey of pursuing the degree

of Doctor of Philosophy at the School of Business Information Technology and

Logistics, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my senior supervisor, Professor Hepu

Deng, for the continuous support for my doctoral program and related research, for his

patience, motivation and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me through the

entire time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a

better supervisor for my doctoral research. My sincere thankfulness also goes to my

second supervisor, Professor Booi Kam, for providing me with freedom to explore my

own research interests, and for his encouragement, guidance and assistance throughout

this doctoral program.

Nobody has been more important to me in the pursuit of this thesis than my parents,

my wife and my children, to whom I am indebted forever. I dedicate this thesis to my

father, Fehaid, and my mother, Mattra, who kept asking their persistent question: when

you will come back to Saudi Arabia? I will never ever forget their tears when I left

Saudi Arabia to accomplish the doctoral program. I would like to thank them for their

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endless love, prayers and support. Their advice and faith in my capabilities always

encourage me to improve my personal and educational achievement.

My deepest thankfulness and appreciation go to my selfless, supportive and inspiring

wife, Nuha, and my children, Yazeed and Fehaid. You are the main reason for

completing the doctoral program. I could never imagine finishing this thesis without

your patience and support. Nuha, you are the most inspiring and supportive person in

my life. How can I express my thankfulness? Your prayers, support and your endless

love helped me to overcome all the barriers during the journey of the doctoral program.

Your persistent laughter and smiles made me happy when I was down. I cannot find

enough words to show how fundamental your inspiration and support was in

encouraging me to complete this thesis. I would never reach this stage of my personal

and educational achievement if it was not for your persistent encouragement, patience

and advice during the doctoral program; in particular, during hard times. You have

proved to me the extent to which you are willing to sacrifice for your husband and

children. This thesis for you, Nuha, and our children.

Yazeed and Fehaid, I owe you all the days that I had to go to the university early or

stay late working on the thesis. I still keep your drawings on my desk at the university.

I looked at them each day when I started working on the thesis. Your calls and visits

to my office encouraged me to work hard. When I felt bored and wanted to change my

mood, I always sought you out to have fun. You both have a good sense of humour,

which always makes my life happy. Yazeed and Fehaid, I love you. I would like to

thank you for your patience and support. I would like also to thank my brothers and

sisters in Saudi Arabia for their support and encouragement.

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I would also like to thank my dear colleagues, Alvedi Sabani, Dr Ahmad Alkalbani,

Ahmad Alassar, Dr Fouad Jamaani and Mohamed Farah, for their various support

during my time as a doctoral candidate at the School of Business Information

Technology and Logistics. My gratitude also goes to Associate Professor Abdullahi

Ahmed for his support throughout my candidature. My appreciation also goes for all

my friends in Saudi Arabia. Your support and encouragement are very much

appreciated.

I would also like to acknowledge that this thesis was professionally copy edited and

proofread by Elite Editing. The editing complies with the Guidelines for Editing

Research Theses and is restricted to D and E of the Australian Standards for Editing

Practice.

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Table of Contents

Declaration .................................................................................................................... i

Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................... ii

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... v

List of Publications ................................................................................................... viii

List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................. ix

List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xi

List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xiii

Abstract ..................................................................................................................... xiv

Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1

1.1 Research Background .................................................................................. 1

1.2 Motivation for the Research ......................................................................... 4

1.3 Research Objectives and Research Questions ............................................. 5

1.4 Research Methodology ................................................................................ 6

1.5 Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................. 8

Chapter 2 Literature Review .................................................................................. 12

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 12

2.2 An Overview of E-Government ................................................................. 14

2.3 E-Government Development in Saudi Arabia ........................................... 25

2.4 E-Government Adoption Studies ............................................................... 31

2.5 Concluding Remarks .................................................................................. 49

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Chapter 3 A Conceptual Framework ..................................................................... 50

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 50

3.2 Theoretical Background ............................................................................. 52

3.3 A Conceptual Framework .......................................................................... 62

3.4 Concluding Remarks .................................................................................. 87

Chapter 4 Research Methodology .......................................................................... 88

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 88

4.2 Research Paradigms ................................................................................... 90

4.3 Research Methodologies ............................................................................ 93

4.4 Data Collection .......................................................................................... 95

4.5 Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 101

4.6 Demographic Analysis ............................................................................. 115

4.7 Concluding Remarks ................................................................................ 116

Chapter 5 Emerging Patterns of the Adoption of E-Government .................... 118

5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 118

5.2 The Status of E-Government Development in Saudi Arabia ................... 120

5.3 Emerging Patterns of the Adoption of E-Government............................. 137


Chapter 6 Critical Factors for the Adoption of E-Government ........................ 153

6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 153

6.2 Measurement Model Analysis ................................................................. 155

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6.3 Structural Model Analysis ....................................................................... 170

6.4 Critical Factors for the Adoption of E-Government ................................ 174

6.5 Recommendations .................................................................................... 185


Chapter 7 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 192

7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 192

7.2 Summary of the Research Findings ......................................................... 193

7.3 Research Contributions and Implications ................................................ 199

7.4 Limitations and Future Research ............................................................. 202

References ............................................................................................................... 204

Appendices .............................................................................................................. 235

Appendix A The Survey Questionnaire ................................................................... 235

Appendix B The Invitation to Participate in Research ............................................ 251

Appendix C A List of Public Organisations ............................................................ 256

Appendix D The Initial Full Measurement Model .................................................. 263

Appendix E One-factor Congeneric Models ............................................................ 264

Appendix F The Final Full Measurement Model .................................................... 268

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List of Publications

International Conferences

Almukhlifi, A, Deng, H & Kam, B 2017, 'A Conceptual Framework for Transparent

Public Decision-Making Through E-Government Development in Saudi

Arabia', Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Information

Technology and Science, Beijing, China, June 25-17, pp. 91-102.

Almukhlifi, A, Deng, H & Kam, B 2018, 'E-Government Adoption in Saudi Arabia:

The Moderation Effect of Wastta ', Proceedings of the 11th International

Conference on Information Resources Management, Ningbo, China, June 4-6,

pp. 1-12.

Almukhlifi, A, Deng, H & Kam, B 2019, 'Critical Factors for the Adoption of E-

government in Developing Countries: Validation of a Measurement Model ',

Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Theory and Practice of

Electronic Governance, Melbourne, Australia, April 3-5, pp. 397-407.

International Journals

Almukhlifi, A, Deng, H & Kam, B 2019, 'E-Government Adoption in Saudi Arabia:

The Moderation Influence of Transparency', Journal of Advances in

Information Technology, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1-8.

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List of Abbreviations

AGFI Adjusted goodness of fit index

AMOS Analysis of the moment structure

AVE Average variance extracted

CA Computer anxiety

CFA Confirmatory factor analysis

CFI Comparative fit index

CITC Communications and Information Technology Commission

CR Critical ratio

CSE Computer self-efficacy

DOI Diffusion of innovations

Df: Degree of freedom

EFA Exploratory factor analysis

G2B: Government-to-business

G2C: Government-to-citizens

G2G: Government-to-business

GFI Goodness of fit index

GOF Goodness of fit

ICT Information and communication technologies

IQ Information quality

KMO Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin

MI Modification indices

NFI Normed fit index

PEOU Perceived ease of use

PI Personal innovativeness

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PU Perceived usefulness

RMSEA Root mean square error of approximation

SE Standard error

SEM Structural equation modelling

SFL Standardised factor loadings

SPSS: Statistical package for social sciences

SQ Service quality

SR Standardised residuals

SRMR Standardised root mean residual

SRW Standardised regression weight

TAM Technology acceptance model

TLI Tucker-Lewis index

TOE Technology-organisation-environment

TPB Theory of planned behaviours

TRA Theory of reasoned actions

TRAN Transparency

UN United Nations

UTAUT Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology

VIF Variable inflation factor

WAS Wastta

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 A Summary of the Challenges to E-Government Development ................ 21

Table 2.2 An Overview E-Government Studies in Developed Countries ................. 37

Table 2.3 An Overview of E-Government Studies in Developing Countries ............ 45

Table 2.4 An Overview of E-Government Studies in Saudi Arabia .......................... 48

Table 3.1 A Summary of the Measurement Items for CSE ....................................... 65

Table 3.2 A Summary of the Measurement Items for PI ........................................... 67

Table 3.3 A Summary of the Measurement Items for CA ......................................... 69

Table 3.4 A Summary of the Measurement Items for SQ ......................................... 72

Table 3.5 A Summary of the Measurement Items for IQ .......................................... 74

Table 3.6 A Summary of the Measurement Items for PU ......................................... 77

Table 3.7 A Summary of the Measurement Items for PEOU .................................... 79

Table 3.8 A Summary of the Measurement Items for TRAN .................................... 81

Table 3.9 A Summary of the Measurement Items for WAS ...................................... 84

Table 4.1 An Overview of the Two Main Paradigms ................................................ 93

Table 4.2 A Summary of the Normality Assessment Results .................................. 108

Table 4.3 A Summary of the Non-Response Bias Assessment Results .................. 110

Table 4.4 A Summary of the Construct Reliability Assessment Results ................. 111

Table 4.5 A Summary of the Multicollinearity Assessment Results ....................... 112

Table 4.6 A Summary of the Exploratory Factor Analysis Results ......................... 115

Table 5.1 An Overview of Public Organisations ..................................................... 123

Table 5.2 An Overview of Basic Data Publication .................................................. 126

Table 5.3 An Overview of Public News Publication ............................................... 127

Table 5.4 An Overview of Downloadable Forms Publication ................................. 129

Table 5.5 An Overview of Public Policies and Regulations Publication................. 130

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Table 5.6 An Overview of Public Tendering Opportunities Publication ................. 132

Table 5.7 An Overview of Public Budgets and Expenses Publication .................... 133

Table 5.8 An Overview of Open Government Data Publication ............................. 134

Table 5.9 An Overview of Annual Reports Publication .......................................... 136

Table 5.10 An Overview of the Participants’ Profiles ............................................. 140

Table 5.11 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Gender............ 146

Table 5.12 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Age ................. 147

Table 5.13 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Education ....... 149

Table 5.14 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Occupation ..... 150

Table 5.15 An Overview of Using E-Government through Wastta ......................... 151

Table 6.1 An Overview of Threshold Values of the GOF Statistics ........................ 157

Table 6.2 An Overview of the SFL Values for the IQ Model.................................. 162

Table 6.3 An Overview of the SR Values of the IQ Model ..................................... 162

Table 6.4 An Overview of the One-Factor Congeneric Models Assessment .......... 165

Table 6.5 An Overview of the GOF Values for the Measurement Models ............. 166

Table 6.6 An Overview of the Convergent Validity Assessment ............................ 168

Table 6.7 An Overview of Discriminant Validity Assessment ................................ 170

Table 6.8 An Overview of the GOF Values of the Structural Model ...................... 171

Table 6.9 An Overview of the Structural Model Analysis Results .......................... 172

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 An Overview of the Research Process ....................................................... 8

Figure 1.2 An Overview of the Thesis ......................................................................... 9

Figure 2.1 An Overview of E-Government Development ......................................... 19

Figure 2.2 An Overview of the Characteristics of Developed Countries .................. 33

Figure 2.3 An Overview of the Characteristics of Developing Countries ................. 39

Figure 3.1 A Conceptual Framework for the Adoption of E-Government ................ 64

Figure 4.1 An Overview of the Survey Instrument Development ............................. 96

Figure 4.2 An Overview of the Procedures for Data Analysis ................................ 104

Figure 5.1 The Gender Profile of the Participants ................................................... 141

Figure 5.2 The Age Profile of the Participants ........................................................ 142

Figure 5.3 The Education Profile of the Participants ............................................... 143

Figure 5.4 The Occupation Profile of the Participants ............................................ 144

Figure 5.5 The Frequency of Using E-Government ................................................ 145

Figure 6.1 A One-Factor Congeneric Model of IQ .................................................. 159

Figure 6.2 A Re-Specified One-Factor Congeneric model of IQ ............................ 164

Figure 6.3 The Final Structural Model .................................................................... 174

Figure 6.4 The Interaction of TRAN Between PU and ADOP ................................ 183

Figure 6.5 The Interaction of TRAN Between PEOU and ADOP .......................... 184

Figure 6.6 The Interaction of WAS Between PU and ADOP .................................. 185

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Abstract

Electronic government (e-government) is about the use of information and

communications technologies for improving the delivery of public services. It is

becoming increasing popular across the world because of the benefits it can bring

including streamlining the interaction between citizens and public organisations,

improving the transparency of public decision making and promoting the efficiency

and effectiveness of public organisations. As a result, many countries across the world

have introduced e-government programs for utilising the benefits of e-government.

Following the global trend, Saudi Arabia has been actively pursuing the development

of e-government. A unique e-government program with two specific e-government

development plans has been implemented. The first one aims to provide stakeholders

with specific public services through e-government. The second one focuses on

enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of public organisations in the delivery of

public services. This has led to the implementation of many e-government initiatives

such as mobile government, electronic procurement, electronic recruitment, and open

data portal. Despite these efforts, the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia is

unsatisfactory. This shows the need for better understanding the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia.

The objective of this research is to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens. Specifically, the research

aims to (a) identify the current patterns and trends of the adoption of e-government in

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Saudi Arabia and (b) explore the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia. To achieve the aims of this research, an extensive review of the related

literature has been conducted to the development of a conceptual framework for

investigating the critical factors for the adoption of e-government. This conceptual

framework is then tested and validated using structural equation modelling based on

the data collected in Saudi Arabia.

The study reveals that information quality, service quality, computer self-efficacy,

computer anxiety, personal innovativeness, perceived ease of use, and perceived

usefulness are the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. It

further reveals that transparency strengthens the relationships between perceived

usefulness and the adoption of e-government, and perceived ease of use and the

adoption of e-government. This study finds that Wastta negatively affects the

relationship between perceived usefulness and the adoption of e-government. Based

on the critical factors identified, a new framework for better understanding the

adoption of e-government is developed.

This study contributes to the e-government research from both the theoretical and the

practical perspectives. Theoretically, this study (a) develops a conceptual framework

for better understanding the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia, and (b)

explores the effect of transparency and Wastta on the adoption of e-government. This

study is the first of this kind that addresses the moderating influences of transparency

and Wastta on the relationship between perceived usefulness and the adoption of e-

government, and perceived ease of use and the adoption of e-government. Practically,

this study provides an in-depth investigation of the critical factors for the adoption of

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e-government to provide decision makers in Saudi Arabia with useful guidelines on

how to encourage Saudi citizens to adopt e-government. Such guidelines are helpful

for other countries in their active pursuit of the development of e-government.

Introduction 2019

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Research Background

Electronic government (e-government) is commonly referred to as the use of

information and communication technologies (ICT) for improving the delivery of

public services (Almukhlifi et al. 2017, 2018a; Deng 2008). It has been becoming

increasing popular across the world (Alkalbani et al. 2015; Deng 2008; Karunasena &

Deng 2010, 2012b; Sabani et al. 2019). A study of the United Nations (UN 2018)

shows that around 193 countries in the world have invested intensively in the

development of e-government. The popularity of e-government arises due to the

benefits that it can bring to individual countries and citizens including enhancing the

efficiency and effectiveness of public organisations, improving the delivery of quality

public services, facilitating the communication between public organisations and

various stakeholders, increasing the satisfaction of citizens, encouraging the

participation of citizens in public administration, increasing the responsiveness of

public organisations and improving the transparency of public decision making

(Alkalbani et al. 2014, 2015; Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Deng et al. 2018; Irani et al.

2007; Karunasena & Deng 2011; Sabani et al. 2018, 2019; Weerakkody et al. 2015).

Introduction 2019


Following the global trend, Saudi Arabia has been actively pursuing the development

of e-government. A unique e-government program consisting of two specific e-

government development plans has been implemented (Alateyah et al. 2013; Alharbi

et al. 2016). The first plan aims to provide stakeholders with specific public services

through the development of e-government (Yesser 2006). The second plan focuses on

enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of public organisations and improving the

delivery of public services (Alateyah et al. 2013). This has led to the implementation

of various e-government initiatives such as mobile government, open data portal and

electronic procurement (Almukhlifi et al. 2018; Saleem et al. 2013). Despite these

efforts, the ranking of Saudi Arabia in terms of e-government development in the

world has dropped from the 44th place in 2016 (UN 2016) to the 52nd place in 2018

(UN 2018). Further, the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia is not encouraging

(Albesher et al. 2014; Alharbi et al. 2016).

There are many studies that have been conducted for better understanding the adoption

of e-government in the literature from the perspectives of developed and developing

countries (Dwivedi et al. 2017; Hossan & Ryan 2018; Persaud & Persaud 2013; Rana

et al. 2017a; Schmidthuber et al. 2017; Van et al. 2018; Wanyembi et al. 2018; Yun &

Opheim 2010). These studies have focused mainly on critical factors related to the

supply side, the technology side, and the demand side. There is, however, a lack of a

framework that provides a comprehensive understanding of the adoption of e-

government, particularly in developing countries (Al-Hujran et al. 2015; Rana et al.

2017; Shareef et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2019).

Introduction 2019


There are some studies that have been conducted for understanding the adoption of e-

government in developing countries, particularly in Saudi Arabia. Alateyah et al.

(2013), for example, investigate the critical factors that influence the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia. Alrowili et al. (2015) examine the critical factors that

influence the adoption of mobile government in Saudi Arabia. Alghamdi and Beloff

(2016) discuss the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of

private organisations. Choudrie et al. (2017) explore the critical factors for the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of senior citizens.

Alzahrani et al. (2018) investigate the role of trust in the adoption of e-government.

These studies have shown the potential of e-government development and the critical

factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from different perspectives.

There are, however, several contextual factors that are specific to the unique situation

of individual developing countries that have not been examined (Al-Hujran et al. 2015;

Dwivedi et al. 2012; Shareef et al. 2016). In particular, it is unclear to what extent the

adoption of e-government is influenced by the transparency of public decision making

in public organisations and Wastta in the delivery of public services through e-

government in the context of Saudi Arabia.

This research aims to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-government

in Saudi Arabia. To fulfil the aim of the study, a research question has been formulated.

To answer the research question, a quantitative methodology is adopted. Based on the

review of the relevant literature, a conceptual framework is developed by

hypothesising the critical factors for improving the adoption of e-government in Saudi

Introduction 2019


Arabia. With the use of survey data collected in Saudi Arabia, the conceptual

framework is tested and validated using structural equation modelling (SEM).

1.2 Motivation for the Research

The motivation to conduct this research arises from three main reasons. First, there is

a call for investigating the adoption of e-government in developing countries with the

addition of the culture factor (Al-Hujran et al. 2015; Deng et al. 2018; Rana et al. 2017;

Shareef et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2019). A review of existing studies on e-government

adoption shows that it is unclear to what extent the culture of developing countries

influences the adoption of e-government (Almukhlifi et al. 2018a; Dwivedi et al. 2012;

Shareef et al. 2016). An examination of the role of a specific culture in the adoption of

e-government would lead to a better understanding of the adoption of e-government in

developing countries (Straub et al. 2002).

Second, there is a lack of research in exploring the influence of the transparency of

public decision making in public organisations on the adoption of e-government in

developing countries (Almukhlifi et al. 2019b; Venkatesh et al. 2016). Although many

studies have focused on the influence of specific factors such as trust, satisfaction and

participation of citizens on the adoption of e-government under various circumstances

(Akkaya et al. 2010; Hofmann et al. 2012; Mahmood et al. 2014), the influence of the

transparency of public decision making on the adoption of e-government has not been

adequately investigated. It is unclear to what extent the transparency of public decision

Introduction 2019


making in public organisations influences the adoption of e-government in developing

countries from the perspective of citizens.

Third, there is a lack of research on the investigation of the critical factors for the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Although some studies investigate the

critical factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia (Alghamdi & Beloff

2016; Alharbi et al. 2016; Alotaibi et al. 2014; Alrowili et al. 2015; Alzahrani et al.

2018), there are no rigorous studies for investigating the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia with specific consideration of the role of culture and the transparency of

public decision making. With the tremendous investment in the development of e-

government in Saudi Arabia for improving the delivery of public services (Yesser

2005), it is imperative to adequately investigate the critical factors for the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia in a comprehensive manner, with appropriate

consideration of culture and the transparency of public decision making in public

organisations.

1.3 Research Objectives and Research Questions

The primary aim of this research is to investigate the critical factors for the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens. To fulfil this aim of

the research, a primary research question has been formulated as follows:

• How can the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia be improved?

Introduction 2019


To facilitate answering this primary research question as above, two secondary

research questions have been formulated as follows:

• What are the current patterns and trends of the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia?

• What are the critical factors that affect the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of citizens in Saudi Arabia?

1.4 Research Methodology

This research aims to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-government

in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens. It is confirmatory in nature, because

the research seeks to test and validate several prior hypotheses developed for exploring

the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Based on the nature of such research,

the use of a quantitative methodology is appropriate (Creswell & Clark 2010), for two

reasons. First, a quantitative methodology is able to investigate the causal relationship

between specific factors by collecting and analysing available numerical data

(Creswell 2013; Karunasena et al. 2011; Sridharan et al. 2009; Tuli 2010). Second, the

use of such a quantitative methodology helps to derive findings that can be generalised

to a large population (Alkalbani 2016; Alkalbani et al. 2017; Straub et al. 2004;

Vanderstoep & Johnson 2009).

The implementation of a quantitative methodology in this study consists of seven

stages shown as in Figure 1.1. The first stage is related to the formulation of the

Introduction 2019


research objectives and questions in the study. The second stage is concerned with

reviewing the related literature for better understanding the adoption of e-government

from different perspectives. The third stage is about the development of a conceptual

framework for investigating the critical factors for the adoption of e-government from

the perspective of citizens in Saudi Arabia. In this stage, specific hypotheses are

developed for investigating the relationship between the theoretical constructs

identified in the conceptual framework. The fourth stage concerns the development of

the survey instrument for facilitating the research data collection. The fifth stage is

directly related to collecting the research data from Saudi citizens using the developed

survey instrument. The sixth stage is concerned with analysing the collected data for

answering the research question. In this stage, the proposed conceptual framework is

tested and validated using SEM. In the seventh stage, the research findings are

interpreted for adequately answering the research question.

Introduction 2019


Formulating the research objectives and

questions

Reviewing the related literature

Developing a conceptual framework

Developing a survey instrument

Collecting survey data

Analysing survey data

Answering the research question

Figure 1.1 An Overview of the Research Process

1.5 Structure of the Thesis

This thesis consists of seven chapters as shown in Figure 1.2. Chapter one provides

an introduction that focuses on the research background and the motivation for the

research. It discusses the research objectives and the research questions and elaborates

the research methodology that this study adopts. This paves the way for the

presentation of the whole thesis.

Introduction 2019


Introduction

(Chapter 1)

Literature review

(Chapter 2)

A conceptual framework

(Chapter3)

Research methodology

(Chapter 4)

Emerging trends and patterns

(Chapter 5)

Conclusion

(Chapter 7)

Critical factors

(Chapter 6)

Figure 1.2 An Overview of the Thesis

Chapter two reviews the literature related to the development of e-government and

the adoption of e-government from different perspectives. Existing studies on the

adoption of e-government are critically examined. The issues and concerns in these e-

government adoption studies have been discussed. This helps to justify the need for

this study.

Introduction 2019


Chapter three develops a conceptual framework for investigating the critical factors

for the adoption of e-government from the perspective of citizens in Saudi Arabia.

Such a conceptual framework serves as a foundation for developing specific

hypotheses to adequately answer the research question. It paves the way for the

development of the research instrument to test and validate the proposed conceptual

framework.

Chapter four explains the research design that this study follows. It outlines different

research paradigms and methodologies available for better understanding the rationale

that this study follows in selecting an appropriate research methodology. Further, the

chapter discusses the development of the research instrument and describes the process

of data collection and the implementation of data analysis to facilitate the presentation

of the research findings in later chapters.

Chapter five presents the results of the survey with respect to the current patterns and

trends of the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. With the use of a systematic

analysis of the survey results, emerging trends and patterns of the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia are identified and specific observations have been made

with respect to the use of e-government in Saudi Arabia from various perspectives.

Chapter six describes the research findings regarding the critical factors for the

adoption of e-government from the perspective of citizens in Saudi Arabia. It first

discusses the process that this study follows in analysing the collected survey data

Introduction 2019


using SEM to test and validate the proposed conceptual framework. A confirmatory

factor analysis (CFA) is then conducted on the survey data collected. This leads to the

identification of the critical factors for the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of citizens in Saudi Arabia.

Chapter seven presents the conclusion for this research. It revisits the research

question to ensure that it is adequately answered. This chapter provides a summary of

the research findings and the contribution of this research to the e-government domain.

Further, the limitations of the research and suggestions for further research as an

extension of the current study are elaborated.

Literature Review 2019


Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

E-government has been increasingly developed across the world (Alkalbani et al.

2017; Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Deng 2008; Deng et al. 2018; Karunasena & Deng

2012b; Sabani et al. 2019). This is exemplified by the implementation of numerous e-

government initiatives in all 193 United Nations member countries for improving the

delivery of public services (UN 2018). The rapid development of e-government is due

to the ability of e-government for delivering numerous benefits to various stakeholders

including citizens such as improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public

organisations, enhancing the delivery of quality public services, facilitating the

interaction between public organisations and stakeholders, encouraging the

participation of citizens in public administration, enhancing the responsiveness of

public organisations, and improving the transparency of public decision making (Basu

2004; Deng et al. 2018; Holden et al. 2003; Karunasena & Deng 2012b; Reddick

2011).

With the rapid development of e-government across the world, numerous studies have

been conducted for understanding the adoption of e-government from several



perspectives. A review of existing studies shows that there are two perspectives

including developed countries (Akkaya et al. 2013; Horst et al. 2007; Rallis et al. 2018;

Schmidthuber et al. 2017; Shareef et al. 2011; Yao & Murphy 2007) and developing

countries (Baabdullah et al. 2016; Boon et al. 2015; Munyoka & Maharaj 2019; Phang

et al. 2006; Rana & Dwivedi 2015; Sharma 2015) that have been considered in

exploring the adoption of e-government. This has led to various research findings

under different circumstances for better understanding the adoption of e-government

in different contexts.

Following the world trend, the Saudi government has introduced several initiatives for

developing e-government (Almukhlifi et al. 2019). These initiatives include the

introduction of mobile government, open data portal, public electronic recruitment and

electronic procurement (Almukhlifi et al. 2018, 2019b). Despite these efforts, the

overall development of e-government in Saudi Arabia is still not very satisfactory. This

is exemplified by a recent e-government survey by the United Nations (UN 2018) that

shows that Saudi Arabia is ranked at the 52nd place in 2018. This is eight places down

from the previous position in the 2016 survey (UN 2016). Further, the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia is not encouraging (Albesher & Brooks 2014; Alharbi et

al. 2016). This shows that there is a need for better understanding the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia; in particular, from the perspective of citizens.

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of the related literature with respect to

the development of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Existing studies on the adoption of



e-government are critically examined. The issues and concerns in these e-government

adoption studies have been deliberated. This justifies the need for conducting this

research and leads for the development of a conceptual framework to investigate the

critical factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

In what follows, an overview of the related literature on the development of e-

government is first discussed. This is followed by a description of the development of

e-government in Saudi Arabia. The related literature on the adoption of e-government

is then comprehensibly reviewed, with a specific focus on the critical factors for the

adoption of e-government in the context of developing countries from the perspective

of citizens.

2.2 An Overview of E-Government

E-government is a broad concept that can be approached from different perspectives.

Heeks (2003), for example, defines e-government as the use of ICT for enhancing the

work processes of public organisations. Akman et al. (2005) consider e-government as

the use of ICT by public organisations to improve the delivery of public services.

Ebrahim and Irani (2005) state that e-government refers to the use of ICT to facilitate

the access of citizens to public services. These studies show the multi-perspective

nature of e-government under various circumstances. In this study, e-government

concerns the use of ICT for improving the delivery of public services in public

organisations (Bertot et al. 2012; Deng 2008; Fang 2002; Sabani et al. 2019).



E-government can be classified into government to citizens (G2C), government to

government (G2G), and government to business (G2B) (Carter & Bélanger 2005;

Ndou 2004; Norris & Reddick 2013). G2C facilitates the interaction between public

organisations and citizens in an electronic manner (Evans & Yen 2006). It allows

citizens to interact with public organisations from anywhere at any time (Turban et al.

2015). G2C covers all kinds of interactions between public organisations and citizens

that can take place in an electronic environment. Citizens, for example, can renew

passports, pay fines and taxes, and renew driving licenses through the use of e-

government (Ramaswamy & Selian 2007). Public organisations can provide citizens

with public information and services electronically (Ndou 2004).

G2G is related to the use of ICT for improving the communication between public

organisations (Ndou 2004). In this form of e-government, communication occurs

internally within the public organisation or externally with other public organisations.

This interaction facilitates seamless information sharing of public information and

services between and among public organisations (Al Nagi & Hamdan 2009). G2G

can ensure the consistency and accuracy of public information due to the efficient

collaboration between public organisations (Sharifi & Zarei 2004). Sharing the same

databases between public organisations can lead to better informed public decisions

(Zheng et al. 2013). The ‘GeBIZ enterprise’ in Singapore, for example, is a case of

G2G in which public organisations coordinate government purchasing needs such as

initiating procurement tendering, requesting purchase proposals and obtaining the

required approval for public funded projects (Lee et al. 2005; Sharma 2007).



G2B is about the application of ICT for facilitating the electronic interactions between

public organisations and private counterparts (Fang 2002; Ndou 2004). In this form of

e-government, public organisations engage in interactions with private organisations

to carry out different transactions electronically (Fang 2002). G2B aims to enhance the

relationship between public organisations and businesses by improving the

connectivity between the two sides (Lee et al. 2005).

With the use of this type of e-government, many activities can be carried out smoothly

between public organisations and businesses such as procurement, business licensing,

tax return and other services (Zhou 2004). The Australian Government’s Principal

Business Resource portal, for example, is a case of this form of e-government

(Shambour & Lu 2011). Such a G2B portal provides businesses with a set of specific

public information and services that encourage businesses to comply with the

requirements of public organisations (Shambour & Lu 2011).

The development of e-government consists of four stages including publication

(Alkalbani et al. 2014; Karunasena et al. 2013; Moon 2002), interaction (Basu 2004),

transaction (Akman et al. 2005), and integration (Chandler & Emanuels 2002). The

publication stage of e-government focuses on providing the public with basic

information related to the delivery of public services on e-government websites (Moon

2002). It is the earliest stage of e-government, in which simple information about

public organisations is presented online (Al-Adawi et al. 2005; Reddick 2004). Such

information often includes operation hours, contact information and lists of public



services offered by public organisations. In this stage, two-way interactions between

citizens and public organisations are usually lacking (Basu 2004).

With the rapid development of ICT, there is an increasing focus on improving

communication between the stakeholders of e-government (Karunasena et al. 2013).

This leads to the development of e-government in the interaction stage in which the

exchange of public information between citizens, public organisations and private

organisations is actively pursued and simple public services can be requested

electronically (Basu 2004). Such a stage of e-government development focuses on

improving the interaction between public organisations and their stakeholders to

facilitate the availability of public information and services through e-government.

This interaction often involves providing e-government stakeholders with guidelines

for requesting public services, filling in interactive forms for public services, making

appointments, presenting contact information or responding to simple inquiries of

citizens and businesses regarding specific public services (Chandler & Emanuels

2002).

The transaction stage concentrates on enabling citizens to carry out various

transactions through the use of e-government (Akman et al. 2005). Such a stage of e-

government development focuses on the establishment of unlimited two-way

interactions between e-government stakeholders including citizens and public

organisations (Irani et al. 2006). Citizens begin to take an active role in their

consumption of e-government services (Beynon-Davies 2007). Citizens, for example,



can engage with the entire public service through the use of e-government such as

renewing visas, paying bills and obtaining passports (Irani et al. 2006; Siau & Long

2005). The development of e-government at this stage focuses on improving the

efficiency and effectiveness of public organisations in the delivery of public services.

It helps citizens to request public services in a convenient and effective manner (Irani

et al. 2006; Reddick 2004).

The integration stage of e-government development focuses on providing citizens with

integrated public services through e-government (Baum & DiMaio 2000). It is usually

related to the adoption of a single point of contact for the delivery of various kinds of

public services through e-government (Al-Adawi et al. 2005; Irani et al. 2006). The

adoption of a single point of contact facilitates the flow of public information across

different public organisations (Irani et al. 2006). This leads to a seamless integration

of the delivery of public services through e-government for improving the public value

of e-government (Karunasena & Deng 2012b) and enhancing the transparency of

public decision making (Grimmelikhuijsen 2010). Figure 2.1 presents an overview of

the e-government development stages.



Publication

Interaction

Transaction

Integration

Time

Mat

uri

ty

Figure 2.1 An Overview of E-Government Development

There are numerous benefits arise from the development of e-government (Basu 2004;

Deng et al. 2018; Holden et al. 2003; Karunasena & Deng 2012b; Reddick 2011). The

development of e-government, for example, facilitates the interaction between public

organisations and the public (Wong & Welch 2004). It encourages the participation of

citizens in public decision making (Akman et al. 2005; Fang 2002). The development

of e-government enhances the delivery of public services (Deng 2008; Fang 2002;

Reddick 2005). It improves the efficiency and effectiveness of public organisations

(Basu 2004; Holden et al. 2003). Further, the development of e-government facilitates

access to public services and information (Akman et al. 2005; Fang 2002), thereby

improving the transparency of public decision making (Bertot et al. 2012; Tolbert &

Mossberger 2006). As a result, many governments across the world have launched



numerous e-government initiatives to actively pursue the development of e-

government (Alkalbani et al. 2015; Almukhlifi et al. 2019b; Karunasena & Deng

2012a; Sabani et al. 2019).

The development of e-government is complex and challenging (Dwivedi et al. 2012;

Heeks 2003; Ndou 2004). Such complexity and challenges in the development of e-

government come from various perspectives including (a) the organisational

perspective, (b) the technological perspective, (c) the financial perspective, and (d) the

social perspective (Alshehri & Drew 2010; Alshehri & Drew 2011; Furuholt & Wahid

2008; Nkohkwo & Islam 2013; Waller & Genius 2015). Better understanding such

complexity and challenges has a fundamental impact on the development of e-

government across the world (Almarabeh & AbuAli 2010; Basu 2004; Ndou 2004).

As a result, how to adequately address such complexity and challenges is becoming

critical for the effective development of e-government in individual countries (Chen

et al. 2007). Table 2.1 presents a summary of the challenges that affect the

development of e-government.



Table 2.1 A Summary of the Challenges to E-Government Development

Perspectives Main challenges References

Organisational

perspective

• Lack of top management support

• Lack of transparency in public decision making

• Shortage of skilled human resources

Al-Busaidy (2010), Maier

and Reimer (2010), Zheng

et al. (2013), Otniel

(2015), Althonayan and

Althonayan (2017)

Technological

perspective

• Presence of inadequate ICT infrastructure

• Existence of security and privacy concerns

• Poor accessibility

Asogwa (2013), Abu-

Doush et al. (2013), Al-

Shboul et al. (2014), Serra

et al. (2015), Siddiquee

(2016)

Financial

perspective

• Insufficient financial resources

• High cost of ICTs

West (2003), Alshehri and

Drew (2011), Mittal and

Kaur (2013), Waller and

Genius (2015), Bataineh

and Abu-Shanab (2016)

Social

perspective

• Uniqueness of a specific culture

• Resistance to change

Al-Naimat et al. (2013),

Al-Shboul et al. (2014),

Alomari et al. (2014),

Organisational challenges in the development of e-government relate to specific

internal factors in public organisations that inhibit the implementation of e-

government initiatives in various circumstances (Aichholzer & Schmutzer 2000). The

development of e-government requires the reorganisation of business processes in

public organisations for improving the delivery of public services. Such process

reorganisation often involves a change of organisational structure for reengineering

the internal operations processes in public organisations to eliminate redundant

processes in the delivery of public services (Fountain 2004). It provides public

organisations with the flexibility that they require to better manage the delivery of

public services electronically under specific circumstances (Al-Sebie & Irani 2005).

As a result, the potential of e-government development can be fully utilised

(Aichholzer & Schmutzer 2000).



There are numerous studies that have explored the organisational challenges in the

development of e-government under various circumstances (Althonayan 2017; Maier

& Reimer 2010; Zheng et al. 2013). Althonayan and Althonayan (2017), for example,

report that lack of top management support in public organisations is critical for the

development of e-government. Zheng et al. (2013) show that top management support

is substantial for the development of e-government in dealing with potential resistance

as well as ensuring interorganisational communication. Otniel (2015) argues that the

absence of transparency in public decision making hinders the efforts towards

successful implementation of e-government. Maier and Reimer (2010) find that the

transparency of public decision making in public organisations is necessary for

successful e-government development due to the requirements and expectations of

stakeholders to understand the rationale for public decisions that have been taken. Al-

Busaidy (2010) further indicates that lack of skilled human resources often leads to

failure of e-government implementation.

Technological challenges are about the availability of specific technologies and their

characteristics that affect the development of e-government under specific

circumstances (Weerakkody et al. 2011). The development of e-government requires

the adoption of various technologies with respect to the requirements and expectations

of various stakeholders in a given situation (Nkohkwo & Islam 2013). In evaluating

the use of such technologies for developing e-government, there is an increasing need

to adequately consider the characteristics of individual countries and the compatibility

of such technologies with existing infrastructure in specific situations. Thus, various



critical factors from the technological perspective must be considered in the

development of e-government.

There are several studies that have examined the technological challenges in the

development of e-government (Abu-Doush et al. 2013; Al-Shboul et al. 2014; Asogwa

2013; Serra et al. 2015; Siddiquee 2016). Asogwa (2013), for instance, points out that

the success of e-government development is threatened by the existence of inadequate

ICT infrastructure. Siddiquee (2016) indicates that ICT hardware and software should

conform with the requirements of e-government development to adequately reduce

technological challenges. Serra et al. (2015) report that poor accessibility is a major

deterrent to e-government use because of its influence on the citizens who are least

equipped to use e-government. Abu-Doush et al. (2013) show that accessibility

challenges make it difficult for e-government stakeholders including citizens to utilise

e-government in an effective and efficient manner. Asogwa (2013) finds that the

existence of the security and privacy concerns presents a challenge to the development

of e-government. Al-Shboul et al. (2014) state that citizens need a guarantee of security

and privacy, so that information provided through e-government is not misused in their

adoption of e-government.

Financial challenges are related to the availability of financial resources for the

development of e-government under specific situations (West 2003). In the

development of e-government, tremendous financial resources are required. The

availability of such financial resources is a significant challenge to the development of



e-government across the world (Moon 2002). This is particularly true in the context of

developing countries in which financial resources are always limited. Overall, the

financial challenges to e-government development is critical due to the fact that the

political influence may interfere with public decisions taken by senior officials when

it comes to providing the required financial support (Eyob 2004).

The impact of financial challenges on the development of e-government has been

widely discussed in existing literature (Alshehri & Drew 2010; Bataineh & Abu-

Shanab 2016; Mittal & Kaur 2013; Waller & Genius 2015; West 2003). Alshehri and

Drew (2011), for example, find that the financial support from government is critical

for the development of e-government. Mittal and Kaur (2013) show that the success

of e-government development is very much dependent on the availability of financial

resources. West (2003) reveals that the availability of public services online in several

countries is limited because of a lack of budgetary resources. Bataineh and Abu-

Shanab (2016) assert that the high cost of ICT equipment often leads to slow progress

of e-government development. Waller and Genius (2015) find that public

organisations in some countries take many years to acquire the ICT equipment

necessary for the development of their e-government programs.

Social challenges concern the specific issues that are unique to a society and affect the

development of e-government (Waller & Genius 2015). A major reason behind the

failure of many e‐government initiatives in several countries is inappropriate handling

of the social challenges that arise from the uniqueness of a specific society (Heeks



2003). This is because these countries do not adequately consider the social challenges

when developing e-government program. There may be, for example, a negative

perception of the delivery of public services through e-government under specific

circumstances because of a lack of awareness of e-government potential (Hassan et al.

2008). Such a negative perception would directly affect the use of public services

online, therefore hindering the development of e-government.

There are several studies that have investigated social challenges in the development

of e-government under various circumstances (Al-Naimat et al. 2013; Al-Shboul et al.

2014; Alomari et al. 2014). Al-Shboul et al. (2014), for example, argue that the culture

of a certain society is critical to the development of e-government. Alomari et al.

(2014) show that some cultural aspects, such as religion and tradition, are considered

as barriers to e-government development. Al-Naimat et al. (2013) indicate that the

resistance to change is one of the main challenges that needs be considered when a

country develops its e-government program. Alomari et al. (2014) argue that the desire

of citizens to maintain traditional processes in requesting public services hinders the

success of e-government development.

2.3 E-Government Development in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Arabian Peninsula. It has a land area of

approximately 2,150,000 square kilometres (UNDP 2012). A large percentage of

Saudi Arabia is occupied by deserts and mountains (Yamin & Mattar 2016). According



to the General Authority for Statistics in Saudi Arabia (GAS 2018), Saudi Arabia has

a total population of 33,413,660. They live in more than 150 cities and 2,000 rural

villages separated by great distances (Alqahtani et al. 2017). Such characteristics make

the delivery of public services to citizens very challenging (Alqahtani et al. 2017;

Yamin & Mattar 2016). This arises the need for the adoption of the latest technologies

including ICT to meet the increasing requirements and expectations of citizens for the

delivery of public services in the country.

The Saudi government has recognised the potential of utilising the latest technologies

to improve the delivery of public services across the country. This is demonstrated by

various strategies, policies and initiatives that the Saudi government has adopted over

the years. The Saudi government, for example, introduced the internet in public

organisations in 1994 (Aleid 2011). It developed specific strategies and policies to

allow citizens to access the internet in 1999 (Simsim 2011). With the recognition of

the rapid growth in the use of the internet in Saudi Arabia, the government established

the Communications and Information Technology Commission (CITC) in 2003 to

regulate the use of ICT in Saudi Arabia (CITC 2019). One of the main tasks of CITC

is to coordinate with public organisations in Saudi Arabia to facilitate the development

of e-government (CITC 2003).

A national strategy was developed by the Saudi government via a royal decree in 2003

for the development of e-government as a part of the information technology plan

(Alshehry et al. 2006). In this strategy, the Ministry of Finance and CITC were



assigned to initiate e-government programs by working with relevant public

organisations (Yesser 2006). This leads to the implementation of the ‘Yesser’

programme in 2005 (Alhussain & Drew 2010). The objectives of this programme are

to (a) increase the effectiveness and efficiency of public organisations, (b) improve the

delivery of public services, (c) increase the return on investment in e-government, and

(d) provide citizens and businesses with the required information and services with

accuracy in a timely manner (Yesser 2005).

There are two action plans in the Yesser programme for the development of e-

government (Alateyah et al. 2013). The first action plan took place over 2006–2010.

This plan aims primarily to provide stakeholders with better public services, improve

the efficiency and effectiveness of public organisations, and contribute to the

prosperity of the country (Yesser 2006). The vision of e-government development in

this plan (Yesser 2006) states that ‘By the end of 2010, everyone in the Kingdom will

be able to enjoy – from anywhere and at any time – world-class government services

offered in a seamless, user-friendly and secure way by utilising a variety of electronic

means’.

An overall framework for the development of e-government with the implementation

of the first action plan was developed (Al-Mushayt et al. 2012). It covers five

components including (a) vision and objectives, (b) e-services, (c) national

applications, (d) infrastructure, and (e) organisations (Yesser 2006). The focus of the

first component is to define a long-term vision for e-government and decide



measurable objectives for guiding the development of e-government (Yesser 2006).

The focus of the e-services component is about the delivery of improved e-services to

various stakeholders (Yesser 2006). National applications aims to improve the

efficiency and effectiveness of public organisations through the introduction of major

initiatives (Yesser 2006). The infrastructure component focuses on developing a

reliable ICT infrastructure to enable the development of e-services and e-government

initiatives as well as improve communication between public organisations (Yesser

2006). The focus of organisation component is to develop an appropriate governance

model, allocate the required funds and address change management issues (Yesser

2006).

The second action plan was formulated in 2012. The objectives of this plan are to

develop sustainable human resources for e-government, improve the interaction

between public organisations and their stakeholders, build an environment of

innovation and cooperation in society, and improve the effectiveness and efficiency of

public organisations (Yesser 2012). The vision of e-government development in this

plan (Yesser 2012) states that ‘enabling everyone to use effective government services,

in a secure integrated and easy way, through multiple electronic channels’ is the

ultimate goal of the development of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

The overall framework of e-government in the second action plan covers six work

streams including (a) human capital, communications and change management, (b) e-

services, (c) national shared applications, (d) infrastructure, (e) an institutional



framework, and (f) electronic participation (Yesser 2012). The main difference

between the two action plans is the introduction of electronic participation as a work

stream in the second action plan. This is aligned with the increasing global trend of

encouraging citizens to participate in the process of public decision making through

the use of e-government (Alharbi et al. 2016). Such participation requires the

development of transparency of public information through e-government

development.

Each work stream in the second action plan has its own intended focus. The work

stream of human capital, communications and change management ensures the

availability of leadership, communication and human resources needed for achieving

the second action plan (Yesser 2012). E-services focuses on improving the availability,

maturity and utilisation of online public services (Yesser 2012). The work stream of

national shared applications concerns the development of standardised initiatives for

all public organisations such as national databases and electronic procurement (Yesser

2012). In this works stream, a plan for implementation of national shared systems is

developed and managed by relevant public organisations. Infrastructure aims to

strength ICT infrastructure (Yesser 2012). The work stream of an institutional

framework focuses on maintaining the leadership and organisational role of the Yesser

programme, governance and funding as well as improving regulations related to e-

government development (Yesser 2012). It ensures that the required laws and

regulations are in place to realise the second action plan. Electronic participation

concerns supporting citizen participation in public decision making through the use of

e-government (Yesser 2012).



Each one of the work streams above includes several initiatives such as mobile

government, open data portal and electronic procurement (Almukhlifi et al. 2018;

Saleem et al. 2013). The mobile government initiative, for example, is developed under

the infrastructure work stream. It focuses on the delivery of e-government services

through mobile devices (Alrowili et al. 2015). The motivation behind this initiative is

the rapid adoption of mobile devices in Saudi Arabia, the continuous development of

telecommunication technologies and the increasing demand to improve the delivery of

public services (Alhussain & Drew 2010; Alrowili et al. 2015).

The open data portal initiative is developed under the work stream of electronic

participation. It concentrates on the availability and accessibility of government

information to the public (Saxena 2018). The motivation behind the initiative is the

desire of the government to improve the transparency of public decision making and

encourage the participation of citizens in public decision making (Yesser 2015). The

implementation of this initiative has led various public organisations to provide

citizens with access to relevant information (Al-Khalifa 2013).

An electronic procurement initiative is developed under the national shared

applications work stream. It is an online purchase platform that helps public

organisations to publish their tendering opportunities through the use of e-government.

The development of electronic procurement in Saudi Arabia aims to (a) standardise all

public procurement processes through the provision of a single point of contact, (b)

improve the efficiency of public procurement, (c) increase the transparency of public



decision making to contribute to anti-corruption, and (d) enhance collaboration,

communication, participation and exchange of relevant data and information between

public organisations and suppliers (Etimad 2019).

The Saudi government has invested intensively in e-government programs to provide

citizens with required public services (Alghamdi & Beloff 2016; Alharbi et al. 2016;

Almukhlifi et al. 2019a, 2019b). Several public organisations have provided their

public services online to pursue the benefits of e-government (Al-Sanea & Al-Daraiseh

2015). Despite these efforts, the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia is not

encouraging (Albesher & Brooks 2014; Alharbi et al. 2016). This is demonstrated by

the fact that only about 41.4% of Saudi citizens use e-government to some degree

(Alghamdi 2016). This shows there is a need to investigate the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens.

2.4 E-Government Adoption Studies

The rapid development of e-government has created an urgent need to understand to

what extent e-government is adopted under various circumstances (Alkalbani et al.

2017; Sabani et al. 2018, 2019). This leads to the investigation of the critical factors

for the adoption of e-government from different perspectives (Dwivedi et al. 2017;

Hossan & Ryan 2018; Persaud & Persaud 2013; Rana et al. 2017a; Schmidthuber et

al. 2017; Van et al. 2018; Wanyembi et al. 2018; Yun & Opheim 2010). Numerous

studies have been conducted to better understand the critical factors for the adoption



of e-government from different perspectives. Such studies can be classified into two

different contexts including the developed countries and developing countries (Deng

et al. 2018).

The uniqueness of the developed countries attracts much attention in e-government

research with respect to the adoption of e-government under various circumstances

(Chen et al. 2007; Lee et al. 2005; Nawafleh 2018). Such uniqueness of the developed

countries is usually reflected in various perspectives. The developed countries, for

example, are often well-established economies. They usually have a long history of

democracy. The ICT infrastructure in the developed countries is usually adequate for

developing e-government. Living standards in these countries are usually high.

Further, there are qualified human resources to carry out various tasks through the

provision of adequate professional training. The high accessibility of the internet in

developed countries improves the delivery of public services through the development

of e-government (Chen et al. 2007; Nawafleh 2018). Such characteristics make

developed countries leaders in the development of e-government (Lee et al. 2005).

Figure 2.2 presents an overview of the characteristics of developed countries with

respect to the development of e-government.



Characteristics of

developed

countries Long history of

democracy

High living

standards

An adequate ICTs

infrastructure

Qualified human

resources

Developed

economic growth

An adequate

professional

training

High accessibility

to the Internet

Figure 2.2 An Overview of the Characteristics of Developed Countries

There are numerous studies that have been done for better understanding the adoption

of e-government in the context of developed countries. These studies have usually

been carried out from three perspectives including the supply side, the technology side,

and the demand side of e-government. The supply side e-government research

concerns the exploration of the critical factors that are related to the organisational

aspects in the development of e-government. Existing studies in this perspective focus

on examining regulatory requirements, public policies, organisational resources, and

organisational strategies for improving the adoption of e-government.



There are many studies that have been conducted from the supply side in examining

the adoption of e-government under various circumstances. Jans et al. (2016), for

example, explore the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in Dutch

municipalities. This study analyses a total of 429 municipalities in the Netherlands by

examining the timing of e-government adoption. It shows that political alignment, past

performance, and policy network resources directly influence the development of e-

government from the perspective of public organisations.

Husin et al. (2016) adopt a mixed-methods approach for understanding the adoption

of e-government in Australia. The data is collected from a total of 166 participants

using a survey instrument. A total of 19 participants have taken place in the study using

semi-structured interviews. The results show that public organisation policies and top

management understanding are critical for the adoption of e-government.

Hossain and Chan (2015) investigate the critical factors for the adoption of open

government data in public organisations in Australia. This study adopts a qualitative

methodology to better understand the adoption of open government data in public

organisations. Semi-structured interviews have been adopted for collecting the

required data from different public organisations. The collected data is analysed using

the content analysis technique (An et al. 2013; Sahu et al. 2018). The study reveals

that political leadership, institutional pressures, management commitment, skilled

human resources, and financial resources are the organisational factors that influence

the adoption of open government data in public organisations in Australia.



Technology-side e-government adoption research explores the characteristics of the

available technologies and the ICT infrastructure for the development of e-

government. Such research focuses on examining the readiness of the relevant ICT

infrastructure for the development e-government. It invesitigates the characteristics of

specific technologies and their applicability in the development of e-government.

Barnes and Vidgen (2006), for example, examine the influence of e-government

quality characteristics on the use of e-government in the United Kingdom. A mixed-

methods approach has been adopted to explore the use of e-government from the

perspective of technologies. The data is collected from 420 participants for the

quantitative approach and 273 for the qualitative approach. Using data triangulation,

this study reveals that service interaction, usability, and information quality are critical

for the use of e-government in the United Kingdom.

Yao and Murphy (2007) explore the critical factors that influence the adoption of the

electronic voting system in the United States. The technology acceptance model (Davis

1989) is employed for better understanding the adoption of the electronic voting

system. The data is collected from a total of 453 citizens using a survey instrument.

The collected data is analysed using SEM. This study reveals that system mobility,

system privacy, and system accuracy are the critical factors for the adoption of the

electronic voting system.



Persaud and Persaud (2013) investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government in Canada. This study uses multiple regression analysis to analyse a total

of 437 responses. The results show that the content of public organisation websites,

personalisation, accessibility, and friendliness of website design are the critical factors

for the adoption of e-government in Canada.

Demand-side e-government adoption research concerns the critical factors that are

related to e-government users. It focusses on assessing various requirements,

perceptions, expectations and needs of individual citizens in their adoption of e-

government (Deng et al. 2018). Horst et al. (2007), for example, examine the critical

factors that influence the adoption of e-government in the Netherlands. The technology

acceptance model (Davis 1989) is used to explore the perceptions of citizens on the

adoption of e-government. The data is collected from a total of 238 participants using

a survey instrument. The collected data is analysed using SEM. The results indicate

that perceived usefulness, perceived risk, personal experience, perceived behavioural

control, subjective norm, and trust in e-government are the critical factors for the


Schaupp and Carter (2010) develop a model to explore the critical factors in the

adoption of e-filing in the United States. A survey instrument is used for collecting

data from 239 participants. The data is analysed using SEM. The results show that trust

in the internet, trust in the system, perceived risk, and optimism bias are the critical

factors that influence the adoption of e-filing in the United States.



Carter et al. (2016) propose a combined model based on the technology acceptance

model (Davis 1989) to explore the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in

the United States and the United Kingdom. A total of 105 surveys are collected from

the United States and 140 surveys are collected from the United Kingdom. The data is

analysed using SEM. The results reveal that disposition to trust, perceived ease of use,

perceived usefulness, and trust in the internet are the critical factors for the adoption

of e-government in the United States and the United Kingdom. Table 2.2 presents an

overview of e-government adoption studies in the context of developed countries.

Table 2.2 An Overview E-Government Studies in Developed Countries

Perspectives Factors References

Supply Side

• Managerial innovation-

orientation

• Policy authority

• State government size

• Management capacity

• Public organisations

collaboration

• Institutional power

• Participation in

professional networks

• Management

commitment

• Organisational

preparedness

• Staff constraints

• Work routineness

• Organisational

centralisation

• Political alignment

• Past performance

• Policy network

resources

• Top management

understanding

• Political leadership

• Institutional pressure

• Financial resources

• Leadership support

• Skilled human

resources

• Moon (2005)

• Moon and Norris

(2005)

• Niehaves (2007)

• Reddick (2009)

• Ferro and Sorrentino

(2010)

• Yun and Opheim

(2010)

• Li and Feeney (2014)

• Jans et al. (2016)

• Husin et al. (2016)

• Hossain and Chan

(2015)

• Hossan and Ryan

(2018)

Technology

Side

• Digital divide

• System mobility

• Privacy and accuracy

• Reliability

• Responsiveness

• Assurance

• Barnes and Vidgen

(2006)



• Service quality

• Website content

• Personalisation

• Tangibles

• Empathy

• Friendliness of

website design

• Accessibility

• Yao and Murphy

(2007)

• Carlos and Macedo

(2008)

• Sipior et al. (2011)

• Persaud and Persaud

(2013)

Demand Side

• Perceived ease of use

• Perceived usefulness

• Perceived risk

• Subjective norm

• Trust in e-government

• Trust in the internet

• Trust in government

• Disposition to trust

• Performance expectancy

• Effort expectancy

• Transition costs

• Regret aversion

• Loss aversion

• Inertia and habit

• Switching costs

• Computer self-efficacy

• Motivation

• Perceived

behavioural control

• Gender and age

• Positive

disconfirmation

• Satisfaction

• Personal experience

• Need for personal

interaction

• Channel choice

preference

• Knowledge

• Social influence

• Facilitating

conditions

• Optimism bias

• Carter and Bélanger

(2005)

• Horst et al. (2007)

• Bélanger and Carter

(2008)

• Van et al. (2008)

• Schaupp et al. (2009)

• Schaupp and Carter

(2010)

• Piehler et al. (2016)

• Carter et al. (2016)

• Schmidthuber et al.

(2017)

• Rey and Medina

(2017)

There are many differences between developed and developing countries (Chen et al.

2007). There is, for example, usually a presence of inadequate ICT infrastructure for

the development of e-government in developing countries (Alkalbani et al. 2016). The

lack of relevant strategies and public policies in these countries is critical for the

development of e-government (Chen et al. 2007; Ndou 2004). Further, there is often a

shortage of qualified human resources in developing countries for the development of

e-government (Chen et al. 2007). The uniqueness of individual cultures in these

developing countries makes the process of e-government development more complex



and challenging (Alshehri & Drew 2010). Figure 2.3 presents an overview of the

characteristics of developing countries with respect to the development of e-

government.

Characteristics of

developing

countries

Lack of

transparent public

decision-making

Shortage of

qualified human

resources

Unique cultural

background

Lack of specific

strategies and

public policies

Inadequate ICT

infrastructure

Figure 2.3 An Overview of the Characteristics of Developing Countries

The presence of inadequate ICT infrastructure is challenging for the development of

e-government in developing countries (Ndou 2004). Much research has been done to

show that improving the ICT infrastructure such as telecommunications networks,

servers and databases systems is imperative for the development of e-government in

developing countries (Alshehri & Drew 2010; Basu 2004). The establishment of

adequate infrastructure is a prerequisite for the development of e-government with



respect to the delivery of public services through e-government (Chen et al. 2007).

This improves citizens’ access to e-government services (Alshehri & Drew 2010). It

enables public organisations to interact with citizens seamlessly through e-

government. This shows that establishing adequate infrastructure is a high priority in

the development of e-government in developing countries.

The lack of specific strategies and policies that regulate the use of e-government

increases the challenges in the development of e-government (Ndou 2004). E-

government development requires appropriate strategies and policies to regulate

electronic activities such as electronic payment, electronic mail usage, data protection

and electronic crime cases (Alshehri & Drew 2010). The availability and the

effectiveness of such strategies and policies help to develop e-government

successfully. Many developing countries, however, do not have such strategies and

policies in place (Ndou 2004). The absence of such strategies and policies can

decelerate the development of e-government in various circumstances (Lam 2005).

A shortage of qualified human resources hinders the development of e-government in

developing countries (Chen et al. 2007; Ndou 2004). E-government development

requires highly qualified ICT staff who possess related skills and experience (Al Nagi

& Hamdan 2009). Many developing countries suffer from a chronic lack of qualified

ICT staff because of inadequate opportunities for education and training related to e-

government development (Ndou 2004). The shortage of such human resources brings

up many issues in the design, installation, and maintenance of e-government services.



The unique cultural background of individual countries is challenging for the

development of e-government (Alshehri & Drew 2010). Culture is a set of customs,

traditions, and values of a specific society (Groenfeldt 2003). The attitudes of

individual citizens grounded in a specific cultural background should be considered

when a country develops its e-government (Alshehri & Drew 2010; Li 2003). This is

due to the fact that e-government concerns the interaction between citizens and public

organisations. In Saudi Arabia, for example, the triple system and traditional form of

culture affects all aspects of the Saudi society (Amukhlifi et al. 2019a). Better

understanding the uniqueness of a specific culture is critical for the development of e-

government in developing countries (Elsheikh et al. 2008).

The lack of transparent public decision making in public organisations increases the

challenges for developing e-government in developing countries (Bhuiyan 2010;

Nkohkwo & Islam 2013). Citizens often do not understand how a public decision is

made in public organisations (Almarabeh & AbuAli 2010). This is due to the absence

of public information and procedures that show the rationale behind decision making.

Such absence of transparency in public decision making, therefore, would threat the

success of e-government projects (Bhuiyan 2010). Bidding for public tenders, for

example, is provided through e-government without transparent requirements and

clear criteria in several developing countries (Ciborra & Navarra 2005). This raises

citizen questions regarding how the development of e-government is meant to reduce

corruption and improve the transparency of public decision making. As a result, it is

critical to consider such characteristics above for better understanding the adoption of

e-government in developing countries.



There are several e-government adoption studies that consider the perspective of the

supply side in the context of developing countries. Tung and Rieck (2005), for

example, explore the critical factors that influence the adoption of e-government

among private organisations in Singapore. This study develops a theoretical model

based on the innovation diffusion theory (Rogers 1983) for understanding the adoption

of e-government in private organisations. The data ia collected through the use of a

survey instrument. A total of 128 responses are received. The collected data is then

analysed using SEM. The result reveal that management readiness, sensitivity to cost,

and external pressures are the critical factors for the adoption of e-government.

Weerakkody et al. (2011) examine the critical factors for the adoption of e-government

in Qatar. This study interviews eight participants using semi‐structured interviews.

The interviews data is analysed through the use of the content analysis technique (An

et al. 2013; Sahu et al. 2018). The results show that organisational structure, power

distribution, government support, government funding, leadership, regulations,

strategy alignment, prioritisation of deliverables, future needs of the organisation,

organisational culture, training and education, and citizen-centric focus are the critical

factors for the adoption of e-government.

Liang and Qi (2017) investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-government

cloud in China. The data is collected from 21 participants. Secondary data sources and

observations are also used in this study. The results reveal that top management

support, organisation inertia, financial commitment support, public policies and

https://www-inderscienceonline-com.ezproxy.lib.rmit.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1504/IJNVO.2017.085527




standards, and following successful cases are the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government cloud in China.

Several studies have discussed the importance of technological factors on the adoption

of e-government in developing countries. Kaisara and Pather (2009), for example,

examine the influence of e-service quality on the adoption of e-government in South

Africa. The data is collected through a focus group of 56 participants. The results show

that the availability of online communication channels, e-government security,

information quality, website aesthetics, website design, and accessibility are the

critical factors for the adoption of e-government in South Africa.

Venkatesh et al. (2012) explore the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in

Hong Kong. This study uses a survey instrument and a conjoint experiment for data

collection. A total of 2,465 responses are received using the survey instrument. The

data is analysied usin SEM. The results indicate that system usability, computer

resource requirement, the availability of technical support, and system security are the

important factors for the adoption of e-government in Hong Kong.

Al-Zoubi and Al-Zawaideh (2017) investigate the critical factors for the adoption of

e-government in Jordan. A total of 113 responses are received using a survey

instrument. These responses are analysed using liner logistic regression analysis (Duan





et al. 2019). The results of this study show that website quality and website design are

critical for improving the adoption of e-government in Jordan.

There are several studies that have explored the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of the demand side in developing countries. Wang (2003), for example,

examines the critical factors for the adoption of electronic filing systems in Taiwan.

The technology acceptance model (Davis 1989) is adopted for better understanding

the adoption of electronic filing systems from the perspective of citizens. A total of

260 responses are collected using a survey instrument. The collected data is then

analysed using SEM. The results reveal that computer self-efficacy, perceived ease of

use, perceived usefulness, and perceived credibility influence the adoption of

electronic filing systems in Taiwan.

Phang et al. (2006) explore the critical factors for the adoption of electronic withdrawal

system in China. This study uses the technology acceptance model (Davis 1989) for

investigating the perception of citizens towards the adoption of this system. The data

is collected from 99 citizens. The responses are analysed using SEM. The results show

that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, perceived internet safety, users’

resource saving, self-actualisation, and computer anxiety are the critical factors for the

adoption of electronic withdrawal systems in China.



Rana et al. (2016) investigate the critical factors that influence the adoption of e-

government in India. This study employs the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen

1991) to understand the perceptions of citizens regarding the adoption of e-

government. The data is collected from 681 citizens using a survey instrument. SEM

is then used for analysing the data. The results indicate that self-efficacy, subjective

norm, anxiety, perceived behavioural control, and attitude are the critical factors for

the adoption of e-government in India. Table 2.3 presents an overview of e-

government adoption studies in the context of developing countries.

Table 2.3 An Overview of E-Government Studies in Developing Countries


Supply Side

• Management readiness

• Sensitivity to cost

• External pressure

• Benefits for a public

organisation

• Organisational structure

• Power distribution

• Government support

• Funding and leadership

• Regulation

• Strategy alignment

• Prioritisation of

deliverables

• Needs of a public

organisation

• Organisational culture

• Risk management

• Top management

support

• Financial resources

• Competition

pressure

• Government

pressure

• Financial condition

• Economic

performance

• Government policies

• Organisation inertia

• Government

standard

• Following successful

cases

• Collaboration and

coordination

• Citizen-centric focus

• Training and

education

• Tung and Rieck

(2005)

• Weerakkody et al.

(2011)

• • Al-Zoubi et al.

(2011)

• Van et al. (2016)

• Liang and Qi (2017)

• Van et al. (2018)



Technology

Side

• Usability

• Computer resource

requirement

• Technical support

provision

• Privacy and security

• System reliability

• System efficiency

• System effectiveness

• System responsiveness

• Compatibility

• System quality

• Information quality

• Accessibility

• Website design

• The level of

readiness

• ICT infrastructure

• Information security

• Availability of

online

communication

channels

• Site aesthetics

• Integration

• Personalisation

• Kaisara and Pather

(2009)

• Venkatesh et al.

(2012)

• Sharma (2015)

• Wahsh and Dhillon

(2015)

• Komba and Ngulube

(2015)

• Joo and Hovav (2016)

• Marzooqi et al. (2017)

• Al-Zoubi and Al-

Zawaideh (2017)

• Nawafleh (2018)

• Wanyembi et al.

(2018)

Demand Side

• Age and education

• Income and attitude

• Employment status

• Perceived ease of use

• Perceived usefulness

• Perceived credibility

• Perceived risk

• Perceived internet safety

• Perceived behavioural

control

• Users’ resource saving

• Self-actualisation

• Computer anxiety

• Performance expectancy



• Relative advantage




• Trust in e-

government

• Political self-

efficacy

• Computer self-

efficacy

• Facilitating

conditions

• Performance

expectancy


• Injunctive norms

• Subjective norms

• Peer influence

• Facilitating

conditions

• Wang (2003)

• Phang et al. (2006)

• AlAwadhi and Morris

(2008)

• Chiang (2009)

• Sang et al. (2009)

• Hussein et al. (2010)

• Azmi and Bee (2010)

• Rana and Dwivedi

(2015)

• Rana et al. (2016)

• Chaouali et al. (2016)

• Alraja et al. (2016)

• Saxena (2017)

• Almuraqab (2017)

• Al-Azizi et al. (2017)

• Dwivedi et al. (2017)

• Ma (2018)

Overall, most existing studies in e-government adoption as shown above have focused

primarily on the factors that are related to the perspectives of the supply side, the



technology side, and the demand side for investigating the critical factors that affect

the adoption of e-government. There are, however, many contextual factors related to

developing countries that need to be investigated for improving the adoption of e-

government have not been adequately considered (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Dwivedi

et al. 2012; Mouakket 2010).

Saudi Arabia is one of the developing countries that have been approached by some

studies for better understanding the adoption of e-government. Alrowili et al. (2015),

for example, explore the critical factors for the adoption of mobile government. The

technology acceptance model (Davis 1989) is used to obtain the perceptions of citizens

regarding the adoption of mobile government. The data is collected from 451

participants using a survey instrument. Citizens’ responses are then analysed using

SEM. The results reveal that perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived

time saving, user experience, perceived trust, and attitude are the critical factors for

the adoption of mobile government in Saudi Arabia.

Baabdullah et al. (2016) adopt the technology acceptance model (Davis 1989) to study

the critical factors that influence the adoption of mobile government from the

perspective of citizens in Saudi Arabia. The data is collected from a total of 396

responses. These responses are then analysed using SEM. The results show that

perceived risk, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and personal

innovativeness influence the adoption of mobile government in Saudi Arabia.



Alzhrany and Alzubi (2018) examine the critical factors that influence the adoption of

e-government from the perspective of citizens. The technology acceptance model is

adopted (Davis 1989) for better understanding the adoption of e-government. The data

is collected from a total of 384 Saudi citizens. The collected data is then analysed using

SEM. The results indicate that trust in e-government, perceived ease of use, social

influence, perceived usefulness, and attitude are the critical factors for the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia. Table 2.4 presents an overview of e-government

adoption studies in the context of Saudi Arabia.

Table 2.4 An Overview of E-Government Studies in Saudi Arabia


Demand side




• Perceived risk

• Perceived website

assistance

• Perceived complexity

• Perceived time

• Experience

• Attitude


• Awareness

• Subjective norm

• Perceived

usefulness

• Perceived ease of

use

• Personal

innovativeness

• Alrowili et al. (2015)

• Alghamdi and Beloff

(2016)

• Baabdullah et al. (2016)

• Alharbi et al. (2016)

• Choudrie et al. (2017)

• Alotaibi, R et al. (2017)

• Alzhrany and Alzubi

(2018)

• Alkhaldi (2018)

The uniqueness of the context is critical for better understanding how citizens adopt e-

government in developing countries (Dwivedi et al. 2012; Mouakket 2010). Although

some studies have explored the adoption of e-government in the context of Saudi

Arabia, they have focused mainly on the demand side. There are, however, other

contextual factors such as culture and transparency that need to be investigated for



understanding the adoption of e-government. Such investigation would answer the call

to explore additional factors that encourage citizens to use e-government in developing

countries (Dwivedi et al. 2012; Shareef et al. 2016; Venkatesh et al. 2016; Wirtz &

Daiser 2018). It is unclear, particularly, to what extent culture and transparency

influence the adoption of e-government in the context of Saudi Arabia. To adequately

address this, it is essential to develop an appropriate framework with the inclusion of

culture and transparency for better understanding the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens.

2.5 Concluding Remarks

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of the literature related to e-government

development and its adoption across the world. It first provides an overview of the e-

government development process. It then presents an overview of e-government

development in Saudi Arabia. It reviews e-government adoption studies from different

perspectives to justify the need for developing a framework to investigate the critical

factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

A Conceptual Framework 2019


Chapter 3

A Conceptual Framework

3.1 Introduction

A theory is a set of connections concerning a particular phenomenon to understand

why acts, events, structures and thoughts occur (Sutton & Staw 1995). It focuses on

providing specific views on the causal relationship between theoretical constructs in a

study (Karunasena & Deng 2011, 2012b). The main aim of using a theory in a specific

study is to (a) provide a description of a certain phenomenon, its casual relationships

and its boundaries, (b) present an explanation of how, why and when certain things

occur, (c) give approximate predictions about what will occur under particular

conditions, and (d) provide an explicit prescription for constructing a particular

phenomenon (Gregor 2006). For better explaining a theory, a conceptual framework

for exploring a specific problem usually needs to be developed (Sekaran & Bougie

2016).

A conceptual framework identifies a set of constructs and their relationships which can

be examined using empirical data for better understanding a particular phenomenon

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019a). It can include constructs relevant to any theory to show the

integral role of each construct in the phenomenon (Jabareen 2009). A conceptual



framework helps to present the logic of how these constructs are related to each other

for better understanding the cause-and-effect relationships between these constructs

(Sekaran & Bougie 2016). As a result, it becomes imperative to develop a conceptual

framework in this study for investigating the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia. Such a framework provides a basis for developing the

questionnaire that helps answering the research question.

The aim of this chapter is to develop a conceptual framework based on a

comprehensive review of the related literature in the context of e-government and its

adoption from different perspectives. This framework seeks to hypothesise the critical

factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. It facilitates the

implementation of the quantitative methodology towards accomplishing the objectives

of this research.

This chapter is organised in four sections. Section 3.2 presents the theoretical

foundation in this study for guiding the development of the conceptual framework.

Section 3.3 conceptualises the framework with a focus on the critical factors for the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Section 3.4 ends the chapter with some

concluding remarks.



3.2 Theoretical Background

A technology adoption process usually follows five steps including knowledge,

persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation (Rogers 1983). The

knowledge step focuses on providing individuals with an initial perception of a

particular technology in a specific situation. The persuasion step concentrates on how

individuals pursue information about the technology. The decision step is related to

the decision making of individuals or organisations regarding adopting or rejecting the

technology. The implementation step concerns the ability of individuals or

organisations to utilise the technology in the real situations. The confirmation step

focuses on the evaluation by individuals or organisations of whether the adoption of

such technology is beneficial. Such an evaluation leads individuals or organisations to

reinforce the decision already made and can result in more effective adoption of

specific technologies in future (Funk et al. 1991).

There are numerous theories that have been commonly used for exploring the adoption

of various technologies from different perspectives (Alkalbani et al. 2017; Almukhlifi

et al. 2019a; Chen & Deng 2019; Deng et al. 2018; Duan et al. 2019; Karunasena &

Deng 2012b). Prominent theories for understanding the adoption of technologies from

the perspective of organisations include the theory of diffusion of innovations (DOI)

(Rogers 1983), the institutional theory (DiMaggio & Powell 1983), and the

technology-organisation-environment framework (TOE) (Depietro et al. 1990). The

details of these theories are discussed in the following.



DOI is developed for exploring the influence of the characteristics of a specific

technology on the adoption of this technology in organisations (Rogers 1983). It is a

popular theory for exploring how, why and at what rate a particular technology is used

by organisations (Rogers 1983). It postulates that the diffusion of a technology is very

much dependent on many factors including relative advantages, compatibility,

complexity, trialability, and observability. The relative advantage of a technology

refers to what extent a technology is perceived as better than the product for which it

substitutes (Rogers 1995). The compatibility is about to what extent a technology is

consistent with the current needs, experiences, and values of potential adaptors

(Rogers 1995). The complexity is related to the extent that a technology is seen as

difficult to use (Rogers 1995). The trialability is about the extent that a technology can

be experimented before its adoption (Rogers 1995). The observability is determined

by the extent to which the performance of adopting the technology is visible to others

(Rogers 1995). The process of technology adoption is affected by all these factors

presented above under various circumstances.

DOI is widely used for understanding the adoption of technologies in various situations

(Kelleher & Sweetser 2012; Lin & Chen 2012; Mohammed et al. 2016). Lin and Chen

(2012), for example, adopt DOI theory for exploring the adoption of cloud computing

in Taiwan from the perspective of information technology companies. Kelleher and

Sweetser (2012) apply DOI theory to examine the critical factors for the adoption of

social media in the United States from the perspective of universities. Mohammed et

al. (2016) use DOI theory to explain the adoption of e-government in Yemen from the

perspective of public organisations. The use of DOI theory for understanding



technology adoption, however, is often criticised for ignoring the effect of

organisational and environmental factors in various circumstances on the adoption of

a specific technology (Lee & Cheung 2004; Sgalari et al. 2002).

The institutional theory is developed for investigating how a particular social

behaviour is initiated, diffused, and adapted over time and space to encounter the

socially acceptable values in organisations (DiMaggio & Powell 1983). It helps to

understand how organisations interact with their organisational contexts to react to

social expectations and how these expectations can be incorporated in the process of

technology adoption in organisations (Alkalbani 2017; Herremans et al. 2009). In the

context of technologies adoption, the institutional theory postulates that the adoption

of a technology is affected by external pressures that are emerging from the external

environment to the organisation (Alkalbani 2017; DiMaggio & Powell 1983).

With the use of the institutional theory, three types of external pressures including

normative pressures, mimetic pressures, and coercive pressures can be identified in

exploring the technology adoption behaviour of individual organisations (Davidsson

et al. 2006). Normative pressures are related to the social expectations that

organisations are compelled to honour in a specific circumstance (Alkalbani et al.

2017; Appari et al. 2009). Such expectations usually influence the decision of an

organisation in conforming to the adoption of a particular technology (Alkalbani et al.

2017). Mimetic pressures are about the acquiescence by imitating the actions and

behaviours of other organisations for obtaining the organisational legitimacy in

specific circumstances (DiMaggio & Powell 1983). Such pressures lead an



organisation to copy the behaviour of another organisation in the adoption of certain

technologies (Alkalbani et al. 2017). Coercive pressures are related to the pressures

that are imposed on an organisation by external stakeholders towards adopting

particular institutionalised practices for managing that organisation (Alkalbani et al.

2016; Hu et al. 2007). These stakeholders such as government departments can force

organisations to, for example, adopt a certain technology with the development of

specific laws and regulations for the interest of the general public and the society

(Alkalbani et al. 2016).

The institutional theory is commonly used for exploring the adoption of technologies

in various situations (Alkalbani et al. 2017; Jan et al. 2012; Yigitbasioglu 2015). Jan

et al. (2012), for example, use the institutional theory for examining the adopting of e-

learning in Taiwan from the perspective of relevant public and private organisations.

Yigitbasioglu (2015) adopts the institutional theory for exploring the adoption of cloud

computing from the perspective of Australian firms. Alkalbani et al. (2017) apply the

institutional theory for investigating the adoption of information security compliance

in Oman from the perspective of public organisations. The use of the institutional

theory, however, is usually criticised for ignoring the influence of various

organisational and technological factors on the adoption of a specific technology

(Alkalbani 2017; Delmas & Toffel 2008; Lounsbury & Crumley 2007).

TOE framework is developed for examining the adoption of a technology under

various circumstances (Depietro et al. 1990). It postulates that the adoption of a

particular technology in organisations is influenced by three aspects including the



organisation aspect, the technology aspect, and the environment aspect. The

organisation aspect is related to the influence of the characteristics and resources of an

organisation on the adoption of a technology (Alkalbani et al. 2016; Duan et al. 2010).

The technology aspect focuses on how technological characteristics affect the adoption

of technologies in organisations (Alkalbani et al. 2016; Duan et al. 2012). The

environment aspect concerns the existence of external characteristics that force

organisations to adopt certain technologies (Alkalbani et al. 2015; Duan et al. 2012).

These three aspects often include various factors that influence the adoption of

technologies in organisations (Alkalbani et al. 2015; Alkalbani et al. 2016; Duan et al.

2010).

TOE framework is well-validated in the literature for understanding the adoption of

technologies in organisations in various contexts (Alkalbani et al. 2016; Duan et al.

2012; Wang & Lo 2016). Duan et al. (2012), for example, adopt the TOE framework

for exploring the adoption of e-market in Australia from the perspective of small and

medium-sized enterprises. Wang and Lo (2016) use the TOE framework to examine

the adoption of open government data in Taiwan from the perspective of public

organisations. Alkalbani et al. (2016) employ the TOE framework to investigate the

role of socio-organisational characteristics in the adoption of information security

compliance in Oman from the perspective of public organisations. The adoption of

TOE framework for understanding the adoption of technologies in organisations is,

however, often criticised for not considering the influence of factors related to

individuals such as the characteristics of employees (Ghobakhloo & Hong 2013).



The theories described above are used for exploring the adoption of a technology in

organisations. They are inappropriate in examining the adoption of technologies from

the perspective of individuals due to their insufficient capacity in investigating the

adoption of technologies by individuals (Alkalbani 2017; Duan 2012). To adequately

explore the adoption of technologies from the perspective of individuals, the theory of

reasoned actions (TRA) (Ajzen & Fishbein 1975), the theory of planned behaviours

(TPB) (Ajzen 1991), the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT)

(Venkatesh et al. 2003), and the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis 1989)

have been developed in the literature. Each of these theories has its own specific focus

for better understanding the adoption of a technology in a given situation from the

perspective of individuals.

TRA is developed for exploring the relationship between the attitude and behaviour of

an individual in the adoption of a specific technology (Ajzen & Fishbein 1975). It

postulates that the actual behaviour of individuals in adopting a particular technology

is dependent on behavioural intention, attitude towards behaviours, and the subjective

norm (Ajzen & Fishbein 1975). The behavioural intention of individuals refers to the

subjective probability that an individual will perform a specific behaviour (Ajzen &

Fishbein 1975). Attitude towards the behaviour refers to positive or negative

impressions of an individual towards certain behaviours (Ajzen & Fishbein 1975). The

subjective norm relates to the perceived social pressure that individuals have to accept

or not to accept a given behaviour in the adoption of a technology (Ajzen & Fishbein

1975).



TRA is widely used to investigate the behaviour of individuals regarding the adoption

of a specific technology (Abu-Shanab & Shihadeh 2016; Mostafa & El-Masry 2013).

Mostafa and El-Masry (2013), for example, adopt TRA for examining the critical

factors that influence the adoption of e-government in Egypt from the perspective of

citizens. Abu-Shanab and Shihadeh (2016) use TRA to investigate the critical factors

that influence the adoption of the short message service in Jordan from the perspective

of citizens. The use of TRA to examine the adoption of technologies, however, is often

questioned for not considering the ability of an individual in adopting the technology

(Grandón et al. 2011).

TPB is developed to incorporate the construct of perceived behavioural control with

TRA constructs to better understand the behaviour of individuals regarding the

adoption of a technology (Ajzen 1991). The perceived behavioural control of

individuals focuses on the perception of an individual of the easiness or difficulty in

performing a particular behaviour (Ajzen 1991). The adoption of TPB for exploring

the adoption of a specific technology argues that the perceived behavioural control of

individuals influences actual behaviour via the behavioural intention of these

individuals in terms of their perception of the easiness of adopting the technology

(Ajzen 1991).

TPB is widely used in the literature for understanding the adoption of technologies

(Hung et al. 2013; Hung & Jeng 2013; Susanto et al. 2017; Xie et al. 2017). Hung et

al. (2013), for example, apply TPB to explore the critical factors that affect the

adoption of mobile government in Taiwan from the perspective of citizens. Hung and



Jeng (2013) employ TPB to examine the adoption of e-learning in the United States

from the perspective of students. Xie et al. (2017) use TPB to investigate the

determinants of the adoption of e-government in China from the perspective of

citizens. TPB, however, is usually criticised for insufficiency in producing reliable

research findings on individuals’ adoption of a technology under various

circumstances (Ajzen 1991).

The UTUAT is developed for understanding how individuals adopt a certain

technology (Venkatesh et al. 2003). It postulates that the adoption of technologies is

influenced by four core factors including effort expectancy, performance expectancy,

facilitating conditions, and social influence. Effort expectancy is about the degree of

ease in using a technology (Sabani et al. 2018). Performance expectancy relates to the

degree to which an individual believes that the adoption of a technology can result in

better outcomes (Sabani et al. 2018). Facilitating conditions concern the degree to

which an individual believes that organisational and technological infrastructure exists

for improving the use of such a technology (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Social influence

refers to the degree to which an individual considers the of peers regarding adoption

of a technology (Sabani et al. 2018). The UTAUT, further, proposes the moderation

influence for gender, age, experience, and voluntariness of use on the adoption of

technology (Venkatesh et al. 2003).

The UTUAT is widely used in the literature to explore the adoption of a particular

technology in various contexts (Kurfali et al. 2017; Rana et al. 2017; Tan 2013). Tan

(2013), for example, employs the UTUAT for investigating the adoption of e-learning



in Taiwan from the perspective of students. Rana et al. (2017) use the UTUAT to

examine the impact of computer anxiety in the adoption of e-government in India from

the perspective of citizens. Kurfali et al. (2017) adopt the UTUAT to explore the effect

of trust on the adoption of e-government in Turkey from the perspective of citizens.

The use of the UTUAT for exploring individuals’ decisions on the adoption of a

technology is, however, often criticised for its difficulty in generalising the research

findings to the study population (Dwivedi et al. 2011; Williams et al. 2015). Straub

and Burton-Jones (2007), further, indicate that the UTAUT is deceptively

parsimonious because the theory includes constructs that have been studied in other

theories with different terminologies.

TAM is widely recognised as a powerful theory for predicting the adoption of

technologies from the perspective of individuals (Cazier et al. 2008; Pai & Yeh 2014).

It is extensively used to elucidate why individuals choose to use or not use a specific

technology. Two main constructs including perceived ease of use (PEOU) and

perceived usefulness (PU) are proposed as the determinants that influence the decision

of individuals regarding the adoption of a technology (Davis 1989). PEOU refers to

the degree to which a person believes that using a technology is easy and does not

require much effort (Davis 1989). PU is related to the degree to which a person

believes that using a technology can improve his or her performance at work (Davis

1989). TAM, overall, focuses on individuals’ beliefs regarding the adoption of a

technology (Davis 1989).



TAM has been validated successfully in existing literature for explaining the adoption

of a particular technology from the perspective of individuals (Alomari et al. 2012;

Chen & Teng 2013; Hussain et al. 2013; Hussein et al. 2011). Hussein et al. (2011),

for example, adopt TAM for understanding the adoption of online tax systems in

Malaysia from the perspective of citizens. Alomari et al. (2012) use TAM for exploring

the adoption of e-government in Jordan from the perspective of citizens. Hussain et al.

(2013) employ TAM for investigating the adoption of e-banking in Pakistan from the

perspective of individuals. Chen and Teng (2013) adopt TAM for examining the

influence of online store image on the adoption of e-commerce in Taiwan from the

perspective of consumers. These studies show the applicability of TAM for exploring

the adoption of technologies from the perspective of individuals.

There are specific concerns in the literature about the applicability of TAM for

comprehensively explaining the adoption of specific technologies under various

circumstances. This is due to the inadequacy of the main constructs in TAM for

understanding the adoption of a technology (Burton & Hubona 2006; Giovanis et al.

2012; Moon & Kim 2001). Legris et al. (2003), for instance, indicate that using the

original TAM tends to lead to inconsistency in research findings exploring the

adoption of specific technologies in various situations. McFarland and Hamilton

(2006) show that TAM is unable to provide a comprehensive explanation of

technology adoption in specific situations. These studies demonstrate that there are

other important constructs that play an important role in better understanding the

adoption of specific technologies under various circumstances.



To overcome the shortcomings of the TAM in exploring the adoption of a specific

technology, there are several studies that have extended the TAM by incorporating

additional constructs with PEOU and PU for better understating the adoption of

technologies in specific situations (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Fitriani et al. 2017;

Hong et al. 2011; Rana et al. 2015; Santhanamery & Ramayah 2018; Shyu & Huang

2011; Weerakkody et al. 2017). Hong et al. (2011), for example, apply TAM with the

inclusion of interface design and perceived playfulness to explore the adoption of

digital national archives systems in Taiwan from the perspective of individuals. Rana

et al. (2015) incorporate system quality, services quality, information quality,

perceived risk, and perceived satisfaction with TAM constructs to explore the adoption

of e-government in India from the perspective of citizens. Fitriani et al. (2017) extend

TAM through the addition of perceived behaviour control, subjective norm, trust,

system quality, and information quality to understand the adoption of open government

data in Indonesia from the perspective of citizens. These studies show the ability of

TAM to provide a comprehensive view of the adoption of a technology by

incorporating additional constructs with PU and PEOU under various circumstances.

3.3 A Conceptual Framework

This study aims to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens. To achieve the aim of this study, a

conceptual formwork is developed. TAM is used in this study for underpinning the

proposed conceptual formwork. This is due to several reasons. Firstly, TAM can

provide useful insights into technology adoption from the perspective of citizens who

are the direct users of e-government services (Shyu & Huang 2011). Secondly, TAM



can be flexibly tailored and adjusted to suit the purposes of e-government studies

(Shyu & Huang 2011; Venkatesh & Morris 2000; Weerakkody et al. 2017). Thirdly,

TAM is reliable and robust in predicting the adoption of e-government (Gupta et al.

2015; Schepers & Wetzels 2007; Sipior et al. 2011). This shows that TAM enables

significant progress in understanding the adoption of specific technologies such as e-

government (Park & Ryoo 2013).

This section presents the conceptual framework as shown in Figure 3.1 for

investigating the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. It

includes four categories of factors for extending TAM in this study. The proposed four

categories focus on the aspects related to individuals, system, design, and context. The

individual characteristics include computer self-efficacy, personal innovativeness, and

computer anxiety. The system characteristics include services quality and information

quality. The design characteristics include PEOU and PU. The contextual

characteristics include transparency and Wastta.

3.3.1 Individual Characteristics

Individual characteristics concern the capability of individual citizens in utilising e-

government systems for requesting public services (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a). They

play an important role in their decisions to adopt e-government (Thatcher & Perrewe

2002). This is because citizens with different personalities, backgrounds, education,

and affiliations react differently to accepting e-government (Hadjerrouit 2006; Helbig

et al. 2009). As a result, understanding the characteristics of individual citizens can



provide better insights into their adoption of e-government. Individual characteristics

for e-government adoption are usually measured in terms of computer self-efficacy,

personal innovativeness and computer anxiety.

Design Characteristics

Perceived usefulness

Perceived ease of

use

E-government

adoption

Contextual characteristics

Transparency Wastta

Individual characteristics

Computer self-

efficacy

Personal

innovativeness

Computer anxiety

System Characteristics

Services quality

Information quality

H1

H2

H3

H4

H5

H6

H7

H8

H9

H10

H11

H12

H13

H14

H15

Figure 3.1 A Conceptual Framework for the Adoption of E-Government

Computer Self-efficacy

Computer self-efficacy (CSE) is about to what extent that citizens are confident in

their ability to request public services through the adoption of e-government (Susanto

& Goodwin 2013). It is usually measured via the magnitude of self-efficacy, strength

of self-efficacy, and generalisability of self-efficacy (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a;

Compeau & Higgins 1995). The magnitude of self-efficacy refers to the level of

capability required to use public services through e-government (Wangpipatwong et

al. 2005b). The strength of self-efficacy is related to the degree of confidence that

citizens have in their ability to use public services through e-government

(Wangpipatwong et al. 2005b). The generalisability of self-efficacy concerns the



degree to which the judgement of citizens about their ability is limited to a specific

domain of activities (Compeau & Higgins 1995). Table 3.1 presents an overview of

the measurement items for CSE.

Table 3.1 A Summary of the Measurement Items for CSE

Measurement items Description References

Magnitude of self-

efficacy

The level of capability required to use

public services through e-government.

Compeau and Higgins (1995),

Wangpipatwong et al. (2005b),

Rabaai et al. (2015),

Almukhlifi et al. (2019a)

Strength of self-efficacy

The degree of confidence that citizens

have regarding their ability to use

public services through e-government.





Generalisability of self-

efficacy

The degree to which the judgement of

citizens about their ability is limited to

a specific domain of activities.





CSE has a positive impact on PU regarding the adoption of e-government (Bhuasiri et

al. 2016). This is because the perception of citizens of the expected benefit of using e-

government very much depends on their familiarity with different functions of

computers (Rana & Dwivedi 2015). If a citizen has a high level of CSE regarding the

use of e-government, the perceived benefit of requesting public services through the

adoption of e-government would improve (Bhuasiri et al. 2016). Rabaai et al. (2015)

conclude that CSE has a positive influence on PU in the adoption of e-government.

Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is developed:

H1: CSE positively affects PU in the adoption of e-government



CSE can influence the perception of citizens of the easiness of using e-government

(Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Susanto & Goodwin 2013). A high level of CSE often

helps citizens use e-government easily (Rabaai 2015). If a citizen is confident in his or

her capability regarding computers, she or he is more likely to request public services

through the use of e-government (Susanto & Goodwin 2013). Such confidence can

lead to overcoming specific difficulties in using e-government. Bilal et al. (2016), for

example, find that individuals with a high level of CSE use e-government services

without much effort. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is

developed:

H2: CSE positively affects PEOU in the adoption of e-government

Personal Innovativeness

Personal innovativeness (PI) refers to the willingness of citizens to use e-government

(Thatcher & Perrewe 2002). Citizens with a high level of PI are more tolerant of risk,

and therefore, more likely to adopt e-government for accessing public services

(Thatcher & Perrewe 2002; Zhou et al. 2016). PI is measured by openness, enthusiasm,

and boldness (Agarwal& Prasad 1998; Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Chomchalao & Naenna

2013). Openness usually refers to what extent an individual is open to using

innovations. Enthusiasm is related to the extent to which an individual is eager to use

innovations. Boldness is reflected by the extent to which an individual is unhesitating

in experiencing innovations. Table 3.2 presents an overview of the measurement items

for PI.



Table 3.2 A Summary of the Measurement Items for PI


Openness The extent to which an individual

is open to using innovations.

Agarwal and Prasad (1998),

Chomchalao and Naenna (2013),


Enthusiasm The extent to which an individual

is eager to use innovations.


Chomchalao and Naenna (2013)


Boldness

The extent to which an individual

is unhesitating in experiencing

innovations.


Chomchalao and Naenna (2013),


PI can help citizens to obtain the benefits of e-government adoption (Algunto 2016).

Citizens with higher PI are likely develop more positive perceptions of e-government

benefits. This is due to their ability to tolerate the risk associated with the adoption of

e-government (Zhou et al. 2016). Citizens with higher PI are more curious, dynamic,

and communicative about new technologies (Pal et al. 2015). This means that citizens

with higher PI in their openness to using new innovations often perceive the

advantages of e-government adoption (Zarmpou et al. 2012). This shows that those

who enjoy experimenting with innovations are more open to using e-government.

Algunto (2016) indicates that innovative individuals find the adoption of e-

government useful. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is

developed:

H3: PI positively affects PU in the adoption of e-government

PI can help citizens to cope with difficulties in using e-government (Chomchalao &

Naenna 2013). Citizens with high PI feel they have the capability to perform well when



requesting public services through the use of e-government (Chomchalao & Naenna

2013). They are often more willing to try e-government and discover how it works

(Zarmpou et al. 2012). As a result, it is likely that they will perceive using e-

government an effortless way to request public services (Algunto 2016). Chomchalao

and Naenna (2013) suggest that higher PI has a direct positive impact on PEOU

regarding the adoption of e-government. Based on the above discussion, the following

hypothesis is developed:

H4: PI positively affects PEOU in the adoption of e-government

Computer Anxiety

Computer anxiety (CA) relates to the fear that individual citizens have in using

computers (Thatcher & Perrewe 2002). It concerns the negative emotional feeling

associated with the direct experience of using e-government. CA is measured by

apprehension, hesitation, and intimidation in using computers (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a;

Rana & Dwivedi 2015; Venkatesh et al. 2003). Apprehension refers to the extent to

which an individual is anxious about using computers. Hesitation relates to the extent

to which an individual is uncertain about using computers. Intimidation is measured

by the extent to which an individual is frightened of using computers. Table 3.3

presents an overview of the measurement items for CA.



Table 3.3 A Summary of the Measurement Items for CA


Apprehension The extent to which an individual is

anxious of using computers.

Venkatesh et al. (2003), Rana

and Dwivedi (2015),


Hesitation The extent to which an individual is

uncertain of using computers.

Venkatesh et al. (2003), Rana and Dwivedi (2015),


Intimidation The extent to which an individual is

frightened of using computers.

Venkatesh et al. (2003), Rana

and Dwivedi (2015),


CA often limits the usefulness of e-government (Carter et al. 2011). Some citizens

experience apprehension when working with computers (Phang et al. 2006). Citizens

with high CA believe that, for example, if a mistake happens while using e-

government, the entered data will be lost and the process restarted (Powell et al. 2012).

Such belief can prevent citizens from obtaining the benefits of requesting public

services through e-government. This enhances the perception that requesting public

services physically in a public organisation is faster and more convenient than through

e-government. Oktal et al. (2016) show that citizens who are more anxious about

dealing with computers are less likely to find e-government useful. Based on the above

discussion, the following hypothesis is developed:

H5: CA negatively affects PU in the adoption of e-government

CA usually increases the difficulty of requesting public services through e-government

(Ustun et al. 2017). This is due to the fact that the fear of citizens for making mistakes

when using a computer can build a negative perception of the use of e-government



(Carter et al. 2011). Citizens who are more apprehensive about using computers are

more likely to perceive the difficulty of using e-government (Phang et al. 2006). The

feeling of anxiety about using computers often causes e-government to be perceived

as more difficult than it is (Park et al. 2014; Phang et al. 2006). If fear of using of e-

government makes citizens feel uneasy, this may increase the perception of the

difficulty of requesting public services through e-government. Chang et al. (2017)

conclude that CA has a direct negative effect on PEOU. Based on the above discussion,

the following hypothesis is developed:

H6: CA negatively affects PEOU in the adoption of e-government

3.3.2 System Characteristics

System characteristics concern the quality of service delivery through e-government

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019a). E-government has revolutionised public service delivery to

citizens by enhancing the provision of public services and public information online

(Karunasena & Deng 2012b). Citizens can utilise e-government to request public

services and acquire public information instead of going to public organisations

physically (Mills et al. 2010). Factors relevant for system characteristics include

services quality and information quality.

Service Quality

Service quality (SQ) concerns the degree to which e-government can provide citizens

with better public services (Tan et al. 2008). It is measured by the tangibles, reliability,



responsiveness, empathy, and assurance of the public services delivered through e-

government (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Ocampo et al. 2017; Parasuraman et al. 1991;

Tan et al. 2008). Tangibles relate to the appearance and comprehensiveness of

functionalities provided by public organisations to help citizens request public services

online (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Parasuraman et al. 1991). Reliability is about the

ability of public organisations to deliver public services through e-government in a

dependable manner (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Parasuraman et al. 1991).

Responsiveness concerns the willingness of e-government service providers to

respond to the requests of citizens (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Parasuraman et al. 1991).

Empathy concerns the perception of citizens that providers of e-government services

give them due attention for better online public services (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a;

Parasuraman et al. 1991). Assurance refers to citizens’ perceptions that the providers

of e-government services instil confidence in them through the display of relevant

information online (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Parasuraman et al. 1991). Table 3.4

presents an overview of the measurement items for SQ.



Table 3.4 A Summary of the Measurement Items for SQ


Tangibles

The appearance and comprehensiveness of

functionalities provided by public

organisations to help citizens request public

services online.

Parasuraman et al. (1991),

Tan et al. (2008), Ocampo et

al. (2017), Almukhlifi et al.

(2019a)

Reliability

The ability of public organisations to

deliver public services through e-

government in a dependable manner.




(2019a)

Responsiveness The willingness of e-government service

providers to respond to citizens.




(2019a)

Empathy

Citizens’ perceptions that providers of e-

government services give them attention for

better online public services.




(2019a)

Assurance

Citizens’ perceptions that providers of e-

government services instil confidence in

them through the display of relevant

information online.




(2019a)

Better SQ improves the perception of the usefulness of e-government from the

perspective of citizens (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013). Online public service

excellence ultimately influences the decision of citizens regarding the adoption of e-

government (Omar et al. 2011). This means that the delivery of quality public service

can improve the perception of citizens on the usefulness of e-government. When

citizens think that their needs of public services can be well met online, they likely will

find the use of e-government useful. Chen et al. (2015), for example, indicate better

SQ would help citizens to obtain the benefits of e-government adoption. Based on the

above discussion, the following hypothesis is developed:

H7: SQ positively affects PU in the adoption of e-government



High-quality online public services can implicitly help to achieve higher levels of

PEOU for the adoption of e-government (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013). Citizens

would spend less effort requesting public services through e-government if public

organisations improved the quality of their online public services (Mustapha & Obid

2015). This is because the delivery of quality e-government service can overcome

difficulties in requesting online public services (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Omar

et al. 2011). Mustapha and Obid (2015) show that high SQ has a positive influence on

PEOU for the adoption of e-government. Based on the above discussion, the following


H8: SQ positively affects PEOU in the adoption of e-government

Information Quality

Information quality (IQ) concerns the degree to which citizens are provided with

quality public information related to their needs through e-government (Karunasena &

Deng 2012b). It is measured by the accuracy, timeliness, relevancy, understandability,

and completeness of the information (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Chen et al. 2015;

Karunasena & Deng 2012b; Wangpipatwong et al. 2005a). Accuracy refers to the

extent to which the information provided is free from errors (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a;

Wangpipatwong et al. 2005a). Timeliness relates to the extent to which the information

provided is up-to-date (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Wangpipatwong et al. 2005a).

Relevancy is reflected in the extent to which the information provided is relevant to

citizens’ needs (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Wangpipatwong et al. 2005a).

Understandability concerns the extent to which the information provided is

understandable (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Wangpipatwong et al. 2005a). Completeness



describes the sufficiency of information presented through e-government (Almukhlifi

et al. 2019a; Wangpipatwong et al. 2005a). Table 3.5 presents an overview of the

measurement items for IQ.

Table 3.5 A Summary of the Measurement Items for IQ


Accuracy The extent to which the information

provided online is free from error.

Wangpipatwong et al. (2005a),

Karunasena and Deng (2012b),

Chen et al. (2015), Almukhlifi et

al. (2019a)

Timeliness The extent to which the information

provided online is up-to-date.


Karunasena and Deng (2012b), Chen et al. (2015), Almukhlifi et

al. (2019a)

Relevancy

The extent to which the information

provided online is relevant to citizens’

needs.




al. (2019a)

Understandability The extent to which the information

provided online is understandable.




al. (2019a)

Completeness The sufficiency of public information

presented online.




al. (2019a)

Quality public information can help citizens to find e-government useful (Almazan &

Garcia 2012; Chomchalao & Naenna 2013). Citizens often look for public information

that suits their needs. If the public information is high quality, citizens are more likely

to find e-government useful. This is because high-quality public information provided

online can help citizens to meet their needs of public services through e-government

(Aladwani 2013). Puthur et al. (2015) find that IQ has a positive effect on PU for the



adoption of e-government. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is

developed:

H9: IQ positively affects PU in the adoption of e-government

Better public information provided by e-government can help citizens to use e-

government in an effortless manner (Almazan & Garcia 2012; Chomchalao & Naenna

2013). If the quality of public information provided online is poor, citizens may spend

a long time and more effort requesting public services through e-government (Rana et

al. 2015). High IQ likely provides citizens with ease in handling various functions of

e-government (Fitriani et al. 2017). This means that IQ encourages citizens to adopt e-

government when the public information provided online is clear and easy to

understand (Zhou 2011). Puthur et al. (2015) show that IQ increases the perception of

citizens of the easiness of e-government. Based on the above discussion, the following


H10: IQ positively affects PEOU in the adoption of e-government

3.3.3 Design Characteristics

Design characteristics relate to the usability of e-government websites (Almukhlifi et

al. 2019a). It is important to consider the needs of citizens when designing e-

government websites (Qutaishat 2013). A well-design e-government website provides

a comfortable environment for citizens to interact with public organisations effectively

(Rehman et al. 2012). Such an environment can create an opportunity for citizens to

request public services and gather public information (Kuzma 2010). Designing user-



centred websites motivates citizens to adopt e-government (Alshehri et al. 2012).

Factors relevant for the design characteristics include PU and PEOU.

Perceived Usefulness

PU concerns the extent to which using e-government services provides citizens with

benefits (Carter & Bélanger 2005). It is commonly measured by convenience, speed,

communication, the overall usefulness of e-government services, and effectiveness

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Choudhury & Karahanna 2008; Davis 1989). Convenience

relates to the extent to which requesting public services through e-government is

convenient for citizens. Speed concerns the extent to which requesting public services

through e-government is quick. Communication is reflected in the extent to which the

use of e-government improves communication between public organisations and

citizens. Effectiveness refers to the extent to which e-government improves the

effectiveness of public services. Overall usefulness is demonstrated in the extent to

which the use of e-government is beneficial for citizens. Table 3.6 presents an

overview of the measurement items for PU.



Table 3.6 A Summary of the Measurement Items for PU


Convenience

The extent to which requesting public

services through e-government is

convenient for citizens.

Choudhury and Karahanna

(2008), Susanto and

Goodwin (2013), Almukhlifi

et al. (2019a)

Speed The extent to which requesting public

services through e-government is quick.

Davis (1989), Zhao and

Khan (2013), Almukhlifi et

al. (2019a)

Communication

The extent to which the use of e-

government makes communication

between public organisations and citizens

easy.

Davis (1989), Almukhlifi et

al. (2019a)

Overall usefulness

The extent to which the use of e-

government is useful for requesting public

services.



al. (2019a)

Effectiveness

The extent to which e-government

improves the effectiveness of public

services.



al. (2019a)

PU has a positive effect on the adoption of e-government (Hamid et al. 2016). It plays

a critical role in encouraging citizens to request public services through the use of e-

government (Rehman et al. 2012). The greater the PU, the more likely the adoption of

e-government (Hung et al. 2013). Citizens adopt e-government for accessing and using

public services because they consider that the use of e-government will bring them

benefits including a reduction in costs and a saving of time and effort (Rehman et al.

2012). Better understanding PU would lead to an improved adoption of e-government

(Hung et al. 2013). Weerakkody et al. (2017) conclude that PU encourages citizens to

adopt e-government. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is

developed:

H11: PU positively affects the adoption of e-government



Perceived Ease of Use

PEOU concerns how much effort is required in using e-government (Davis 1989). It

is usually assessed by skilfulness, learnability, accessibility, clarity, and instruction

availability (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Davis 1989). Skilfulness concerns the extent to

which public organisations make it easy for citizens to be skilful at requesting public

services through e-government (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Davis 1989). Learnability is

related to the extent to which learning how to use e-government is easy (Almukhlifi et

al. 2019a; Davis 1989). Accessibility is determined by the extent to which e-

government websites are available for citizens anytime and anywhere (Almukhlifi et

al. 2019a; Davis 1989). Clarity is demonstrated by the extent to which e-government

websites are clear and understandable (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Davis 1989).

Instruction availability refers to the extent to which public organisations provide

citizens with instructions helping them learn how to use e-government websites

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Davis 1989). Table 3.7 presents an overview of the

measurement items for PEOU.



Table 3.7 A Summary of the Measurement Items for PEOU


Skilfulness

The extent to which public organisations

make it easy for citizens to be skilful at

requesting public services through e-

government

Davis (1989), Susanto and

Goodwin (2013),, Zhao

and Khan (2013),


Learnability The extent to which learning how to use e-

government is easy.

Davis (1989),, Susanto and

Goodwin (2013), Zhao and


al. (2019a)

Accessibility

The extent to which e-government websites

are available for citizens anytime and

anywhere.


Goodwin (2013),


Clarity The extent to which e-government websites

are clear and understandable.


Goodwin (2013), Zhao and


al. (2019a)

Instruction availability


provide citizens with instructions helping

them to learn how to use e-government

websites easily.


Goodwin (2013),


PEOU has a positive influence on the adoption of e-government (Chomchalao &

Naenna 2013). The enhancement of PEOU can encourage citizens to adopt e-

government (Hung et al. 2013). It is the first perception of citizens when they decide

to use a new technology (Hung et al. 2013). When citizens find it easy to use e-

government, their decisions to adopt e-government would be improved (Shareef et al.

2011). Improving PEOU often encourages citizens to use e-government for requesting

public services (Shareef et al. 2011). Fitriani et al. (2017) indicate that PEOU improves

the adoption of e-government. Based on the above discussion, the following


H12: PEOU positively affects the adoption of e-government



3.3.4 Contextual Characteristics

Contextual characteristics concern the factors related to a specific context that affect

the adoption of e-government (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a). Every country is characterised

by unique factors that affect the behaviours of its citizens (Almukhlifi et al. 2018,

2019b; Dwivedi et al. 2012). Saudi Arabia, for example, is characterised by a lack of

transparency and the prevalence of Wastta for accessing public services in the Saudi

society (Abanumy & Mayhew 2007; Fawzi & Almarshed 2013).

Transparency

Transparency (TRAN) refers to the availability of relevant decision-making

information and procedures for citizens through e-government (Almukhlifi et al.

2017). It is measured shown as in Table 3.8 by information restrictions, procedure

transparency, organisational transparency, policy transparency, bidding transparency,

budget transparency, public contact transparency and, annual plan transparency

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Karunasena & Deng 2012b; La Porte et al. 2002).

Information restrictions refer to the extent to which public organisations provide

citizens with public information online with no restrictions. Procedure transparency

relates to the extent to which public organisations provide citizens with procedures on

how to request public services online. Organisational transparency is determined by

the extent to which public organisations provide citizens with organisational charts,

duties and responsibilities of public sector staff online. Policy transparency concerns

the availability of public policies, laws and regulations online to citizens. Bidding

transparency is reflected by the extent to which public organisations provide citizens

with public tenders online. Budget transparency concerns the availability of public



organisations’ budget and expenses online to show accountability for their expenses.

Public contact transparency refers to the extent to which public organisations provide

citizens with public contact information online to improve interactions. Annual plan

transparency concerns the availability of public organisations’ annual plans and

progress online to show their accountability for achieving public goals.

Table 3.8 A Summary of the Measurement Items for TRAN


Information

restrictions


provide citizens with public information

online with no restrictions.


Procedure

transparency


provide citizens with procedures on how to

request public services online.


Organisational

transparency


provide citizens with organisational charts,

duties and responsibilities of public sector

staff online.

La Porte et al. (2002),

Karunasena and Deng

(2010), Almukhlifi et al.

(2019a)

Policy transparency


provide citizens with public policies, laws

and regulations online.


Karunasena and Deng


(2019a)

Bidding transparency The extent to which public organisations

provide citizens with public tenders online.

Shim and Eom (2008),

Karunasena and Deng


(2019a)

Budget transparency


provide citizens with budgets and expenses

online to show accountability for their

expenses.

Jaeger and Bertot (2010),

Karunasena and Deng


(2019a)

Public contact

transparency


provide citizens with public contact

information online to improve interactions.


Karunasena and Deng


(2019a)

Annual plan

transparency


provide citizens with their annual plans and

progress online to show their accountability

for achieving public goals.

Karunasena and Deng


(2019a)



The Saudi government has paid considerable attention to improving the transparency

of public decision making in public organisations (Al Rajhi et al. 2012; Almukhlifi et

al. 2017). The establishment of the National Anti-corruption Commission and

participation in the UN Convention Against Corruption show that the Saudi

government has committed to improving the transparency of public decision making

(TI 2013). Recently, the Saudi government has further stressed the importance of

transparency in its Vision 2030 in which the determination of the government to reach

the highest level of transparency and accountability by the year 2030 by improving the

availability of public information is explicitly articulated (Vision-2030 2016). Such

efforts consider the introduction of e-government as an approach for improving the

transparency of public decision making in public organisations. How the transparency

of public decision making encourages citizens to adopt e-government in Saudi Arabia,

however, is unclear. Further, there is no study investigating the influence of

transparency of public decision making on the adoption of e-government in Saudi

Arabia.

TRAN can strengthen the relationship between PU and the adoption of e-government.

It is associated with the adoption of e-government where the utilisation of e-

government often relies on effective interaction between public organisations and

citizens (Savoldelli et al. 2014). The availability of public information and decision-

making procedures would help citizens to enjoy the benefits of the adoption of e-

government. With the availability of public information and procedures online,

citizens may find e-government more useful. The availability of public information



would improve the utilisation of e-government (Dwivedi et al. 2017). Based on the

above discussion, the following hypothesis is developed:

H13: TRAN positively moderates the relationship between PU and the adoption of

e-government

TRAN can improve the relationship between PEOU and the adoption of e-government.

The availability of public information online helps citizens to request public services

easily (Sabani et al. 2018). The availability of public information such as public service

procedures and contact information online can help citizens to access e-government

more easily, and thus encourage them to request public services through e-government

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Sabani et al. 2018). With the improvement of transparency

of public decision making through e-government, the influence of PEOU on the

adoption of e-government would improve. Based on the above discussion, the

following hypothesis is developed:

H14: TRAN positively moderates the relationship between PEOU and the adoption

of e-government

Wastta

Wastta (WAS) refers to the use of personal relationships to reach particular targets that

cannot be reached otherwise (Almahraj 2016; Alomari et al. 2014). It is measured by

procedure simplification, interaction improvement, and Wastta dependency

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019a). Procedure simplification relates to the extent to which

citizens believe that Wastta plays a role in requesting public services without following



the regular procedures and requirements. Interaction improvement refers to the extent

to which citizens believe that the use of Wastta can link them with key employees in

public organisations to access public services. Wastta dependency is determined by

the extent to which citizens use WAS to request public services. Table 3.9 presents an

overview of the measurement items for WAS.

Table 3.9 A Summary of the Measurement Items for WAS


Procedure

simplification

The extent to which citizens believe that

Wastta plays a role in requesting public

services without regular procedures and

requirements.

Almukhlifi et al. (2018),


Interaction

improvement

The extent to which citizens believe that

the use of Wastta can link them with key

employees in public organisations.



Wastta dependency The extent to which citizens use Wastta in

requesting public services.



WAS is a common phenomenon that exists in many cultures in various forms and

shapes such as nepotism and cronyism in Western culture and Guanxi in Chinese

culture (Khatri et al. 2006; Mohamed & Mohamad 2011). While nepotism and

cronyism focus on taking advantage of relatives and friends, WAS goes beyond friends

and relatives as it also involves strangers in the process of obtaining personal benefits

(Mohamed & Mohamad 2011).

Both WAS and Guanxi have a critical influence on relevant societies. The difference

is based on how citizens perceive such traits. In China, Guanxi is seen as a positive



strategy of assistance (Hutchings & Weir 2006). Guanxi, for example, is perceived as

a means of facilitating business exchanges that significantly influence the performance

of individual organisations (Peng & Luo 2000). Guanxi can lead to business success

by cultivating personal relationships in the Chinese community (Shi et al. 2018). In

the context of the public sector, it is common that the delivery of public services in

China is influenced by the prevalence of Guanxi (Zheng et al. 2018).

In the Arab world, WAS is perceived from its negative side (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a).

It is utilised for acquiring benefits from public organisations that cannot be obtained

otherwise (Almukhlifi et al. 2018; Hutchings & Weir 2006). WAS, therefore, is

considered as a form of corruption (Hutchings & Weir 2006). This is because that some

citizens often use WAS when they require public services without following the

regular process of a public organisation. Such a way of requesting public services is

often against the policies and regulations of that public organisation.

The presence of WAS can bring several negative consequences to society. WAS, for

example, can cause poor economic performance (Loewe et al. 2008). It decreases the

efficiency and effectiveness of public organisations (Aldraehim et al. 2012; Laker &

Williams 2003). The presence of WAS can lead to feelings of injustice and frustration

among those who do not have personal relationships with key people in public

organisations (Makhoul & Harrison 2004). This can create divisions and encourages

social unrest among people who have WAS and those who do not (Alariss 2010).



WAS is widely popular in Saudi Arabia (Fawzi & Almarshed 2013; Harbi et al. 2016).

This popularity is due to the fact that tribalism, traditions and customs in Saudi Arabia

advocate citizens to be loyal to others who fall under their personal networks (Barnett

et al. 2013; Sidani & Thornberry 2013). It is common for some citizens in Saudi Arabia

to use WAS to achieve social and economic goals. It acts as a means of support to help

citizens accessing public services such as securing jobs, gaining promotions, and

winning tenders (Al-Hussain & Al-Marzooq 2016). WAS, ultimately, can limit the

benefits of the reform steps in Saudi public organisations such as the introduction of

e-government development. It is unclear, however, to what extent WAS influences the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens.

WAS can hinder the utilisation of e-government services (Aldraehim et al. 2012). This

is due to its influence on the decision making of citizens (Tlaiss & Kauser 2011). With

the introduction of e-government services, WAS can limit the benefits of e-

government development (Alomari et al. 2014). The more WAS is used, the fewer the

perceived benefits of e-government. Citizens who are accustomed to using their

personal relationships to request public services and gain personal benefits would

resist the adoption of e-government (Aldraehim et al. 2012). This is due to the ability

of WAS to limit the advantages of using e-government. Based on the above discussion,

the following hypothesis is developed:

H15: WAS negatively moderates the relationship between PU and the adoption of e-

government




This chapter develops a conceptual framework in the study for exploring the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens. Such a framework

is based on a comprehensive review of the literature on e-government adoption and

the nature of e-government development in Saudi Arabia. The constructs and

measurements items of the conceptual framework have been adequately defined for

facilitating the development of the survey instrument for data collection. The

framework lays the foundation for designing and implementing the quantitative study

to better understand the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

Research Methodology 2019


Chapter 4

Research Methodology

4.1 Introduction

A research methodology is a set of procedures for investigating a research problem

from the theoretical foundation of the research to the interpretation of research findings

(Sekaran & Bougie 2016). It aims to facilitate answering the research question through

setting the research activities including data collection, data analysis, and result

interpretation (Alkalbani 2017; Saunders et al. 2009; Sek 2016). The selection of an

appropriate research methodology is critical because of its importance in guiding the

way in which the research is conducted as well as its significant effect on the

interpretation of the collected data (Collis & Hussey 2013; Saunders et al. 2009). In

general, the selection of a proper research methodology can improve the quality of the

research findings in a research project by systematically conducting a set of research

activities (Saunders et al. 2009).

The selection of an appropriate research methodology in a research project is not an

easy task (Chen & Deng 2019; Duan et al. 2019). This is due to (a) the nature of the

research whether it is, for example, exploratory, confirmatory, or descriptive (Creswell

2013; Kothari 2004) and (b) the availability of research methods such as experiment,



case study, mathematical modelling, focus group, survey, observation, and interview

(Chen & Hirschheim 2004; Creswell 2013). As a result, the selection of the research

methodology in a research project requires a careful assessment of the research

question and the research objective in a specific circumstance (An et al. 2014; Sek et

al. 2015).

There are four perspectives that need to be considered in the selection of a specific

research methodology including the research paradigm, the research methodology, the

research design, and the implementation of particular research methodologies

(Creswell 2013). The research paradigm provides the research project with the

philosophical foundation behind selecting the research methodology (Sek 2016). The

selection of the research methodology helps to design the research in a systematic

manner (Marczyk et al. 2005). Such design of the research determines how the

research project can be operationalised via the implementation of specific research

methods and techniques. The consideration of the aforementioned four perspectives

helps to select an appropriate research methodology for a particular research project

(Chen & Hirschheim 2004; Creswell 2013).

The objective of this chapter is to discuss the selection of the research methodology to

address the research question in this study. It first describes the research paradigm

available for paving the way to the selection of an appropriate methodology for this

research. It then discusses the implementation of the selected methodology with a

focus on specific issues such as the selection of the research sample, data collection

and, the selection of the statistical data analysis method in the research.



To effectively achieve the objective of this chapter, Section 4.2 illustrates the research

paradigm for guiding the selection of an appropriate research methodology in this

study. Section 4.3 presents the research methodology and the research methods and

techniques. Section 4.4 discusses the data collection process including the

development of the research instrument, the sample size, and how the research

methodology is implemented to achieve the research objectives. Section 4.5 presents

the data analysis method in this research. Section 4.6 describes the demographic

analysis. Section 4.7 concludes the chapter.

4.2 Research Paradigms

A research paradigm consists of a set of assumptions, beliefs and models concerning

how a research problem should be addressed in specific situations (Lincoln et al. 2011;

Neuman & Robson 2007; Sek 2016). It aims to explain (a) how the world works, (b)

how knowledge is excavated from the world, (c) what questions can be asked, and (d)

what methodologies can be used to answer these questions (Dills & Romiszowski

1997).

There are three underlying principles of a research paradigm including ontologies,

epistemologies, and methodologies (Lincoln et al. 2011). Ontology concerns whether

the phenomenon is objective and external to the researcher or subjective and

cognitively constructed by the researcher (Long et al. 2000). It is related to the nature

of the particular phenomenon in the study (Lincoln et al. 2011). Epistemology refers

to the theory of knowledge and how knowledge can be obtained in a specific situation



(Lincoln et al. 2011). It is related to how we know and what we know in the real world

(Lincoln et al. 2011). Methodologies consist of a set of methods and techniques used

to explore a particular phenomenon in a given situation (Healy & Perry 2000). They

are adopted to translate the ontology and epistemology principles into conducting the

research activities (Tuli 2010). These essential principles guide, inform and shape how

a researcher perceives the world in a study (Lincoln et al. 2011). As a result, the

selection of the paradigm for a research project is based on the perceptions of the

researcher about these principles (Guba & Lincoln 2005).

There are two common research paradigms in social and business research including

positivism and interpretivism (Lincoln et al. 2011; Saunders et al. 2009). The

positivism paradigm is a philosophy that explains what occurs in the phenomenon by

investigating the causal relationship between existing constituent constructs (Collis &

Hussey 2013). It is often characterised by (a) the adoption of a quantitative

methodology to test and validate specific theories followed in the research, (b) the

development of hypotheses, models, or causal relationships between constructs, and

(c) value-free interpretation of the collected data (Chen & Hirschheim 2004).

The underlying intention of positivist research is to identify and evaluate the cause that

affects the outcome in various circumstances (Chen & Hirschheim 2004; Mertens

2014). Positivist-oriented research tends to deal with quantitative data. This is because

such type of research assumes that reality is precisely given in the natural world

(Lincoln et al. 2011; Straub et al. 2004). It seeks to test, expand, and verify specific

theories as well as postulate the relation between these theories to improve the



understanding of different phenomena in the world (Guba & Lincoln 2005; Orlikowski

& Baroudi 1991).

An interpretivist paradigm is a social science philosophy that supports the opinion that

the social world can only be completely understood by subjective interpretation of

reality and the related intervention (Creswell & Clark 2010; Mertens 2014; Saunders

et al. 2009). With the adoption of such an interpretive paradigm, it is important for the

researcher to understand the difference between humans in our roles as social actors

(Saunders et al. 2009). Interpretivist research is usually characterised by (a) the

subjective interpretation of the collected data for the research project, (b) the adoption

of a qualitative methodology for acquiring and analysing the research data, and (c) the

involvement of the researcher in the specific social setting of the study (Chen &

Hirschheim 2004; Creswell & Clark 2010; Mertens 2014). It tends to deal with

qualitative data that lead to the generation of specific theories in a given circumstance

(Guba & Lincoln 2005; Walsham 1995). Interpretivist research attempts to explain,

recognise and translate different phenomena through the meaning given by the

participants in a research project (Collis & Hussey 2013; Walsham 1995). Table 4.1

presents an overview of both paradigms.



Table 4.1 An Overview of the Two Main Paradigms

Positivism Interpretivism

Large sample size Small sample size

An artificial location Natural location

Hypothesis testing Theory generation

Objective, precise and quantitative data Subjective, rich and qualitative data

High reliability and low validity research

findings

Low reliability and high validity research

findings

Study results can be generalised from the sample

size to the population

Study results can be generalised from one setting

to another similar setting

4.3 Research Methodologies

A research methodology is a systematic plan to be followed for answering a particular

research question in a study (Wiersema & Bowen 2009). It concerns formulating the

question of the research project, operationalising the theoretical constructs, identifying

the sample, gathering the data, selecting the statistical method for data analysis and

interpretation, and reporting the research findings (Wiersema & Bowen 2009).

Determining an appropriate research methodology improves the research findings of a

research project by providing the researcher with specific guidelines for conducting

the research activities in order to accomplish the defined objectives within the limited

time (Creswell & Clark 2010).

There are two common research methodologies are commonly used in various research

projects including quantitative and qualitative methodologies (Bryman & Bell 2015).

They are characterised based on the type of data and scope of inquiry in the specific



circumstances. A qualitative methodology is a mean for exploring and understanding

the meaning of a social or human problem through the perception and opinion of a

participant in a study (Creswell 2013). It is descriptive rather than predictive in nature

(Vanderstoep & Johnson 2009). The adoption of a qualitative methodology in specific

research projects is usually due to the use of the interpretivism paradigm to guide the

research project. It includes the description of a scenario using words to gather and

analyse the data in the study (Bryman & Bell 2015). This methodology focuses on

exploring the nature of the phenomenon via understanding various perspectives and

experiences of research participants (Vanderstoep & Johnson 2009). Common

examples of qualitative methods in the use of this methodology are case study, action

research, and interviews (Creswell & Clark 2010).

A quantitative methodology is widely used for examining specific theories by testing

the relationship between the constructs in a given situation (Creswell 2013). A

positivist paradigm is usually followed with the use of such a methodology (Collis &

Hussey 2013). This methodology focuses on the quantification of specific

relationships between some theoretical constructs for expressing specific phenomena

in a given study (Kothari 2004). It includes gathering and analysing numerical data in

specific situations (Bryman & Bell 2015). A quantitative methodology is helpful for

investigating how hypotheses of a study are supported by using numerical data

representing the viewpoint of a population (Vanderstoep & Johnson 2009). Examples

of quantitative study methods are surveys, experiments, and cross-sectional studies

(Collis & Hussey 2013).



This research adopts a quantitative methodology to accomplish the research objectives.

This is because this research aims to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia which is confirmatory in nature (Almukhlifi et al. 2017;

2018). The use of a quantitative research methodology is appropriate for this research

due to two reasons. First, a quantitative methodology is able to investigate the causal

relationships between the study constructs by collecting and analysing the numerical

data (Creswell 2013; Tuli 2010). Second, the adoption of such a methodology

facilitates deriving research findings that can be generalised to large populations

(Straub et al. 2004; Vanderstoep & Johnson 2009).

This research adopts the survey method with the use of the quantitative methodology

for collecting data. It is commonly used for studying the cause of a phenomenon as

well as collecting data on the attitudes and behaviours of the sample population (Hair

et al. 2010; Vanderstoep & Johnson 2009). A survey is adopted in this research because

of its capability in (a) investigating the current patterns of e-government adoption in

Saudi Arabia and (b) testing and validating specific hypotheses with respect to the

proposed framework in the study.

4.4 Data Collection

Data collection is about the procedure of gathering and preparing relevant data to

accomplish the research objective of a study (Creswell & Clark 2010). It consists of

three stages including (a) the development of a reliable and valid survey instrument,

(b) the determination of the sample size, and (c) the implementation of the data



collection process within the selected sampling frame for achieving specific objectives

of the research in a given situation (Sek 2016).

This research follows the procedure of the survey instrument development proposed

by Churchill (1979) and Straub (1989), as shown in Figure 4.1, for guiding the

development of a reliable and valid survey instrument. Developing and refining the

survey instrument are the two major processes that are considered in this study.

Survey instrument development Survey instrument refinement

Specifying the domain

of constructs

Generating measurement

items for each construct

Pre-test of the survey

instrument

Pilot test of the survey

instrument

Figure 4.1 An Overview of the Survey Instrument Development

Developing the survey instrument requires specifying the domain of the constructs and

generating the measurement items for each construct. The domain of constructs is

specified through a comprehensive literature review on e-government adoption, as

illustrated in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. This leads to the identification of computer self-

efficacy, personal innovativeness, computer anxiety, service quality, information

quality, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, transparency, and Wastta as the

constructs for exploring the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Generating the

measurement items for each construct is accomplished through a review of the related



literature and the consideration of the unique circumstances of the research problem

which is about the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of

citizens. This leads to the identification of 49 measurement items presented as in

Appendix A.

The survey instrument includes three parts. The first part describes the terms included

in the survey instrument. The second part is designed to gather the demographic

information of the participants such as gender, age, education level and occupation.

The third part is used to explore the perception and opinion of individual citizens on

the critical factors that influence the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

The survey instrument employs a seven-point Likert scale in this research (Duan

2012). This is due to its accuracy and capability in providing consistent results to be

used in data analysis (Hair et al. 2010). A seven-point Likert scale is used in the survey

to evaluate agreement regarding the specific measurement items under various

constructs in the survey instrument. The value ‘1’ indicates ‘not agree at all’ and the

value ‘7’ indicates ‘strongly agree’. The seven-point Likert scale is also applied for

evaluating the importance of some specific constructs in the survey instrument

describing that the value ‘1’ indicates ‘not important at all’ and value ‘7’ indicates

‘extremely important’.

The survey instrument refinement includes the pre-test and the pilot test of the survey

instrument developed for this research. A pre-test aims to evaluate the content validity



of the survey designed for collecting research data (Hair et al. 2010). In this step,

experts in the field are invited to validate the survey instrument based on

understandability, terminology, wording comprehensibility, logical sequencing,

consistency and so forth (Hair et al. 2010; Sekaran & Bougie 2016). In this research,

five academic experts in the e-government area pre-tested the survey instrument.

Specific comments were provided for improving the survey instrument. These

comments are related to (a) rephrasing questions, (b) deleting questions, and (c)

suggesting questions. Based on these comments, the survey instrument was modified.

The participants for this survey are the Saudi citizens. Arabic is the first language in

Saudi Arabia. The survey instrument was translated into the Arabic language to

facilitate a quick response. The translation was done by using the forward–backward

translation method (Alkalbani 2017; Bailey 2008), so that one translator converted a

document from English to Arabic, and then a different translator converted it back

from Arabic to English. To ensure that the meaning in the Arabic version conveys the

same meaning as the English version, the survey instrument was translated into Arabic

language by linguistic specialists.

A pilot test is a small study conducted before actual data collection to ensure the

reliability of the survey instrument (Straub 1989; Van & Hundley 2002). The revised

version of the survey was distributed to 34 Saudi citizens for the pilot test. The

participants in the pilot test were followed up in interviews to gain their perceptions

on improving the survey instrument. They did not mention any difficulties or problems



with filling in the survey instrument. As a result, no specific modifications were

required.

Construct reliability is about the consistency of the measurement items composing a

particular construct in a research study (Lu et al. 2007). It is critical for ensuring the

reliability of the research findings in a study. Usually, Cronbach’s alpha is a common

method for examining the reliability of individual constructs (George 2011). It is used

in this research to ensure the internal consistency of the constructs before

implementing the data collection. A Cronbach’s alpha value greater than 0.7 indicates

reliability of the survey measurement items (Hair et al. 2010). Consequently, the

collected data of 34 participants in the pilot test study is examined. The Cronbach’s

alpha value of the data obtained from participants is 0.838. This shows an acceptable

internal consistency of the survey measurement items. As a result, the construct

reliability of the survey instrument is supported in this study.

There are two categories of sampling techniques including non-probability sampling

and probability sampling in a research project (Saunders et al. 2009). Non-probability

sampling assumes that the probability of selecting each participant from the whole

sample population is unknown (Zikmund et al. 2013). This technique of sampling is

not appropriate for studies that investigate a phenomenon based on a large number of

participants (Bryman 2016; Sekaran & Bougie 2016). It is more suitable for studies

that collect data from a small number of participants (Teddlie & Yu 2007). This is

because the non-probability sampling technique does not represent the entire



population. As a result, some restrictions on the generalisability of research findings

in a given study are often imposed (Bryman 2016).

Probability sampling assumes that the probability of selecting each participant from

the whole sampling population is known (Zikmund et al. 2013). The adoption of the

probability sampling technique in a study allows the research participant to be selected

randomly. Probability sampling is an appropriate technique to collect data from a large

population to ensure representation of the sample in a given study (Teddlie & Yu

2007). This means that probability sampling allows a researcher to generalise the

research findings to the entire population in the study. As a result, the probability

sampling technique is used in this study for selecting the research sample as this

research targets the whole population of the citizens in Saudi Arabia.

Selecting an adequate sample size is vital for providing consistent and reliable research

findings (Hair et al. 2010). In this research, the formula of Yamane (1967) is used to

determine an adequate sample size for this research as shown in (4.1). In this formula,

‘N’ is the population size and ‘e’ is the level of precision that is 95% confidence level

with probability 0.05. Based on this formula, at least 400 valid surveys should be

received for generalising the research findings of the study.

Appropriate Sample Size = N / [1 + N (e)²] (4.1)



The data collection was conducted in Saudi Arabia between June 2016 and August

2016. The survey was distributed to participants through two means. The first mean is

through posting the online version of the survey instrument using the RMIT Qualtrics

system on social sites. The second mean is through distributing the survey instrument

personally to Saudi citizens by visiting public libraries in Saudi Arabia. A letter of

invitation to participate in the research was attached in both situations with respect to

the ethical requirements of the study under the guidelines of the RMIT Ethics

Committee. A total of 501 responses were received including 408 responses from the

online version and 93 responses from the in-person distribution.

4.5 Data Analysis

Data analysis is a set of processes applied for the collected data to accomplish the

research objectives (Creswell & Clark 2010). It focuses on applying reasoning for

better understanding the research data that have been collected (Zikmund et al. 2013).

The appropriate analytical method for conducting data analysis is determined by the

characteristics of the research design, the research requirements, and the nature of the

data collection (Zikmund et al. 2013). In the quantitative study, multivariate data

analysis is often used to test the hypotheses of a research study and to identify the

relationship between independent and dependent constructs (Hair et al. 2010).

SEM is widely used as one of the powerful method for analysing multivariate data in

various research projects (Hair et al. 2010).. SEM allows a researcher for modelling

the relationship between constructs and measurement items, and the relationships



among constructs in a research model (Chin 1998). It explores the structure of

interrelationships between research constructs through a series of equations (Hair et

al. 2010). It further examines to what extent to the hypotheses in the research model

are supported by the collected data in a given situation (Hair et al. 2010). These

hypotheses can be rejected if the collected data does not conform to the proposed

research model (Byrne 2013; Kaplan 2009). SEM has the flexibility for interplaying

between the research conceptual framework under investigation and the data collected

from the participants in a research project (Byrne 2013).

This study uses SEM to analyse the quantitative data for investigating the critical

factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The rationale of using SEM

in this research is due to (a) its potential ability in extending the theory (b) its ability

to simultaneously test several interrelated relationships among the constructs to

validate the conceptual framework, and (c) its capability to contain latent variables in

expressing the abstract concepts while taking into account the measurement error in a

given study (Hair et al. 2010; Kline 2015).

Five steps are followed in conducting SEM analysis for analysing the dataset in this

research shown as in Figure 4.2 (Hair et al. 2010). The first step is about conducting a

preliminary data analysis to prepare the dataset to be ready for further analysis. This

step includes dealing with missing data, outliers, normality test, and non-response bias

assessment. The second step concerns performing the dimensionality assessment to

examine the extent to which a set of measurement items fit together to reflect a

theoretical construct (Clark & Watson 1995). This step includes performing an



exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS)

version 25 software is used to perform the first and second steps.

The third step assesses the validity of the full measurement model. One of the main

purposes of using SEM is to explore the extent to which a proposed model fits the

collected data (Hair et al. 2010). Analysis of the moment structure (AMOS) version

25 software is used to assess the initial full measurement model. In this step, CFA is

performed. It begins with the examination of the initial full measurement model. The

goodness of fit (GOF) indices values should be acceptable to ensure the validity of the

full measurement model (Hair et al. 2010). If the full measurement model does not

present acceptable GOF values, one-factor congeneric models analysis is conducted.

The process of model evaluation is continued through refinement and retesting until

the validity of the one-factor congeneric models and the full measurement model is

ensured. This process often leads to dropping some measurement items that do not

reach acceptable values of the validity assessment indices. The details of this step are

presented in Chapter 6.

The fourth step of the SEM analysis is the assessment of the validity of the structural

model. The structural model presents an overview of the strength of the path between

the constructs in the study. Such a model therefore facilitates the understanding of the

proposed relationship between the constructs in the conceptual framework in the study

(Hair et al., 2010). It is assessed through the magnitude of variance explained for each

dependent variable (R²), the paths coefficient, and the P value (Byrne 2013). AMOS

version 25 is used for the structural validity assessment. The final step in the SEM



analysis is to summarise the results based on the measurement model analysis and the

structural model analysis. The details of the fourth and fifth steps are presented in

Chapter 6.

Preliminary data analysis

Dimensionality assessment

Assessing the full

measurement model validity

No

Yes

Model refinement

Measurement

model valid?

Assessing the structural

model validity

No

Yes

Structural

model valid?

Structural equation modelling

results

Model refinement

Figure 4.2 An Overview of the Procedures for Data Analysis



4.5.1 Preliminary Data Analysis

A preliminary data analysis is performed to prepare the dataset for SEM analysis in

the study (Sek 2016). It is necessary to examine the readiness of the data to ensure the

validity of the dataset for further analysis (Hair et al. 2010). This is to ensure that the

assumptions underlying the multivariate analysis are fulfilled before performing SEM

analysis (Cruz 2007). In this research, six tasks in the preliminary data analysis are

performed including missing data assessment, outlier assessment, normality

assessment, non-response bias assessment, reliability assessment, and

multicollinearity assessment.

Missing data is any values of the measurement items in the survey instrument that are

not completed by a participant (Hair et al. 2010). The existence of the missing data

affects the data analysis by reducing the sample size (Byrne 2013; Hair et al. 2010).

Further, the missing value influences the accuracy of the estimated parameters and the

fitness of the SEM model (Kaplan 2009). This compromises the research findings in a

given situation. It is, therefore, important to effectively handle the missing data in a

given study to improve the accuracy of the research findings.

To effectively handle the missing data, a preventive action is taken to ensure that the

data is free from any missing values. For the online survey, participants are reminded

if any measurement items are not answered. This helps in the absence of the missing

values for the online survey. For surveys that were delivered physically, listwise

deletion of the data is conducted (Hair et al. 2010). It concerns deleting the whole



survey containing the missing value. This research employs the listwise deletion for

remedying the missing values because of its ability to provide unbiased findings by

solving problems that can accrue because of the missing data (Byrne 2013).

Consequently, a total of 19 cases are removed due to the missing data.

Outliers are data values that are different from the rest of the data values (Byrne 2013;

Hair et al. 2010). Outliers often are existent in the dataset due to several causes

including observation errors, data entry errors, and instrument errors (Schumacker &

Lomax 2004). The identification of outliers is important since they can influence

fitting the model estimation, standard errors, and parameter estimation in the data

analysis process (Byrne 2013; Gallagher et al. 2008). This means that outliers must be

managed using available statistical procedures (Byrne 2013).

To effectively detect outliers, the Mahalanobis distance (D2) for each measurement

item is computed (Hadi 1992; Hair et al. 2010). D2 is used to measure the distance

between a single observation and the mean of all the observations in a given study

(Kline 2015). This study assesses D2 of each data case using the chi-square (χ2)

distribution with a P value (<0.001) and degrees of freedom equal to the independent

constructs number (Chowdhury 2019; Tabachnick & Fidell 2007). A particular case is

considered an outlier if the D2 of this case is higher than the χ2 value (Tabachnick &

Fidell 2007). As a result, four cases are detected as data outliers in this study and they

are deleted from further analysis.



The normality assessment of a dataset is required before data analysis using SEM

(Byrne 2013; Duan et al. 2012). Such an assessment focuses on approximating the

distribution of the dataset as normal (Hair et al. 2010). The normality assessment

examines whether the collected data is normally distributed to the population sample

or not (Hair et al. 2010). Non-normal data distribution often leads to invalid research

findings in specific situations (Byrne 2013). It is critical, therefore, to examine the

normality of the dataset to obtain more accurate results of the study (Hopkins & Weeks

1990; Sek 2016).

The normality can be examined graphically and statistically (Sek 2016). Graphically,

it is examined by checking the shape of the histogram of the dataset in the study.

Statistically, the normality of the dataset is examined through the use of the skewness

and kurtosis measures for each construct in the study. In this research, the normality

of the dataset is examined by assessing the values of the kurtosis and skewness.

An existence of kurtosis and skewness in the data distribution affects the reliability of

the data analysis outcomes in the study (Byrne 2013). Kurtosis concerns the flatness

or peakedness of the data distribution compared to a normal data distribution (Hair et

al. 2010). The presence of the kurtosis influences the calculation of covariance and

variance (Byrne 2013). Skewness is related to the orientation of the data distribution

from the centre. It is about whether the distribution of the data is shifted to one

direction (right or left) or another (Hair et al. 2010). The presence of skewness

influences the algorithms used in testing the mean (Byrne 2013). It is, consequently,

important to examine the kurtosis and skewness of the data distribution in research



studies. To ensure the normality of the dataset, values of skewness and kurtosis are

acceptable when these values fall within the range of -2 to +2 (George & Mallery

2005).

The skewness and kurtosis of the dataset in this study are examined using the SPSS

software. As shown in Table 4.2, kurtosis values are ranged between -1.06 and +0.09.

The skewness values are in the range between -1.13 and +0.98. This shows that the

dataset in this study is consistent with the normal distribution.

Table 4.2 A Summary of the Normality Assessment Results

Constructs Kurtosis values Skewness values

CSE 0.01 -1.04

PI -0.71 -0.47

CA -0.25 0.98

SQ -1.06 -0.49

IQ -0.89 -0.23

PU 0.09 -1.13

PEOU -0.23 -0.99

TRAN -0.15 -0.83

WAS -1.06 -0.30

ADOP -0.17 -0.88

Non-response bias refers to the bias that exists when a group of respondents differs

from another group (Hair et al. 2010). The assessment of non-response bias is

important to ensure that the collected data remains representative of the study



population (Okoli & Pawlowski 2004). The existence of non-response bias is a concern

for researchers when they collect data via a survey instrument (Ihtiyar 2018). This is

due to the fact that the existence of non-response bias influences the generalisability

of the study findings (Hair et al. 2010). Non-response bias is usually assessed by

examining the differences in demographics information between two groups of

respondents (Hair et al., 2010).

Non-response bias analysis is conducted in this study. Since the data in this study were

collected via both online and personal means, this study assumes that respondents from

online mean are more likely to have the same demographics characteristics as the

respondents from the personal mean. If the difference is not significant, the dataset of

both groups can be merged for further analysis (Hair et al., 2010).

A non-response bias is assessed by using the χ2 test to compare the main demographic

information of the 389 responses from the first mean and the 89 responses from the

second mean. The results shown as in Table 4.3 indicate that no significant differences

can be detected in the main demographic information between the first group of

respondents and the second group of respondents. As a result, both groups of

participants can be combined for further analysis.



Table 4.3 A Summary of the Non-Response Bias Assessment Results

Demographic variables χ2 values P values

Age 5.93 0.20

Gender 1.71 0.19

Education 12.0 0.06

Occupation 1.06 0.95

With the implementation of the preliminary analysis on the dataset in the study, the

original number of respondents of 501 is reduced to 478 due to the deletion of 23 cases

from the dataset. This includes the deletion of 19 cases due to the missing data and

four cases due to the presence of data outliers, leading to a total of 478 valid cases to

be ready for further analysis.

Construct reliability is about the consistency of the measurement items composing a

particular construct in a study (Lu et al. 2007). Cronbach’s alpha is a common method

for examining the reliability of individual constructs in a study (George 2011). A

Cronbach’s alpha value greater than 0.70 indicates that the construct is reliable (Hair

et al. 2010). For improving the construct reliability, it is suggested to remove any

measurement items that have a low value of reliability within a particular construct in

order to improve the alpha coefficient value (Hair et al. 2010). If the construct still

does not show the acceptable reliability, it has to be excluded from further analysis

(Hair et al. 2010).



The construct reliability is assessed in this research by considering the Cronbach’s

alpha value. Table 4.4 shows that the average of the Cronbach’s alpha values for the

research constructs are ranged from 0.81 to 0.93. This means that the constructs used

in the research are reliable. Based on these results, the internal consistency of the

survey instrument is satisfactory.

Table 4.4 A Summary of the Construct Reliability Assessment Results

Constructs Cronbach’s alpha values

CSE 0.91

PI 0.87

CA 0.91

SQ 0.92

IQ 0.84

PU 0.93

PEOU 0.90

TRAN 0.91

WAS 0.86

ADOP 0.81

Multicollinearity is about to the extent to which independent constructs do not corelate

to each other in explaining the dependent construct in the study (Hair et al. 2010). It is

important to assess the multicollinearity of the constructs because the presence of

multicollinearity between independent constructs makes it problematic to assess the

importance of specific constructs (Field 2009). As a result, a problematic construct

needs to be deleted to avoid multicollinearity.



Multicollinearity is assessed in this research by examining variable inflation factor

(VIF) values and tolerance values (Field 2009; O’brien 2007). As a rule of thumb, VIF

values lower than 3 and tolerance values greater than 0.1 for each construct are ideal

(O’brien 2007). Table 4.5 shows that all VIF values and tolerance values are

satisfactory. This means that there is no overlapping between independent constructs

in explaining the dependent construct.

Table 4.5 A Summary of the Multicollinearity Assessment Results

Constructs Tolerance values VIF values

CSE 0.57 1.77

PI 0.68 1.48

CA 0.81 1.23

SQ 0.61 1.63

IQ 0.71 1.41

PU 0.55 1.82

PEOU 0.43 2.31

TRAN 0.77 1.31

WAS 0.83 1.21

4.5.2 Dimensionality Assessment

Dimensionality assessment is about to the extent to which a set of measurement items

fit together to reflect a theoretical construct in a study (Clark & Watson 1995;

Karunasena et al. 2011). This assessment is important for SEM analysis (Venkatraman

1989). This is due to its ability in comprehending the structure of the measurement



items used in a study for reflecting a particular construct. EFA is employed in this

research to assess constructs dimensionality (Venkatraman 1989).

EFA allows a study to discover the structure of a set of measurement items in terms of

its representation of a particular construct (Williams et al. 2010). It is used to reduce

the number of measurement items for each construct in a way that the remaining

measurement items maximise the explained variance in the construct (Hair et al. 2010).

Data adequacy assessment and communality value assessment need to be considered

before performing EFA.

Data adequacy assessment evaluates the extent to which the data collected from

participants are sufficient and of expected quality (Sek 2016). Usually, Kaiser-Meyer-

Olkin (KMO) is used to check the adequacy of sampling. The value of KMO should

be greater than 0.85 to support the sampling adequacy assessment (Hair et al. 2010).

The dataset of this research is assessed to ensure the sampling adequacy. It indicates

that the value of KMO is 0.92. This means that the dataset is adequate for further

analysis.

Communality refers to the amount of shared variance that exists in a measurement item

(Field 2009). The greater the communality value, the greater fit the measurement item

has in explaining the construct. As a rule of thumb, a communality value for each

measurement item should be at least 0.5 (Tabachnick & Fidell 2007). If the

communality value is low, the measurement item might not be loaded on any construct



(Zikmund et al. 2013). In this research, communality values are obtained in the process

of EFA. The results show that communalities values are ranged from 0.58 to 0.84. This

indicates that the shared variance that exists in all measurement items can adequately

explain the constructs.

EFA is performed by using the principal component method and the varimax method

(Sek 2016). A total of 49-measurement items is examined in this research. The results

indicate that the factor loading values of all measurement items are greater than the

accepted value of 0.5 (Hair et al. 2010). The results also show that the 47-measurement

items are loaded on the single construct among the 49- measurement items used in this

research. Two measurement items of the construct of transparency including TRAN1

and TRAN2 are loaded on other constructs. Accordingly, they are deleted. The 47-

measurement items used in the survey instrument indicate that no cross-loadings of the

measurement items within the constructs. Such results support the constructs

dimensionality. Table 4.6 presents a summary of the EFA results.



Table 4.6 A Summary of the Exploratory Factor Analysis Results

Constructs Number of

measurement items

Range of factor

loading

Number of dropped

measurement items

Reason for

dropping

CSE 5 (0.75 - 0.80) 0 NA

PI 4 (0.74 - 0.84) 0 NA

CA 4 (0.83 - 0.90) 0 NA

SQ 6 (0.77 - 0.80) 0 NA

IQ 5 (0.71 - 0.77) 0 NA

PU 5 (0.76 - 0.82) 0 NA

PEOU 5 (0.66 - 0.73) 0 NA

TRAN 8 (0.77 - 0.84) 2 Cross loading

WAS 4 (0.72 - 0.88) 0 NA

ADOP 3 (0.68 - 0.79) 0 NA

4.6 Demographic Analysis

Demographic statistics are used to present the characteristics of the data obtained from

participants in a given study (An et al. 2017; An et al. 2016). They are used for

demonstrating the representativeness of the data sample and providing the study with

opportunities to explore the underlying relationship between the constructs of the study

and the characteristics of the respondent in a given situation. Such demonstration is

usually presented visually by using tables, graphs, and charts to describe the basic

characteristics of the participants.

Two statistics are used to explain the raw data including the central tendency statistics

and the dispersion statistics. The central tendency statistics focus on the middle and



common points in the dataset (Sheats & Pankratz 2002). Several statistics can be used

to measure central tendency such as mean, median, and mode of the data (Sek 2016).

Dispersion statistics concentrate on to the extent to which the data values are dispersed

around the central tendency (Saunders et al. 2009). Several statistics can be used to

measure dispersion such as range, variance, and standard deviation (Sheats & Pankratz

2002).

Demographic statistics are a suitable method for exploring the current trends and

patterns of the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The demographics

information in this research include gender, age, education level and occupation. The

discussions of the demographic statistics for exploring the current trends and patterns

of the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia are presented in Chapter 5 in details.


This chapter presents the research methodology adopted for achieving the research

objective of the study. Based on the nature of this study, a quantitative research

methodology is adopted in this research for answering the research questions due to

(a) the capability of such a methodology in investigating the relationship between the

constructs by collecting and analysing the numerical data collected and (b) the

potential of generalising the research findings to a large population. The data is

collected from Saudi citizens leading to receive a total of 501 participants. Two steps

of data analysis including preliminary data analysis and dimensionality assessment are



performed in this chapter. The other remining steps including the full measurement

model analysis and the structural model analysis are presented in Chapter 6.

Emerging Patterns of the Adoption of E-Government 2019


Chapter 5

Emerging Patterns of the Adoption of E-

Government

5.1 Introduction

E-government is an internet-based information system that allows public organisations

to deliver public services in an efficient and effective manner (Deng 2008). It is

increasingly becoming popular across the world (Alkalbani et al. 2017; Deng et al.

2018; Karunasena & Deng 2012a). The popularity of e-government arises from the

various benefits that e-government offers (Karunasena & Deng 2011; Venkatesh et al.

2016). The major benefits of e-government include but not limited to the flexibility

and convenience in accessing public services (Deng 2008), the enhanced interaction

between citizens and public organisations (Rana et al. 2017; Weerakkody et al. 2015),

the greater transparency in public decision making (Ramaswamy 2014), and the

improved participation of citizens in public administration (Ramaswamy 2014).

Following the world trend, the Saudi government has developed several initiatives in

the active pursuit of the development of e-government (Alotaibi et al. 2017; Altayar



2018; Khan et al. 2013). Notable progress has been made in this regard. This is

exemplified in the introduction of mobile government, open data portal, and electronic

procurement in the delivery of public services (Almukhlifi et al. 2018; Saleem et al.

2013). The adoption of e-government, however, is still far from satisfactory. This is

demonstrated by that fact that only about 41.4% of Saudi citizens use e-government to

some degree (Alghamdi 2016). There are about 58.6% of Saudi citizens who rarely

use e-government for public services. This indicates that there is a clear need for better

understanding the adoption of e-government from the perspective of citizens in Saudi

Arabia.

Better understanding the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia first requires

investigating the emerging patterns and trends of the adoption of e-government. Such

an investigation is important and necessary for several reasons. It, for example, can

help public organisations formulate specific strategies and policies for improving the

development of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Understanding the adoption of e-

government can lead to better knowledge of the extent to which public organisations

in Saudi Arabia have used e-government for improving the delivery of public services.

Further, such an investigation can help to obtain better understanding of the

perceptions and expectations of the citizens with respect to the development of e-

government in the country.

This chapter aims to investigate the emerging patterns and trends of the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia. It investigates the extent to which e-government is

utilised in Saudi Arabia. To effectively achieve the above objective, this chapter first



explores the status of e-government development in Saudi Arabia. It then describes the

emerging patterns and trends of the adoption of e-government from different

perspectives.

To effectively achieve the objective of this chapter, the chapter is organised into three

sections. Section 5.2 explores the status of e-government development in Saudi Arabia.

Section 5.3 outlines the emerging patterns and trends of the adoption of e-government

in Saudi Arabia. Section 5.4 presents concluding remarks of this chapter.

5.2 The Status of E-Government Development in Saudi

Arabia

Exploring the development of e-government is critical for better understanding its

adoption in Saudi Arabia. This is because this will present an overview of what is

available for various stakeholders of e-government including citizens. To explore the

development of e-government in Saudi Arabia, the websites of 166 public

organisations are analysed. These public organisations are obtained from several

formal sources such as Yesser, the National Anti-Corruption Commission, and the

Saudi Press Agency to ensure the comprehensiveness of the investigation. The

exploration of e-government development in Saudi Arabia is approached from several

perspectives including website visibility, website accessibility, public services

availability, and transparency of public decision making.



Website visibility is about the easiness of finding the website of a public organisation

online (Small 2008). As e-government refers to the delivery of public services via e-

government websites, visibility of these websites is critical for the adoption of e-

government (Kaaya 2004). Without being able to find the e-government website, the

adoption of e-government for accessing public services is impossible. Website

visibility can be examined with respect to the ranking of the e-government website

from the use of the name of the public organisation in the search engine (Kaaya 2004).

In general, a ranking of less than the 10th position of the website in a single search

would indicate that the website is visible to the public (Kaaya 2004).

Website visibility of public organisations in Saudi Arabia has been examined in this

study. The results show that three of 166 public organisation websites are not appeared

within the first 10 search results. These websites include the websites of the King

Salman Bin Abdul-Aziz hospital, the King Fahd Military Medical Complex and the Al

Iman hospital. This result shows that overall website visibility in the development of

e-government in Saudi Arabia is satisfactory. It reveals that almost all public

organisations have developed their websites during the development of e-government,

so that specific public services can be delivered through e-government.

Website accessibility is related to the ability of e-government stakeholders including

citizens to access the website of a public organisations without restrictions (Grantham

et al. 2012). Having accessibility to e-government websites is critical for the delivery

of public services through e-government. Website accessibility is examined by

ascertaining that the website of public organisations can be browsed by stakeholders



without connection difficulties (Verkijika & Wet 2018). For ensuring the accuracy of

the accessibility examination, each website is examined at two different times to

reduce the possibility that the website of a public organisation is down at any specific

time.

Website accessibility of public organisations in Saudi Arabia is also assessed in this

study. The results show that 19 websites are not accessible. This means that these

public organisations fail to actively pursue the development of e-government. This is

due to the fact that the difficulties in accessing public services online would prevent

citizens from obtaining the benefits of e-government development. Public

organisations in Saudi Arabia should ensure that their websites are accessible to

facilitate the delivery of public services through e-government development.

The results of the website visibility and accessibility assessments show that a total of

144 public organisations websites as shown in Appendix C are ready for further

examination. These websites are categorised into six categories including

municipalities, education, health, ministries, public commissions, and other public

organisations. Table 5.1 presents an overview of the categorisation of these public

organisations for further analysis.



Table 5.1 An Overview of Public Organisations

Categories of public organisations Number of public organisations Percentage (%)

Municipalities 12 8.3

Education 33 22.9

Health 20 13.9

Ministries 19 13.2

Public commissions 30 20.8

Other public organisations 30 20.8

Total 144 100

The availability of public services refers to the extent to which public organisations

use e-government to provide citizens with public services (Ancarani 2005). It shows

what kinds of e-government services are available to e-government stakeholders

including citizens in the development of e-government. The availability of public

services is usually examined by browsing each public organisation website to count

the available public services. These public services include main services related to

the core business that support the main goal of a public origination and secondary

services that support the operations of a public organisation such as electronic

procurement services and electronic recruitment services. An examination of the

availability of public services through e-government can provide a better

understanding of the extent to which public organisations in Saudi Arabia strive to

improve the delivery of public services through e-government.

The availability of public services through e-government development in Saudi Arabia

is assessed in this study. The results show that a total of 4,197 online services are



available through e-government in 144 public organisations as presented in Appendix

C. The results show that the Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu is the public

organisation that provides the highest number of public services online. The results

further show that fewer number of online public services are provided by public

organisations of the Sharurah Armed Forces Hospital, the General Authority for

Awqaf, the King Abdul-Aziz Centre for National Dialogue and the King Abdullah

Petroleum Studies and Research Centre. This shows that the comprehensiveness of

public services offered in Saudi Arabia varies across various public organisations.

The transparency of public decision making relates to the extent to which public

organisations provide stakeholders including citizens with public information through

e-government (Almukhlifi et al. 2019b). The availability of public information is one

of the motivations that encourage citizens to adopt e-government. This is due to the

fact that the availability of public information can help citizens manage their public

services as well as monitor the performance of public organisations (Ramaswamy

2014). As a result, public organisations across the world utilise the development of e-

government for improving the availability of public information to citizens

(Almukhlifi et al. 2019b; Karunasena & Deng 2012b).

Several indicators have been adopted to examine the availability of public information

through e-government development. These indicators include the publication of basic

data, the publication of news, the publication of downloadable forms, the publication

of policies and regulations, the publication of tendering opportunities, the publication

of budget and expenses, the publication of annual reports (Jukić & Vintar 2006;



Karunasena & Deng 2010, 2012b), and the publication of open government data. All

144 public organisation websites are assessed based on these indicators to examine the

overall availability of public information in Saudi Arabia.

The availability of basic data is about providing citizens with the minimum level of

public information through e-government to help them contact these public

organisations for specific reasons (Jukić & Vintar 2006). Such information can include

the address, telephone numbers and e-mail addresses of public organisations. It is

valuable to publish such basic data because it may help citizens contact public

organisations regarding their needs such as inquiring about public services or making

complaints.

All 144 websites of the public organisations are assessed for examining the publication

of basic data. The results as shown in Table 5.2 indicate that 94.4% of public

organisations publish this basic data. The results indicate that 8.3% of these

organisations are related to municipalities, 22.9% are in the education sector, 13.9%

are related to the health sector, 11.1% are from the ministries, 19.4% are public

commissions, and 18.8% are related to other public organisations. The examination of

basic data publication through e-government in Saudi Arabia indicates that public

organisations are keen to improve their interactions with their stakeholders including

citizens. This is due to the fact that the availability of contact information through e-

government will make it easier for citizens to reach public organisations if they have

any inquiries about specific public services. Maintaining the availability of various



contact information through e-government is, therefore, important for improving the

development of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

Table 5.2 An Overview of Basic Data Publication

Category of public organisations

Publication of basic data

Count Percentage (%)


Education 33 22.9

Health 20 13.9

Ministries 16 11.1



Total 136 94.4

News publication is about providing citizens with the latest information related to a

public organisation through e-government (Jukić & Vintar 2006). Such publications

can include but are not limited to the publication of public organisation agreements,

past or upcoming events, announcements, meetings planned, and updates on public

services provided by public organisations. The importance of publishing news on

public organisation websites arises with the need of these public organisations to

engage with their stakeholders including citizens. This allows citizens to be aware of

public organisation activities and the up-to-date news.




of news. The results as shown in Table 5.3 indicate that 92.4% of the public

organisations publish their news through e-government. The results show that 8.3% of

these organisations are related to municipalities, 21.5% are in the education sector,

13.2% are related to the health sector, 13.2% are from the ministries, 17.4% of the

organisations are public commissions, and 18.8% are related to other public

organisations. This assessment shows that publication of news on public organisation

websites in Saudi Arabia is satisfactory. The results further indicate that most of the

news highlights public organisation events, meetings, and public organisation

agreements.

Table 5.3 An Overview of Public News Publication

Categories of public organisations

Publication of news



Education 31 21.5

Health 19 13.2

Ministries 19 13.2



Total 133 92.4

The publication of specific forms on e-government websites allows individual citizens

to download these forms to facilitate the use of public services through e-government

(Jukić & Vintar 2006). There are numerous forms for various public services that have



been widely published across many countries because they can help citizens to request

public services in an effective and efficient manner (Vintar et al. 2003). This shows

that the availability of downloadable forms for public services can improve the


All the 144 websites of the public organisations are assessed for examining the

publication of forms. The results as shown in Table 5.4 indicate that 20.8% of the

public organisations publish at least one downloadable form. An analysis of the

organisations with published forms available online reveals that 0.1% of the

organisations are related to municipalities, 5.6% are in the education sector, 2.1% are

related to the health sector, 6.9% are from the ministries, 2.8% are public commissions,

and 2.8% are related to other public organisations.

Overall, the availability of downloadable forms on public organisation websites in

Saudi Arabia is still far from satisfactory. Furthermore, a close assessment of the

available downloadable forms on public organisation websites shows that almost all

the existing forms are available only for downloading. This means that Saudi citizens

must complete these forms manually before returning the form back to relevant public

organisations in order to get the service done. This shows that there is lack of

interactivity between public organisations and citizens in using public services through

e-government in Saudi Arabia.



Table 5.4 An Overview of Downloadable Forms Publication


Publication of downloadable forms



Education 8 5.6

Health 3 2.1

Ministries 10 6.9



Total 30 20.8

The publication of relevant policies and regulations provides citizens with useful

information for the delivery of public services through e-government (Jukić & Vintar

2006). This is important as making such information available for citizens through e-

government can improve the transparency of public decision making in public

organisations (Karunasena & Deng 2011, 2012b). Public organisations can utilise

these public policies and regulations to regulate the delivery of public services to their

stakeholders.


of public policies and regulations through e-government. The results as shown in Table

5.5 indicate that 50% of public organisations use e-government to publish their public

policies and regulations. The results show that 7.6% of the public organisations are

related to municipalities, 6.9% are related to the education sector, 2.8% are in the



health sector, 11.1% are from the ministries, 13.9% are public commissions, and 7.6%

are other public organisations.

Overall, the current publication of policies and regulations is not satisfactory in the

development of e-government in Saudi Arabia. This is mainly due to its ignorance in

publishing several important regulations in the country. The assessment of the

available policies and regulations on public organisation websites shows that most

public regulations and policies are related to the establishment of public organisations

and identification of their tasks. Such publication would be valuable to increase the

awareness of citizens and other stakeholders of new policies and regulations related to

public services delivery.

Table 5.5 An Overview of Public Policies and Regulations Publication


Publication of policies and regulations



Education 10 6.9

Health 4 2.8

Ministries 16 11.1



Total 72 50



The publication of tendering opportunities is about enabling public organisation

procurement through e-government (Karunasena & Deng 2011, 2012b). The

importance of the publication of public tendering opportunities through e-government

arises because it can mitigate corrupt practices in public organisations (Hui et al.

2011). The use of e-government to provide citizens with public tendering opportunities

and publish the winning bidder, for instance, makes it difficult for corrupt public staff

to award tenders to particular bidders.


of public tendering opportunities. The results as shown in Table 5.6 indicate that public

tendering opportunities are published on 46.5% of the public organisations websites.

The results also indicate that 7.6% of these public organisations are related to

municipalities, 9.7% are from the education sector, 7.6% are public health

organisations, 6.9% are from the ministries, 5.6% are public commissions, and 9% are

other public organisations. Overall, the assessment of the publication of public

tendering opportunities shows that almost half of the public organisations use e-

government to provide their stakeholders including citizens with public tendering

opportunities. The assessment further indicates that these public organisations mostly

utilise e-government to notify their stakeholders about bidding dates and winning bids.



Table 5.6 An Overview of Public Tendering Opportunities Publication


Publication of tendering opportunities



Education 14 9.7

Health 11 7.6

Ministries 10 6.9


Other public organisations 13 9

Total 67 46.5

The publication of budget and expenses refers to using e-government to disclose the

expenses of a public organisation compared with the budget granted from the

government (Karunasena & Deng 2011, 2012b). There is growing citizen interest in

tracking the budgets and expenses of individual public organisations provided on their

websites (Sayogo & Harrison 2012). This interest is due to the fact that the publication

of budgets and expenses provides citizens with a foundation to monitor the conduct of

public organisations and evaluate the effectiveness of their operations (Sayogo &

Harrison 2012). Such disclose allows citizens to hold public staff accountable for

public decisions that have been taken under various circumstances.


of public budgets and expenses through e-government. The results as shown in Table

5.7 indicate that budgets and expenses are published on only 4.2% of public

organisation websites. This shows that public organisations in Saudi Arabia are not



adequately aware of the importance of the transparency of budgets and expenses

through e-government. This may inhibit perceptions of the usefulness of the

development of e-government in terms of making public organisations accountable for

their performance.

Table 5.7 An Overview of Public Budgets and Expenses Publication


Publication of budget and expenses

Count Percentage

Municipalities 0 0

Education 0 0

Health 0 0

Ministries 4 2.8



Total 6 4.2

The publication of open government data is about using e-government to provide

citizens with their open public data to be reused without any restrictions (Attard et al.

2015). The popularity of using e-government has increased the demand for access to

government data (Altayar 2018). The importance of the publication of the government

data is due to its role in improving the transparency of public decision making in public

organisations (Meijer et al. 2014). The availability of open government data allows

citizens to reuse and analyse government data to create public value (Yang & Wu

2016). This has motivated many countries across the world to publish government data

online (Altayar 2018).




of government data. The results as shown in Table 5.8 indicate that government data

is published on 35.4% of public organisation websites. This shows that public

organisations in Saudi Arabia need to make more effort to publish government data

through e-government for improving the transparency of public decision making.

These data should be free for downloading in various formats. This would help the

public to reuse such data in an efficient manner.

Table 5.8 An Overview of Open Government Data Publication


Publication of open government data

Count Percentage


Education 18 12.5

Health 2 1.4

Ministries 11 7.6



Total 51 35.4

The publication of annual reports concerns the use of e-government to provide citizens

with specific reports that highlight how well or poorly a public organisation has

performed over the prior year. Annual reports include information about the prospects

of a public organisation. This can help citizens to monitor the operations and

performance of that public organisation and whether it uses the allocated resources to

achieve the desired outcomes or not. This shows that the availability of annual reports



through e-government is one of the major means in which a public organisation meets

its accountability obligations (Hooks et al. 2001).

All the 144 websites of the public organisations are assessed for examining the

publication of their annual reports. The results as shown in Table 5.9 indicate that

22.9% of these public organisations use e-government to publish their annual reports.

The results show that 0.7% of public organisations are related to municipalities, 2.8%

are in the education sector, 2.1% are in the health sector, 4.2% of public organisation

are from the ministries, 5.6% are related to public commissions, and 7.6% are other

public organisations. The assessment of the publication of annual reports shows that

there are several public organisations provide citizens with their annual reports on their

respective websites every year. Such publication is, however, still far from

satisfactory. The publication of annual reports would allow citizens to compare the

performance of a public organisation from one year to another. This would indicate

the improvement of transparency of public organisations through e-government. Much

effort is required from public organisations in Saudi Arabia to improve the availability

of their annual reports through the development of e-government.



Table 5.9 An Overview of Annual Reports Publication


Publication of annual reports

Count Percentage

(%)


Education 4 2.8

Health 3 2.1

Ministries 6 4.2



Total 33 22.9

The observation of public organisation websites discussed above shows that most

public organisation websites in Saudi Arabia are visible and accessible. The results

show that only three public organisation websites are not shown by search engines. It

furthers indicates that there are 19 public organisation websites that have access

difficulties. The observation of the public organisation websites reveals that these

public organisations use e-government to deliver a total of 4,197 public services to

their stakeholders including citizens. Such results demonstrate the need for utilising

the development of e-government to deliver more public services online. This is

particularly important because of the large number of public organisations in Saudi

Arabia as well as the growing number of population and the large land area (Alalwan

et al. 2018). These public organisations should ensure the visibility and accessibility

of their websites in actively pursuing the development of e-government in the country.



The availability of public information through e-government in public organisation

websites is analysed as presented above. The results indicate that the use of e-

government by these public organisations to improve the transparency of public

decision making by making public information available to Saudi citizens is still in its

infancy stage. Most public organisations in Saudi Arabia focus on using e-government

to publish their basic data and their news with the percentages of 94.4% and 92.4%,

respectively. The results, however, indicate that the use of e-government to improve

the publication of downloadable forms, policies and regulations, tendering

opportunities, budgets and expenses, annual reports, and open government data do not

exceed 50% for these 144 public organisations. Thus, Saudi public organisations need

to consider increasing these publications through the development of e-government.

The publication of such information is important to help the stakeholders of public

organisations including citizens obtain the benefits of e-government development. It

would also help public organisations to improve the ranking of Saudi Arabia reported

by the Transparency International Organisation (TIO 2018). The report indicates that

Saudi Arabia is ranked in the 58th globally with a score of 49 out of 100 (TIO 2018).

Much effort, therefore, is needed to improve the transparency of public decision

making in Saudi Arabia through the development of e-government.

5.3 Emerging Patterns of the Adoption of E-Government

A pattern provides a solution to a problem that occurs over and over again in a specific

context (Borchers 2000). It can describe a particular problem and provide an efficient

solution to adequately address this problem. The identification of the patterns is

important as it provides a solution for potential future events based on the explanation



and understanding of current problems (Borchers 2000). The major focus of exploring

emerging patterns of the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia is to provide an

overview of the current trends in how Saudi citizens adopt e-government.

There are several approaches to explore the patterns of the adoption of e-government

(Agarwal & Mehrotra 2017; Al Athmay 2015; Taipale 2013). Taipale (2013), for

example, investigates the patterns for the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of gender, age, education, occupation, income, city size, and online time.

AlAthmay (2015) explores the patterns of the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of gender, age, education, nationality, and type of employment. Agarwal

and Mehrotra (2017) outlines the patterns of the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of gender, age, occupation, and income. Çelik and Kabakuş (2015)

describe the patterns for the adoption of e-government from the perspective of current

residence, household size, gender, age, marital status, education level, and

occupational sector. These studies show that gender, age, occupation, and education

level are primarily used to explore the patterns of the adoption of e-government under

various circumstances.

The emerging patterns and trends of e-government adoption in Saudi Arabia are

explored in this study. This section first discusses the overall profile of Saudi citizens

in the adoption of e-government. It then explores the e-government adoption patterns

in Saudi Arabia from several perspectives including the frequent use of e-government

with respect to gender, the frequent use of e-government with respect to age, the

frequent use of e-government with respect to education level, the frequent use of e-



government with respect to occupation, and the frequent use of e-government with

respect to the reliance on using Wastta for conducting public services.

Demographic information is analysed for understanding the profiles of the participants

in this study. Table 5.10 presents the overall profile of the participants for the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia based on the valid responses from the survey. The

demographic information of these participants is analysed across the participants’

gender, age group, education level, and occupation. A gender analysis shows that about

88.1% of the participants are male and 11.9% of the participants are female. This

shows low uptake of e-government from female users and a significant gender gap of

e-government users in Saudi Arabia. Figure 5.1 presents the gender profile of the

participants.



Table 5.10 An Overview of the Participants’ Profiles

Profiles of responding participants Frequency Percentage (%)

Gender Male 421 88.1

Female 57 11.9

Age

18-20 15 3.1

21-30 109 22.8

31-45 254 53.1

46-60 84 17.6

> 60 16 3.3

Education level

No formal school 1 0.2

Secondary school 4 0.8%

High school 50 10.5

Diploma degree 169 35.4

Bachelor’s degree 170 35.6

Master’s degree 69 14.4

Doctoral degree 15 3.1

Occupation

Student 39 8.2

Government employee 285 59.6

Private sector employee 78 16.3

Self-employed 25 5.2

Unemployed 22 4.6

Retired 29 6.1

Frequency of using

e-government

Very often (at least once a day) 42 8.8

Often (a few times a week) 90 18.8

Not very often (a few times a

month) 111 23.2

Not at all often (once every few

months) 191 40.0

Never 44 9.2



Figure 5.1 The Gender Profile of the Participants

The age group of the participants is analysed in this study. The analysis shown as in

Table 5.10 indicates that about 3.1% of the participants are ranged between 18 to 20

years old, 22.8% of the participants are ranged between 21 to 30 years old, 53.1% of

the participants in the range of 31-45 years old, 17.6% of the participants are ranged

between 46 to 60 years old, and 3.3% of the participants are over 60 years old. Most

participants’ ages (53.1%) are ranged between 31 to 45 years old. According to the

General Authority for Statistics in Saudi Arabia (GAS 2017), about 80% of population

in Saudi Arabia are under 45 years old. This shows low uptake of e-government from

older citizens whereas e-government should be developed to cater citizens from

various age groups. Figure 5.2 presents the age profile of the participants.

3.1%

22.8%

Gender

18-20 21-30



Figure 5.2 The Age Profile of the Participants

This study shows the variety of education levels of the participants in the study. The

analysis shown as in Table 5.10 indicates that about 0.2% of the participants have no

formal education. About 0.8% of the participants are with education level of a

secondary school. Approximately 10.5% of the participants with education level of a

high school. About 35.4% of the participants who have a diploma’s degree.

Approximately 35.6% of the participants who have a bachelor’s degree. About 14.4%

of the participants who have a master’s degree. Only 3.1% of the participants who have

a doctoral degree. Figure 5.3 presents the education profile of the participants in the

study.

0.2%

0.8%10.5%

35.4%

35.6%

Age

No formal school Secondary school High school

Diploma/Advanced diploma Bachelor’s degree



Figure 5.3 The Education Profile of the Participants

The occupation of the participants is analysed in this study. It indicates that about 8.2%

of the participants are students. Approximately 59.6% of the participants work in the

public sector. About 16.3% of the participants work in the private sector.

Approximately 5.2% of the participants are self-employed. About 4.6% of the

participants are unemployed. Approximately 6.1% of the participants are retired. The

majority of the participants (59.6%) work in the public sector. Figure 5.4 presents the

occupation profile of the participants.

0.2%

0.8% 10.5%

35.4%35.6%

14.4%

3.1%

Education

No formal school Secondary school High school

Diploma/Advanced diploma Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree

Doctoral degree



Figure 5.4 The Occupation Profile of the Participants

The frequent use of e-government by the participants is analysed in this study. The

results shown as in Figure 5.5 indicate that there is a variation in the frequency of using

e-government among participants. There are about 40% of the participants who use e-

government once every few months. There are 23.2% of the participants who utilise

e-government a few times a month. This is in direct contrast to about 18.8% of the

participants who use e-government a few times a week. There are 8.8% using e-

government at least once a day. About 9.2% never use e-government. Such a frequency

of using e-government is analysed with respect to gender, age, education, occupation,

and the reliance on using Wastta for requesting public services.

8.20%

59.60%

16.30%

5.20%

4.60%6.10%

Occupation

Student Government employee Private sector employee

Self-employed Unemployed Retired



Figure 5.5 The Frequency of Using E-Government

Gender differences play an imperative role in the adoption of e-government (Agarwal

& Mehrotra 2017). This is due to the fact that the abilities and competencies of citizens

in using e-government vary according to their genders (Taipale 2013). Table 5.11

presents the frequent use of e-government based on the gender of the participants in

Saudi Arabia. The results show that males use e-government more than females. This

might be because males learn to use innovations faster than females do (Venkatesh et

al. 2014). It might also be because of the specific culture that Saudi Arabia has. In the

society of Saudi Arabia, gender differences are prominent in all aspects of daily lives

(Alzahrani et al. 2018). Saudi females often are responsible for family care and Saudi

males often are responsible for work and making money. The results show that most

male participants (35.4%) use e-government once every few months. Only 6.5% of

them never use e-government. The results further reveal that 4.6% of the female

participants use e-government once every few months. Only 0.6% of them use e-

government at least once a day. Overall, most male and female participants (40%) do

8.8%

18.8%

23.2%

40.0%

9.2%

Frequency of Using E-Government

Very often (i.e., at least once a day) Often (i.e., a few times a week)

Not very often (i.e., a few times a month) Not at all often (i.e., once every few months)

Never



not use e-government at all often (once every few months). Such results show that the

use of e-government in Saudi Arabia is very much dependent on the gender.

Table 5.11 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Gender

Frequency of using e-government

Gender

Total

(%) Male

(%)

Female

(%)

Very often (at least once a day) 8.2 0.6 8.8

Often (a few times a week) 17.4 1.5 18.9

Not very often (a few times a month) 20.7 2.5 23.2

Not at all often (once every few months) 35.4 4.6 40

Never 6.5 2.7 9.2

Total 88.2 11.9 100

Age is a significant factor in explaining the adoption of e-government in the literature.

Al-Jamal and Abu-Shanab (2015), for example, indicate that senior citizens in Jordan

have less motivation to adopt e-government. Alzahrani et al. (2018) report that senior

citizens show greater trust in the adoption of e-government. This shows that age has a

significant influence on the use of e-government.

This study analyses the frequent use of e-government with respect to the age of

participants. The results as shown in Table 5.12 indicate that the 18–45 years age group

constitutes about 72% of e-government users in Saudi Arabia. Such results indicate



that young citizens are more likely to use e-government than senior citizens in Saudi

Arabia. This might be because older citizens constitute only approximately 13% of the

total population of Saudi Arabia (Choudrie et al. 2017). In addition, older citizens are

often physically unable to handle some activities that require specific characteristics

such as computer self-efficacy and personal innovativeness. They are, therefore, likely

to avoid performing activities that unfamiliar to them (Venkatesh et al. 2014).

Table 5.12 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Age

Frequency of using e-government

Age

Total

(%) 18-20

(%)

21-30

(%)

31-45

(%)

46-60

(%)

> 60

(%)

Very often (at least once a day) 0 1.9 4.6 2.1 0.2 8.8

Often (a few times a week) 0.2 2.5 11.7 3.6 0.8 18.8

Not very often (a few times a month) 0.4 3.8 14.6 3.8 0.6 23.2

Not at all often (once every few

months) 1.3 11.9 19.2 6.7 0.8 39.9

Never 1.3 2.7 2.9 1.5 0.8 9.2

Total 3.2 22.8 53 17.7 3.2 100

The education level of citizens is critical for the adoption of e-government (Taipale

2013). This is due to the ability of education to mitigate the digital divide among

citizens towards improve the adoption of e-government (Choudrie et al. 2017). Lack

of education often prevents citizens from utilising the benefits of e-government

initiatives (Venkatesh et al. 2014). It is, therefore, important to consider the variety of



educational levels of citizens when e-government is developed (AlAwadhi & Morris

2008).

The use of e-government with respect to the education level is analysed in this study.

The results shown as in Table 5.13 indicate that that citizens with undergraduate and

postgraduate degrees constitute about 80% of e-government users in Saudi Arabia. The

results, in particular, show that the majority of participants in this study (15.3%) use

e-government with a frequency of not at all often (once every few months) and have a

diploma degree. Such results illustrate that citizens who hold degrees higher than high

school are the largest cohort of e-government users in Saudi Arabia. This is due to the

fact that people who hold university degrees are more likely to use the internet

compared with others (Vicente & López 2006).



Table 5.13 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Education

Frequency of

using e-

government

Education level

Total

(%) No

formal

school

(%)

Secondary

school

(%)

High

school

(%)

Diploma

(%)

Bachelor

(%)

Master

(%)

PhD

(%)

Very often (at

least once a

day)

0 0 0.6 2.7 3.3 1.3 0.8 8.7

Often (a few

times a week) 0 0.2 2.5 4.4 8.6 2.7 0.4 18.8

Not very often

(a few times a

month)

0 0.2 1.9 8.4 8.2 4.2 0.4 23.3

Not at all

often (once

every few

months)

0.2 0.4 4.4 15.3 12.3 6.3 1 39.9

Never 0 0 1 4.6 3.1 0 0.4 9.1

Total 0.2 0.8 10.4 35.4 35.5 14.5 3 100

The frequency of using e-government with respect to participants’ occupation is

analysed in this study. The results shown as in Table 5.14 indicate that the majority of

participants (56%) who use e-government on a frequent basis work in the public sector.

The results further show that about 25% of these participants use e-government not at

all often (once every few months). This indicates the low awareness of e-government

within other occupations such as students and private sector employees.



Table 5.14 An Overview of Using E-Government with Respect to Occupation

Frequency

of using e-

government

Occupation

Total

(%) Student

(%)

Public

sector

employee

(%)

Private

sector

employee

(%)

Self-

employed

(%)

Un-

employed

(%)

Retired

(%)

Very often

(at least once

a day)

0.2 4.8 1.5 1.5 0 0.8 8.8

Often (a few

times a

week)

0.8 12.1 2.9 1.3 0.6 1 18.7

Not very

often (a few

times a

month)

1.7 14.4 4 0.6 0.8 1.7 23.2

Not at all

often (once

every few

months)

3.8 24.9 6.5 1.5 1.7 1.7 40.1

Never 1.7 3.3 1.5 0.4 1.5 0.8 9.2

Total 8.2 59.5 16.4 5.3 4.6 6 100

The use of Wastta for requesting public services is considered an essential reason to

resist using e-government (Almukhlifi et al. 2017, 2018a). The results as shown in

Table 5.15 indicate that 66.5% of participants rely on using Wastta when requesting

public services. The results show that a total of 46.4% of citizens who do not often or

never use e-government rely on the use of Wastta for requesting public services. It,

however, shows that about 18.4% of citizens from the same group do not rely on using

Wastta. Such a result is expected for a culture that encourages citizens to find someone

from their network to fulfil their needs from public organisations rather than to do it



through e-government. These needs often lead to obtain the benefits that cannot be

obtained otherwise (Almukhlifi et al. 2018a). Suppressing the presence of Wastta in

such a culture would increase the use of e-government.

Table 5.15 An Overview of Using E-Government through Wastta

Frequency of using e-

government

The reliance on using Wastta Total

(%) Yes (%) Neither yes nor no (%) No (%)

Very often (at least once

a day) 6.3 1.3 1.3 8.9

Often (a few times a

week) 13.8 2.3 2.7 18.8

Not very often (a few

times a month) 16.1 2.1 5 23.2

Not at all often (once

every few months) 28 5 6.9 39.9

Never 2.3 0.4 6.5 9.2

Total 66.5 11.1 22.4 100


The aim of this chapter is to explore the emerging patterns for the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia, and hence, provide answers to the first research question:

What are the current patterns and trends of e-government adoption in Saudi Arabia?

This is done by assessing the status of e-government development in Saudi Arabia and

examining the demographic characteristics of the surveyed citizens with respect to

their adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.



The findings reveal that the development of e-government in Saudi Arabia is still far

from satisfactory. The use of e-government to improve the delivery of public services

and enhance the transparency of public decision making needs much effort from public

organisations. The results show that most public organisations are not keen to publish

public forms, public policies and regulations, public tendering opportunities, public

budget and expenses, public annual reports, and open government data. This chapter

furthermore, indicates that the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia is not

encouraging. This is exemplified by only 27.6% of participants use e-government on

a regular basis, while the rest 72.4% of participants use e-government not often or

never use it.

Critical Factors for the Adoption of E-Government 2019

153| P a g e

Chapter 6

Critical Factors for the

Adoption of E-Government

6.1 Introduction

Critical factors are the areas that are crucial for the success or failure of a decision or

an organisation (Ulrich 2008). They possess a pivotal degree of control in the

accomplishment of a specific task (Deng & Gupta 2005). Such factors are considered

as critical as they would decide the overall result of the decision or the organisation in

a specific situation (Soliman & Janz 2004). The identification of the critical factors is

important because of its ability to provide better understanding of certain phenomenon.

There are various critical factors that have to be handled in a suitable manner for

ensuring the success in the adoption of e-government (Shareef et al. 2009). These

factors need to be considered carefully in planning the implementation of e-

government (Almukhlifi et al. 2018a; Karunasena & Deng 2012b). The identification

of the critical factors for the adoption of e-government is important for public

organisations for better understanding how to develop e-government in an effective

manner (Almukhlifi et al. 2017).



There are several studies that have investigated the critical factors for the adoption of

e-government from different perspectives in Saudi Arabia. Alrowili et al. (2015), for

example, explore the critical factors that improve the adoption of mobile government

from the perspective of citizens. Alghamdi and Beloff (2016) discuss the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of private organisations. Choudrie

et al. (2017) explore the critical factors for the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of senior citizens. These studies have focused on the critical factors for the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from different perspectives. There are,

however, several contextual factors that are related to the unique situation of Saudi

Arabia that have not been examined for better understanding the adoption of e-

government. In particular, it is unclear to what extent transparency and Wastta can

influence the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of

citizens.

This chapter provides an investigation of the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government from the perspective of citizens in Saudi Arabia. To effectively achieve

this aim, the full measurement model and the structural model are tested and validated

with the use of SEM on the sample data gathered from Saudi citizens through the

survey. This leads to identification of the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens.

To fulfil the objective of this study, this chapter is organised into five sections. Section

6.2 explains the steps taken to validate the measurement model. Section 6.3 discusses



hypothesis testing using SEM. Section 6.4 discusses the critical factors for the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Section 6.5 provides some specific

recommendations that are proposed for improving the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia. Finally, Section 6.6 presents concluding remarks of this chapter.

6.2 Measurement Model Analysis

Measurement model analysis identifies the relationship between an observed variable

(measurement item) and a latent variable (construct) in a specific study (Hair et al.

2010). In such a situation, an observed variable is usually measured directly through a

numerical value obtained from the research participants in response to a certain

question in the research survey instrument (Hair et al. 2010). A latent variable cannot

directly be measured. It is often measured using multiple observed items (Hair et al.

2010). In the measurement model, each measurement item should be linked properly

to an individual construct for ensuring the validity of the measurement model (Byrne

2013; Hair et al. 2010). Measurement model analysis is usually done by performing

CFA to investigate the GOF of the full measurement model (Byrne 2013; Hair et al.

2010).

CFA is a statistical technique that is usually used to ensure that the measurement model

has a good fit to the dataset in a given situation (Hair et al. 2010). It shows how well

constructs and the loadings of their measurement items conform to what is predicted

by the relevant theory (Hair et al. 2010). CFA provides a better understanding of the



shared variance among the measurement items (Brown & Moore 2012). This shared

variance can be used to reflect the aggregated measurement items which together

represent a certain construct. Consequently, CFA presents the contribution of each

measurement item within a specific construct included in the measurement model

(Hair et al. 2010).

There are two major steps that have to be followed in the CFA for this research. The

first step concerns the development of the measurement model and its specification. In

this step, the full measurement model is initially assessed with respect to acceptable

GOF values. If the GOF values are not satisfactory, the full measurement model then

has to be constructed into several one-factor congeneric models. Each one-factor

congeneric model is assessed individually. This involves an iterative model

modification process for reaching the best set of measurement items that represent a

specific construct. When these individual one-factor congeneric models show

satisfactory fitness results, they are combined in a revised full measurement model to

assess whether the GOF values of the revised measurement model are satisfactory or

not. This process is continued through refinement and retesting. During this process,

some measurements items may be dropped if they do not fit statistically with other

measurement items. The second step relates to examining the reliability and validity

of the measurement model. This is done through the assessment of the convergent

validity and discriminant validity of the full measurement model (Hair et al. 2010).



6.2.1 Assessment of the Full Measurement Model

The validity of the full measurement model usually depends on obtaining satisfactory

GOF values (Hair et al. 2010). Acceptable GOF values imply that the hypothesised

model represents the sample data properly (Hair et al. 2010). The most commonly used

GOF values are presented in Table 6.1 (Byrne 2013; Hair et al. 2010; Schumacker &

Lomax 2004).

Table 6.1 An Overview of Threshold Values of the GOF Statistics

Statistics Acceptable values

Ration of χ2 to degrees of freedom (χ2/df) ≤ 3.0

Goodness of fit index (GFI) ≥ 0.90

Adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) ≥ 0.80

Comparative fit index (CFI) ≥ 0.90

Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) ≥ 0.90

Normed fitness index (NFI) ≥ 0.90

Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) ≤ 0.05

Standardised root mean residual (SRMR) ≤ 0.09

The initial full measurement model as depicted in Appendix D is first assessed in this

study. The results indicate that the GOF values of the model are not satisfactory. The

GOF indices such as GFI and NFI values do not fit the data properly. The results reveal

that GFI value is 0.86 and NFI is 0.88, which are below the recommended values

presented in Table 6.1. This shows that the full measurement model does not fit the

sample data sufficiently (Hair et al. 2010). As a consequence, modifications to the full



measurement model are required. This is done by analysing each individual construct

included in the full measurement model separately.

6.2.2 Assessment of One-Factor Congeneric Models

A one-factor congeneric model is a simple form of the measurement model for

demonstrating the factor loadings of the measurement items on an individual latent

variable (Hair et al. 2010). The full measurement model modification process starts

with the development of ten one-factor congeneric models, namely, IQ, CSE, PI, CA,

SQ, PU, PEOU, TRAN, WAS, and ADOP. These models are assessed using the GOF

indices presented in Table 6.1.

A one-factor congeneric model is developed for IQ. In this one-factor congeneric

model, the construct IQ is loaded with five measurement items. These measurement

items include IQ1 (accuracy), IQ2 (timeliness), IQ3 (relevancy), IQ4

(understandability), and IQ5 (completeness). Each measurement item is linked with a

measurement error labelled from e1 to e5. Figure 6.1 presents the estimated initial one-

factor congeneric model for IQ.



Figure 6.1 A One-Factor Congeneric Model of IQ

The IQ model is assessed using the GOF indices to ensure its validity. The results show

that the IQ model does not have satisfactory GOF values. This is illustrated by the

χ2/df value of 5.07, which is greater than the recommended value of 3.0. It also shows

that a Bollen-Stine probability (P) value equal to 0.00, which is below the

recommended value of 0.05 (Hair et al. 2010). The results further show that the

RMSEA value is 0.09, which is higher than the recommended value of 0.05 (Byrne

2013). The SRMR, CFI, TLI, NFI, GFI, and AGFI fitness values of the IQ model are

at 0.02, 0.97, 0.95, 0.97, 0.98, and 0.93 respectively. Such results indicate that χ2/df,

P value, and RMSEA of the IQ model do not show an adequate fit. This shows the

need for refining the one-factor congeneric model of IQ shown as in Figure 6.1.

The IQ model is re-assessed with the use of several diagnostic measures for improving

fitness to the data. These diagnostic measures include standardised factor loadings

(SFL), standardised residuals (SR), modification indices (MI), and threshold values

for the GOF indices (Byrne 2013; Hair et al. 2010). The total number of measurement

items for each construct, furthermore, is examined (Hair et al. 2010; Schumacker &



Lomax 2004). SFL is about how each individual measurement item can precisely

explain a construct. If the SFL value of a measurement item is less than 0.5, this means

that the measurement item does not explain the construct properly (Hair et al. 2010).

As a result, such a measurement item should be dropped from the model (Hair et al.

2010). This helps to get rid of those irrelevant measurement items from further data

analysis.

SR values represent the difference between the individual observed covariance and the

estimated covariance (Gallagher et al. 2008). SR values that fall within the range of

-2.58 to +2.58 show that a certain relationship is well regarded by the model

(Schumacker & Lomax 2004). SR values that fall out of the recommended range

indicate an unacceptable degree of errors which requires removing the offending

measurement item (Hair et al. 2010). In this research, the threshold of the SR value

presented above is used in the model modification process (Hair et al. 2010;

Schumacker & Lomax 2004).

MI is conceptualised as an χ2 value with a degree of freedom (Byrne 2013). It helps

in diagnosing statistical problems with particular measurement items in the model

(Hair et al. 2010). MI statistics concern the amount of the overall χ2 value drops when

an individual parameter in the model is freely estimated (Byrne 2013; Hair et al. 2010).

A MI value that is higher than 4.0 indicates the fitness of the model can be enhanced

by freeing the related path (Byrne 2013; Hair et al. 2010). The GOF index value



assessment is performed to refine each one-factor congeneric model. The threshold

values for the GOF indices followed in this research are shown in Table 6.1.

The total number of measurement items for each construct can be considered in the

process of improving model fitness. The recommended number of measurement items

for each construct is more than three (Gerbing & Anderson 1985). It is therefore

important to maintain at least three measurement items for each construct during the

process of performing the re-examination using the diagnostic measures presented

above.

This research considers all diagnostic measures above in improving the fitness of the

one-factor congeneric model for the IQ model. The fitness improvement of the model

begins with examining the SFL values of the IQ model. The results as presented in

Figure 6.1 and Table 6.2 show that the SFL values for measurement items IQ1, IQ2,

IQ3, IQ4, and IQ5 are 0.73, 0.67, 0.75, 0.71, and 0.70, respectively. The results of the

SFL assessment indicate that all values exceed the recommended threshold value of

0.5 (Hair et al. 2010).



Table 6.2 An Overview of the SFL Values for the IQ Model

Measurement items Constructs SFL values

IQ1 ← IQ 0.73

IQ2 ← IQ 0.67

IQ3 ← IQ 0.75

IQ4 ← IQ 0.71

IQ5 ← IQ 0.70

SR values are examined for improving the IQ model. The results shown as in Table

6.3 indicate that SR values among all measurement items fall within the range of -2.58

to +2.58 (Schumacker & Lomax 2004). This shows that the lowest SR value is the

relationship value between IQ5 and IQ3 (-.171). It further indicates that the highest SR

value is the relationship value between IQ5 and IQ4 (.241). As a result, the values of

SR for the IQ model fall within the acceptable values (Schumacker & Lomax 2004).

Table 6.3 An Overview of the SR Values of the IQ Model

IQ1 IQ2 IQ3 IQ4 IQ5

IQ1 .000

IQ2 .030 .000

IQ3 .097 .080 .000

IQ4 -.164 -.061 -.006 .000

IQ5 .022 -.070 -.171 .241 .000



The MI statistics are assessed for improving the IQ model. The results reveal that the

MI values between the errors e5 and e3 (7.93), and e5 and e4 (13.63) exceed the

recommended value of 4.0 (Byrne 2013; Hair et al. 2010). This indicates that there is

a high correlation between IQ5 and IQ3 and between IQ5 and IQ4. For improving the

MI values, the corresponding paths that connects IQ3, IQ4, and IQ5 are freed. This

helps in diagnosing the problem with the measurement items that present the high MI

values.

The IQ model is re-examined to assess the validity of IQ3, IQ4, and IQ5. As IQ5 has a

correlation with both IQ3 and IQ4, it is first dropped from the IQ model. By dropping

IQ5, the assessment of the GOF indices indicates that the modified one-factor

congeneric model of IQ properly fits the data. This is exemplified by obtaining a χ2/df

value of 0.41 with P value of 0.66. The RMSEA analysis presents a value of 0.00, the

SRMR value of 0.01, the TLI value of 1.01, and the CFI value of 1. The results also

show that the NFI, the GFI, and the AGFI values equal to 0.99. As shown in Figure

6.2, the SFL values of measurement items IQ1, IQ2, IQ3, and IQ4 in the modified IQ

model are 0.72, 0.68, 0.79, and 0.66, respectively. This means that these values exceed

the recommended SFL value of 0.5 (Hair et al. 2010).



Figure 6.2 A Re-Specified One-Factor Congeneric model of IQ

The same process of examining the one-factor congeneric model is performed using

the aforementioned diagnostic measures to ensure the fitness of other one-factor

congeneric measurement models for CSE, PI, CA, SQ, PU, PEOU, TRAN, WAS, and

ADOP. Appendix E presents the modified one-factor congeneric models for all the

constructs in the conceptual model. Table 6.4 presents the initial GOF values of all

one-factor congeneric models and the re-specified GOF values after the modification

of these models. It shows that the GOF values of all re-specified one-factor congeneric

models are satisfactory. This means that that all models fit the data properly. The

process performed for improving models’ fitness leads to the dropping of eight

measurement items including IQ5, PEOU2, PU2, SQ5, TRAN3, TRAN8, CSE2, and

CA1.



Table 6.4 An Overview of the One-Factor Congeneric Models Assessment

Constructs χ2/df

≤3.0*

P

≥.05*

GFI

≥.90*

AGFI

≥.80*

CFI

≥.90*

TLI

≥.90*

NFI

≥.90*

RMSEA

≤ .05*

SRMR

≤ .90*

CSE Initial 10.93 0 0.95 0.86 0.96 0.93 0.96 0.14 0.03

Re-sp 1.69 0.18 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.03 0.01

PI Initial 2.61 0.07 0.99 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.04 0.01

Re-sp There is no need for re-specification as the GOF values are satisfactory

CA Initial 17.82 0 0.96 0.81 0.97 0.92 0.97 0.18 0.02

Re-sp 0.05 0.82 1 1 1 1 1 0 0.001

SQ Initial 4.68 0 0.97 0.93 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.08 0.02

Re-sp 1.96 0.08 0.99 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.04 0.01

IQ Initial 5.07 0 0.98 0.93 0.97 0.95 0.97 0.09 0.02

Re-sp 0.41 0.66 0.99 0.99 1 1.01 0.99 0 0.01

PU Initial 2.98 0.01 0.98 0.96 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.06 0.01

Re-sp 0.25 0.78 0.99 0.99 1 1 1 0 0.002

PEOU Initial 4.93 0 0.97 0.93 0.98 0.97 0.98 0.09 0.02

Re-sp 0.93 0.06 1 0.99 1 1.01 1 0 0.002

TRAN Initial 9.43 0 0.94 0.86 0.95 0.93 0.95 0.13 0.03

Re-sp 0.45 0.63 0.99 0.99 1 1 0.99 0 0.005

WAS Initial 2.28 0.10 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.05 0.01

Re-sp There is no need for re-specification as the GOF values are satisfactory

ADOP Initial 0.23 0.63 1 0.99 1 1 1 0 0.004

Re-sp There is no need for re-specification as the GOF values are satisfactory * Recommended value

The full measurement model is developed with the combination of all the re-specified

one-factor congeneric models as discussed above. The full measurement model is

assessed for obtaining the appropriate GOF indices values through CFA. The results

show that the values of the GOF indices of the final full measurement model are

appropriate. All the GOF values are fall within the acceptable values (Byrne 2013;

Hair et al. 2010; Schumacker & Lomax 2004). These values indicate that the fitness

of the final full measurement model is satisfactory. A comparison of the GOF indices

values between the initial measurement model and the final full measurement model

is shown in Table 6.5. It indicates that the GOF indices values of the final full

measurement model presented in Appendix F are improved. The final full

measurement model, therefore, can be assessed for reliability and validity.



Table 6.5 An Overview of the GOF Values for the Measurement Models

6.2.3 Assessment of Convergent Validity

Convergent validity of constructs in a measurement model is about the degree in

which several measurement items converge together to measure a single construct

(Hair et al. 2010). It can be performed through three means including the examination

of (a) the reliability of each construct using the coefficient H, (b) the value of the

standardised factor loading of all valid measurement items, and (c) the average

variance extracted (AVE) (Hair et al. 2010; Straub et al. 2004).

The coefficient H describes the proportion of variability in a particular construct

explainable by its own measurement items (Hancock & Mueller 2001). It is used to

assess the reliability of each construct (Aiken 1985). The coefficient estimates the

reliability of a construct as reflected by the scores from several measurement items

(Mueller & Hancock 2001). It is recommended that the value of the coefficient H is at

0.70 or greater for supporting the construct reliability (Hancock & Mueller 2001).

The coefficient H value is commonly computed for examining the construct reliability

(Deng et al. 2018; Karunasena et al. 2011). This is due to several reasons such as (a)

Full measurement

models

χ2/df

≤3.0*

GFI

≥.90*

AGFI

≥.80*

CFI

≥.90*

TLI

≥.90*

NFI

≥.90*

RMSEA

≤ .05*

SRMR

≤ .90*

The initial model 1.77 0.86 0.84 0.94 0.94 0.88 0.04 0.05

The final model 1.46 0.91 0.89 0.97 0.97 0.92 0.03 0.04 * Recommended value



measurement items with a negative value of factor loadings do not diminish from the

composite reliability, (b) each single measurement item contributes a particular value

to the construct itself and thus the measurement item adds to the overall reliability of

the construct, and (c) reliability of the composite is never lower than the best value of

a particular measurement item (Holmes-Smith 2006; Mueller & Hancock 2001).

The assessment of the factor loading significance is performed by assessing the SFL

value of each single valid measurement item included in the re-specified one-factor

congeneric model (Fornell & Larcker 1981; Hair et al. 2010). The value of the SFL for

each measurement item is recommended to be 0.5 or greater to support the convergent

validity of the re-specified one-factor congeneric model (Hair et al. 2010).

AVE focuses on measuring the measurement item captured by a particular construct

(Gefen & Straub 2005). It is examined by dividing the sum of all squared SFL values

by the number of the measurement items of a single construct (Fornell & Larcker

1981). For each construct, an AVE value of 0.5 or greater is appropriate for supporting

the convergent validity (Hair et al. 2010).

The assessment of the coefficient H values, SFL values, and AVE values confirms that

the convergent validity of all the re-specified one-factor congeneric models is

supported. The coefficient H values range from 0.81 to 0.92, which are above the

appropriate threshold coefficient H value of 0.70 (Hancock & Mueller 2001). The SFL



values range from 0.64 to 0.92, which exceed the acceptable threshold SFL value of

0.50 (Hair et al. 2010). The AVE values range from 0.51 to 0.74 which are above the

recommended threshold AVE value of 0.50 (Hair et al. 2010). The result of the

convergent validity assessment for all the re-specified models is shown in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6 An Overview of the Convergent Validity Assessment

Constructs Measurement items SFL

≥ 0.50*

Coefficient H

≥ 0.70*

AVE

≥0.50*

CSE

CSE1 0.80

0.90 0.67 CSE3 0.80

CSE4 0.83

CSE5 0.83

PI

PI1 0.85

0.89 0.64 PI2 0.82

PI3 0.83

PI4 0.68

CA

CA2 0.88

0.90 0.71 CA3 0.92

CA4 0.78

SQ

SQ1 0.80

0.90 0.64

SQ2 0.80

SQ3 0.83

SQ4 0.80

SQ6 0.79

IQ

IQ1 0.72

0.81 0.51 IQ2 0.68

IQ3 0.78

IQ4 0.67

PU

PU1 0.86

0.92 0.74 PU3 0.86

PU4 0.84

PU5 0.88

PEOU

PEOU1 0.75

0.88 0.63 PEOU3 0.86

PEOU4 0.81

PEOU5 0.76

TRAN

TRAN4 0.83

0.90 0.65 TRAN5 0.89

TRAN6 0.83

TRAN7 0.66

WAS

WAS1 0.64

0.87 0.61 WAS2 0.88

WAS3 0.83

WAS4 0.77

ADOP

ADOP1 0.85

0.83 0.60 ADOP2 0.69

ADOP3 0.77 * Recommended value



6.2.4 Assessment of Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity relates to the degree to which each construct is uncorrelated and

distinct from others (Hair et al. 2010). The purpose of this test is to ensure that there

is no correlation between constructs. Low correlation between two constructs indicates

that one construct is distinct from another. Discriminant validity is examined by

comparing the square root of the AVE for each single construct with its correlation to

the remining constructs in the measurement model (Fornell & Larcker 1981). To

support the discriminant validity of the constructs, the square root of the AVE value

for each construct should exceed its correlation value of other constructs (Hair et al.

2010).

The discriminant validity of the measurement model for all the constructs is assessed

in this study. The results indicate that there is no correlation between the constructs.

As shown in Table 6.7, the square roots of the AVE value for each construct is higher

than the correlation of that construct with the remaining constructs. This indicates that

the final full measurement model shows appropriate discriminant validity. Overall, the

results of the CFA analysis presented above confirm that the final full measurement

model fits the data of this research adequately. As a result, the final full measurement

model can be examined for further analysis using SEM.



Table 6.7 An Overview of Discriminant Validity Assessment

PI CSE WAS CA IQ PEOU PU TRAN ADOP SQ

PI 0.80

CSE 0.47 0.82

WAS 0.25 0.04 0.78

CA -0.34 -0.35 -0.25 0.84

IQ 0.19 0.24 -0.17 0.01 0.72

PEOU 0.47 0.63 -0.13 -0.23 0.35 0.80

PU 0.46 0.48 -0.05 -0.36 0.34 0.65 0.86

TRAN 0.17 0.19 -0.19 0.03 0.09 0.47 0.28 0.80

ADOP 0.37 0.53 -0.03 -0.34 0.29 0.56 0.61 0.33 0.77

SQ 0.30 0.47 -0.09 -0.16 0.56 0.50 0.43 0.13 0.51 0.80

Diagonals represent the square root of AVE Values

6.3 Structural Model Analysis

A structural model shows the path between the theoretical constructs in a given

situation (Hair et al. 2010). It examines how each single construct is related to another.

The structural model is examined after the validity of the full measurement model is

confirmed (Hair et al. 2010). The path coefficient indicates the strength, nature, and

significance of each relationship between a construct and another (Hair et al. 2010;

Schumacker & Lomax 2004). The significance of the relationship shows whether the

hypotheses of the research are accepted or rejected (Byrne 2013; Schumacker &

Lomax 2004). In the process of the structural model analysis, it is important to ensure

that the structural model has appropriate GOF indices values. If the structural model

does not present adequate validity, the model needs to be modified (Hair et al. 2010).



GOF values for the structural model are assessed in this study. Several GOF indices

such as χ2/df, GFI, AGFI, CFI, TLI, NFI, RMSEA, and SRMR are examined. The

results shown as in Table 6.8 indicate that the GOF values of the structural model fall

within the recommended threshold values. This shows that the fitness of the structural

model is confirmed. The structural model, therefore, can proceed for the path analysis.

Table 6.8 An Overview of the GOF Values of the Structural Model

The structural model is analysed in this study using various statistics such as the

standardised regression weight (SRW), the magnitude of the variance explained (R²),

standard error (SE), the critical ratio (CR), and the P value (Byrne, 2010). Table 6.9

presents the results of the structural model analysis. In hypothesis testing, the

important test statistic is CR. The CR value is statistically significant when it is out of

the range of -1.96 and +1.96, and the P value is less than 0.05 (Byrne, 2010).

Model χ2/df

≤3.0*

GFI

≥.90*

AGFI

≥.80*

CFI

≥.90*

TLI

≥.90*

NFI

≥.90*

RMSEA

≤ .05*

SRMR

≤ .90*

The structural Model 1.70 0.90 0.87 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.04 0.07 * Recommended value



Table 6.9 An Overview of the Structural Model Analysis Results

Hypothesised relationships SRW SE CR P Results

Individual characteristic

H1 PU ← CSE 0.221 0.052 4.261*** 0.000 Supported

H2 PEOU ← CSE 0.345 0.046 7.426*** 0.000 Supported

H3 PU ← PI 0.236 0.047 5.008*** 0.000 Supported

H4 PEOU ← PI 0.143 0.039 3.651*** 0.000 Supported

H5 PU ← CA -0.162 0.038 -4.277*** 0.000 Supported

H6 PEOU ← CA -0.025 0.030 -0.834 0.404 Not Supported

System characteristics

H7 PU ← SQ 0.193 0.065 2.982** 0.003 Supported

H8 PEOU← SQ 0.166 0.051 3.240*** 0.001 Supported

H9 PU ← IQ 0.199 0.068 2.932** 0.003 Supported

H10 PEOU ← IQ 0.109 0.052 2.115** 0.034 Supported

Design characteristics

H11 ADOP ← PU 0.428 0.074 5.813*** 0.000 Supported

H12 ADOP ← PEOU 0.355 0.109 3.240*** 0.001 Supported

Contextual characteristics

H13 (ADOP ← PU) ← TRAN 0.444 0.037 12.005*** 0.000 Supported

H14 (ADOP ← PEOU) ← TRAN 0.721 0.048 15.057*** 0.000 Supported

H15 (ADOP ← PU) ← WAS -0.225 0.083 -2.726** 0.006 Supported

*** P < 0.001, ** P < 0.01, * P < 0.05

The path analysis with respect to the influence of CSE, PI, and CA in the adoption of

e-government is assessed. The results indicate that H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 are

supported, but not H6. CSE has a significant positive influence on PU (CR = 4.261, P

< 0.001), supporting H1. CSE has a significant effect on PEOU (CR = 7.426, P <

0.001), supporting H2. PI has a significant positive influence on PU (CR = 5.008, P <

0.001), supporting H3. PI has a significant positive influence on PEOU (CR = 3.651,

P < 0.001), supporting H4. CA has a significant negative influence on PU (CR = -

4.277, P < 0.01), supporting H5. The results, however, reveal that CA has no effect on

PEOU (CR = -0.834, P > 0.05), rejecting H6.



The path analysis with respect to the influence of SQ and IQ in the adoption of e-

government is tested. The results show that H7, H8, H9, and H10 are supported. SQ has

a significant positive influence on PU (CR = 2.982, P < 0.01), supporting H7. SQ has

a significant effect on PEOU (CR = 3.240, P < 0.01), supporting H8. IQ has a

significant positive influence on PU (CR = 2.932, P < 0.01), supporting H9. IQ has a

significant positive influence on PEOU (CR = 2.115, P < 0.01), supporting H10.

The path analysis with respect to the influence of PU and PEOU in the adoption of e-

government is assessed. The results reveal that H11 and H12 are supported. PU has a

significant positive influence on the adoption of e-government (CR = 5.813, P <

0.001), supporting H11. PEOU has a significant effect on the adoption of e-government

(CR = 3.240, P < 0.01), supporting H12.

The path analysis with respect to the moderating effect of TRAN and WAS in the

adoption of e-government is tested in this study. The results show that H13, H14, and

H15 are supported. The results indicate that the moderating influence of TRAN on the

relationship between PU and the adoption of e-government is positively significant

(CR = 12.005, P < 0.001), supporting H13. The moderating influence of TRAN on the

relationship between PEOU and the adoption of e-government is positively significant

(CR = 15.057, P < 0.001), supporting H14. The moderating influence of WAS on the

relationship between PU and the adoption of e-government is negatively significant

(CR = -2.726, P < 0.01), supporting H15. The R² is also assessed in the structural model

analysis. The analysis explains 39% of the variance in PU, 48% of the variance in



PEOU and 38% of the variance in the adoption of e-government. Figure 6.3 presents

the results of the structural model analysis.

Perceived usefulness

Perceived ease of

use

E-government

adoption

Transparency Wastta

Computer self-

efficacy

Personal

innovativeness

Computer anxiety

Services quality

Information quality

H3 = 0.236***

H8 = 0.166***

R² = 0.39

R² = 0. 48

H13 = 0.444*** H14 = 0.721*** H15 = - 0.225**

R² = 0.38

Figure 6.3 The Final Structural Model

6.4 Critical Factors for the Adoption of E-Government

This study aims to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens. The results of this research reveal that

CSE, PI, CA, SQ, IQ, PU and PEOU are significant for the adoption of e-government

in Saudi Arabia. The results further confirm the moderating effect of TRAN and WAS

on the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

This study shows that CSE is crucial for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

The results confirm that CSE has a significant positive influence on PU in the adoption



of e-government. This result is congruent with existing research in the adoption of e-

government (Bhuasiri et al. 2016; Rana & Dwivedi 2015). Rana and Dwivedi (2015),

for example, illustrate that CSE improves outcome expectations of the adoption of e-

government in India. Bhuasiri et al. (2016) find that citizens in Thailand would

perceive that the use of e-government is useful if they have a high level of competence

and a low level of uncertainty about their ability to use e-government systems. The

findings in this study show that there is a relationship between confidence of citizens

in using computers and the perception of the benefits from adopting e-government

(Rana & Dwivedi 2015). It is confirmed that citizens who are confident of their ability

in requesting public services through e-government from the first time of the use would

positively perceive the benefits of e-government adoption. This indicates that Saudi

citizens with greater levels of CSE are more likely to find e-government useful

compared with citizens with low levels of CSE.

This study finds that CSE has a significant positive effect on PEOU in the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia. This result is in line with existing studies in the

adoption of e-government (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Susanto & Goodwin 2013).

Chomchalao and Naenna (2013), for instance, indicate that citizens with adequate CSE

are more likely to develop their ability to use e-government services without difficulty.

Citizens who are confident in using computers would request public services using e-

government in an effortless manner. This indicates that the enhancement of the level

of confidence of Saudi citizens in using computers would help them to overcome the

complexity of using e-government.



Saudi citizens with PI are found to be willing to adopt e-government for fulfilling their

needs from public organisations. The results indicate that PI has a significant positive

influence on PU in the adoption of e-government. This result is in line with existing

research in the adoption of e-government (Algunto 2016; Hsiao et al. 2012). Algunto

(2016) indicates that innovative citizens would understand the benefits of the adoption

of e-government. Citizens with high PI are active seekers with regards to innovative

ideas. Citizens who enjoy using new technologies are often more open to using e-

government if they find it better than going to public organisations physically. A high

level of PI helps citizens to perceive the usefulness of requesting public services

through e-government (Hsiao et al. 2012). The greater the innovativeness of Saudi

citizens, the more likely the usefulness of e-government is perceived. This is due to

the fact that citizens with a high level of PI can experience e-government earlier than

those with a low level of PI. They, therefore, perceive the usefulness of e-government.

This study shows that PI has a significant positive influence on PEOU in the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia. This result is congruent with existing research in the

adoption of e-government (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Hsiao et al. 2012).

Chomchalao and Naenna (2013) conclude that PI considerably improves citizens’

perception of the simplicity of using e-government. If citizens are familiar with using

innovations, they have the ability to overcome difficulties they might encounter when

requesting public services through e-government (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013).

Saudi citizens who update themselves with innovative ideas and products would find



it easy to use e-government for requesting public services. This is because their

experience in using innovative products would help them to be familiarised with any

problems that might occur with the use of e-government.

This study finds that anxiety related to using computers has a crucial impact on the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The results show that CA has a significant

negative influence on PU regarding the adoption of e-government. This finding is

consistent with the existing literature on the relationship between CA and PU (Huang

& Liaw 2005; Oktal et al. 2016). Oktal et al. (2016) find that citizens tend to avoid

requesting public services through e-government when they are anxious about using

computers. The feeling of anxiety causes an ambiguity regarding the benefits of using

e-government. Citizens who feel anxious about using computers have misgivings

about the usefulness of e-government. Such feelings can prevent the benefits of e-

government adoption (Oktal et al. 2016). This finding of this study confirms that the

feeling of anxiety about performing tasks via computers extends to limit the perception

of the usefulness of e-government adoption in Saudi Arabia. It is important for public

organisations in Saudi Arabia therefore to illustrate the public value that citizens can

obtain when they request public services by using e-government.

This study shows that CA has no significant direct influence on PEOU in the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia. This finding is in contrast to existing research in the

adoption of e-government (Park et al. 2014; Phang et al. 2006). Park et al. (2014)

indicate that there is no relationship between CA and PEOU in the adoption of specific



technologies. The result in this study indicates that the feeling of anxiety does not

affect the ease of using e-government. The use of computers requires knowledge and

skills. Lack of the knowledge and skills in using computers can evolve into the anxiety

about the use of e-government (Oh et al. 2016). This could explain why this hypothesis

is not significant as around 88.5% of the participants in this research hold a diploma

degree and above. This means that they are educated and often have the required

knowledge and experience to perform tasks via computers. They would, therefore, find

the use of e-government easy.

This study shows that the availability of quality public services online encourages

citizens to adopt e-government in Saudi Arabia. The results reveal that SQ has a

significant positive effect on PU in the adoption of e-government. This finding is in

line with the prior studies in e-government adoption (Chen et al. 2015; Chomchalao &

Naenna 2013). Chen et al. (2015) find that an increased SQ of e-government is

associated with increased PU. The result in this study confirms that better SQ would

enhance Saudi citizens’ perception of the usefulness of e-government adoption.

Appropriate quality of public services provided online helps citizens meet their

outcome expectations of the adoption of e-government (Chen et al. 2015). SQ is a

significant factor for the adoption of e-government because the reliability,

responsiveness, and assurance of the public services lead to improved PU in the

adoption of e-government. This finding suggests that public organisations in Saudi

Arabia should maintain the availability of quality public services through e-

government to encourage Saudi citizens to adopt e-government.



This study finds that SQ has a significant positive effect on PEOU in the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia. This finding is in line with previous studies in e-

government adoption (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Mustapha & Obid 2015).

Mustapha and Obid (2015) show that SQ has a positive effect on PEOU. The findings

in this study indicate that Saudi citizens who receive high quality of public services

online would find the use of e-government easy. The availability of high-quality public

services online helps citizens to overcome the difficulties that they may encounter

when requesting public services through e-government voluntarily (Mustapha & Obid

2015). The result of the relationship between SQ and PEOU indicates that the

assurance in public services provided online such as ensuring the security and privacy

would improve the perception of ease of use. It is important for effective and timely

public services through e-government to help Saudi citizens spend less effort for

requesting public services through the use of e-government.

This study shows that quality public information is critical for improving the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The results reveal that IQ has a significant positive

effect on PU in the adoption of e-government. This finding is consistent with existing

e-government literature (Chen et al. 2015; Puthur et al. 2015). Puthur et al. (2015)

argue that the PU of e-government adoption would improve if quality information

provided through e-government is beneficial to citizens. High-quality information

provided online is important for maximising the public value of e-government

(Karunasena & Deng 2012b). This signifies that the information provided by e-

government should be accurate, up-to-date, relevant, and understandable to reinforce

the perception of e-government benefits. The availability of such high-quality



information online would encourage citizens to utilise e-government (Rana et al.

2015). Public organisations in Saudi Arabia therefore should provide citizens with

public information that reaches their expectations in order to improve the utilisation of

e-government.

This study finds that IQ has a significant positive effect on PEOU in the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia. This finding concurs with existing literature on the

relationship between IQ and PEOU (Puthur et al. 2015; Rana et al. 2015). Rana et al.

(2015) show that the high quality of public information provided by e-government

would help citizens request public services through e-government easily. As far as

public organisations provide citizens with the expected quality of public information

online, Saudi citizens would use e-government for requesting public services in an

effortless manner (Detlor et al. 2013). Citizens would feel that e-government is easy

to use if public organisations in Saudi Arabia provide accurate, relevant, up-to-date,

and understandable information to citizens. This suggests that public organisations in

Saudi Arabia should maintain high-quality public information to ensure the easiness

of using e-government.

PU is another crucial factor for the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The

results indicate that PU has a significant positive effect on the adoption of e-

government. This finding is in congruent with previous studies in e-government

adoption (Hamid et al. 2016; Rallis et al. 2018; Weerakkody et al. 2017). Rallis et al.

(2018) demonstrate that a useful e-government would attract the attention of citizens



and create more use of e-government. The results of this study confirm that PU

improves e-government adoption. The more benefits e-government provides, the more

likely Saudi citizens are to use e-government. If Saudi citizens find the use of e-

government more convenient than visiting public organisations physically, they would

adopt e-government to request public services. This implies that citizens would less

likely adopt e-government if they do not perceive the advantages of using e-

government (Weerakkody et al. 2017). It is therefore recommended that public

organisations in Saudi Arabia increase the usefulness of e-government to encourage

citizens to request public services through e-government.

This study shows that ease of using e-government encourages citizens to adopt e-

government in Saudi Arabia. The results show that PEOU has a significant positive

effect on the adoption of e-government. This finding is in line with previous studies of

e-government adoption (Carter et al. 2016; Wirtz et al. 2015). Wirtz et al. (2015) find

that PEOU significantly affects the adoption of e-government. The results in this study

show that PEOU could improve the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. This

is because citizens often welcome new technologies that are not too complex to use

(Hung et al. 2013). This means that Saudi citizens would request public services

through e-government if the use of e-government is effortless. Public organisations in

Saudi Arabia therefore should develop e-government to the extent that citizens can

easily request their public services.



This study confirms that TRAN positively moderates the relationship between PU and

the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. It suggests that TRAN strengthens the

positive relationship between PU and e-government adoption. If public organisations

in Saudi Arabia publish tenders, regulations and policies, budgets and expenses, and

staff contact information online, citizens could better utilise such information to

request public services through the adoption of e-government in a quick, convenient,

and effective manner. Such a finding suggests that public organisations in Saudi

Arabia should ensure the transparency of public decision making for improving PU

for the adoption of e-government. Improving the availability of public information

through e-government encourage citizens to utilise e-government (Dwivedi et al.

2017). Figure 6.4 indicates that PU has a stronger positive effect on the adoption of e-

government when Saudi citizens perceive transparency in public decision making in

public organisations. When TRAN is low, the influence of PU on the adoption of e-

government might marginally decrease in Saudi Arabia.



Figure 6.4 The Interaction of TRAN Between PU and ADOP

This study reveals that TRAN positively moderates the relationship between PEOU

and the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. It suggests that TRAN strengthens

the positive relationship between PEOU and e-government adoption. When TRAN is

higher, the relationship between PEOU and the adoption of e-government is stronger.

The availability of public information online helps citizens to better perceive the ease

of using e-government for public services. The availability of contact information

provided online, for example, helps Saudi citizens to communicate with public staff in

the case of issues related to requesting public services through e-government. This

means that citizens can request public services easily (Sabani et al. 2018). Figure 6.5

shows that PEOU has a stronger positive effect on the adoption of e-government when

Saudi citizens perceive the transparency of public decision making in public

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Low PU High PU

AD

OP Low TRAN

High TRAN

Linear (Low TRAN)

Linear (High TRAN)



organisations. When TRAN is low, the influence of PEOU on the adoption of e-

government might decrease in Saudi Arabia.

Figure 6.5 The Interaction of TRAN Between PEOU and ADOP

This study shows that WAS negatively moderates the relationship between PU and the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. This finding suggests that WAS affects the

positive relationship between PU and the adoption of e-government. This means that

the higher the WAS, the lower the PU towards the adoption of e-government. The

presence of WAS limits the benefits perceived regarding the use of e-government

(Alomari et al. 2014). The acceptance of WAS reduces the transparency of public

decision making that should be brought to Saudi citizens when a public service is

requested through e-government. The result of this moderating effect confirms that

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Low PEOU High PEOU

AD

OP Low TRAN

High TRAN

Linear (Low TRAN)

Linear (High TRAN)



when WAS is high, the relationship between PU and the adoption of e-government is

reduced. Figure 6.6 shows that the influence of PU on the adoption of e-government

is low when Saudi citizens use WAS to request public services. However, when WAS

is low, PU may improve the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

Figure 6.6 The Interaction of WAS Between PU and ADOP

6.5 Recommendations

Self-efficacy in using computers improves the adoption of e-government. The findings

of this study reveal that Saudi citizens who are confident in their capabilities to use

computers are more willing to adopt e-government. To enhance the adoption of e-

government, public organisations in Saudi Arabia should pay special attention to the

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Low PU High PU

AD

OP Low WAS

High WAS

Linear (Low WAS)

Linear (High WAS)



varying levels of citizens’ CSE. Public organisations should improve citizens’ CSE by

organising relevant training courses to increase the familiarity of citizens with

computers and information systems. Appropriate design of e-government regarding

the varying levels of citizens’ CSE, further, would improve the rates of e-government

adoption in Saudi Arabia.

A high level of PI would increase the use of e-government. This study finds that Saudi

citizens who have the intention to experience new technologies are willing to use e-

government for requesting public services. Highly innovative citizens are likely to

perceive e-government as more favourable. The tangible outcomes of e-government

adoption are also more demonstrable to these innovative citizens. It is recommended,

therefore, that public organisations in Saudi Arabia contact these citizens first to

experience e-government and then they can spread this experience to other Saudi

citizens. Public organisations could also educate citizens to improve their PI to

increase the rate of e-government adoption in Saudi Arabia. Saudi citizens will adopt

e-government to request public services if they comprehend the value of using e-

government over the paper-based approach.

CA hinders the utilisation of e-government services. This study shows that Saudi

citizens who are apprehensive about using computers would not use e-government

services in Saudi Arabia. Because apprehension is not a persistent characteristic of

individuals, CA can be reduced by offering required training via various channels.

Public organisations are suggested, therefore, to organise public sessions for computer



training purposes targeting Saudi citizens. In particular, the biggest burden lies with

the Ministry of Education to arrange training programs concerning the utilisation of

computers to educate Saudi students on how to use computers properly. Such training

would help Saudi citizens to be familiar with using computers from early age, so that

they can use e-government in a comfortable manner.

The provision of quality public services with appropriate functionalities is critical for

the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Although there has been a huge

investment in the development of e-government in Saudi Arabia, only about 41.4% of

Saudi citizens use e-government to some degree (Alghamdi 2016). To improve the rate

of e-government adoption in Saudi Arabia, public organisations should take immediate

steps to enhance the quality of public services provided through e-government. It is

suggested that public organisations improve the functionalities of e-government to

provide quality public services to citizens through e-government. Public organisations,

for example, should maintain the privacy and security of online transactions to make

citizens feel safe when they request public services through e-government. It is

recommended, further, that public organisations provide citizens with a timeframe for

processing the requested public services. Such steps would help citizens to feel that

the quality of obtaining public services through e-government is much better than if

they visited public organisations physically.

The quality of information provided to stakeholders of public organisations including

citizens through e-government is important for improving the adoption of e-



government in Saudi Arabia. This study finds that Saudi citizens appreciate that e-

government websites should present high quality of public information to encourage

the use of e-government for requesting public services. It is, therefore, recommended

that public organisations in Saudi Arabia maintain the quality of the public information

provided through e-government. Such public information should be accurate, up-to-

date, relevant and understandable. Failing to provide acceptable quality public

information through e-government threatens the adoption of e-government.

Perceiving the benefits of the adoption of e-government is essential for improving its

adoption. This study finds that Saudi citizen need to perceive the benefits of e-

government to request public services through e-government. Public organisations in

Saudi Arabia are suggested, therefore, to emphasise the advantages of the adoption of

e-government relative to the paper-based alternative. Public organisations should

make the benefits of adopting e-government more visible to Saudi citizens. This can

be accomplished by distributing awareness brochures to citizens and implementing

advertising campaigns in several media channels that reach the target segment.

Improving the awareness of the convenience and effectiveness of using e-government,

for example, can enhance PU and adoption of e-government.

Ease of using e-government would improve the adoption of e-government. This study

reveals that Saudi citizens will adopt e-government if they find it easy to use. Public

organisations in Saudi Arabia should pay attention to enhancing citizens’ perceptions

of the ease of using e-government to improve adoption. This can be achieved by



following best practices on designing usable websites that improve skilfulness,

learnability, accessibility, and clarity. Public organisations in Saudi Arabia, further,

are recommended to standardise the interfaces of their websites. This would help

citizens to find the required public information and to request public services in easy

manner throughout the website of a public organisation.

Increasing transparency is critical for improving the adoption of e-government. This

study shows that the benefits and easiness of using e-government would be increased

if the transparency of Saudi public organisations is high. This study, on the other hand,

finds that less than half of the public organisations in Saudi Arabia provide citizens

with downloadable forms, policies and regulations, public tenders, budgets and

expenses, and annual reports through e-government. Such lack of transparency

decreases citizens’ perception of the benefits of using e-government. Collaboration by

all public organisations in Saudi Arabia should be emphasised to make public

information available on their websites to citizens. Public organisations should provide

citizens with a better understanding of the rationale behind public decisions by

providing them with information related to the decision. These steps would help citizen

to perceive the benefits and easiness of the adoption of e-government.

The presence of Wastta discourages the adoption of e-government. This study reveals

the use of Wastta prevents Saudi citizens from perceiving the benefits of using e-

government. This is because some public employees in public organisations process

paper-based public services that come from the use of Wastta, although they should be



requested, processed, and delivered through e-government. Public organisations in

Saudi Arabia, therefore, should introduce relevant policies and regulations that limit

the presence of Wastta. Such public policies and regulations should prevent public

employees from processing requests that come from using Wastta. Public

organisations in Saudi Arabia, further, should implement advertising campaigns to

increase the awareness of the negative consequences of using Wastta such as inequality

and corruption. Such advertising campaigns should also focus on the benefits of the

adoption of e-government as an effective approach for requesting public services.

These recommendations could decrease the presence of Wastta in Saudi society as well

as improve the adoption of e-government for requesting public services.


The aim of this chapter is to explore the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia, and hence, provide answers to the second research

question: What are the critical factors that affect the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia? This is done by validating and testing the initial measurement model

with the use of SEM on the survey data collected from 478 Saudi citizens. One-factor

congeneric models are developed and validated. This leads to the development of the

final measurement model. This model is tested and validated through the analysis of

convergent validity and discriminant validity. The GOF indices values of the final

measurement model are evaluated. This confirms the fitness of the final measurement

model.



The hypotheses testing for this research have been performed via structural model

analysis. Based on the significance values of the relationships among constructs, the

hypotheses are accepted or rejected. The findings of the structural model analysis

indicate that CSE, PI, CA, SQ, IQ, PU, and PEOU are the critical factors for the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The findings further reveal that TRAN

moderates the relationship between PU and ADOP. It also confirms the moderation

influence of TRAN on the relationship between PEOU and ADOP. The study further

confirms the negative moderating influence of WAS on the relationship between PU

and ADOP in the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

Conclusion 2019


Chapter 7

Conclusion

7.1 Introduction

The objective of this study is to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens. Specifically, this

research aims to (a) examine the emerging trends and patterns of the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia and (b) investigate the critical factors for the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia.

To achieve the objectives above, this study formulates the main research question as

follows:

• How can the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia be improved?

To answer this main research question, several subsidiary questions are developed as

follows:

• What are the current patterns and trends of the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia?

• What are the critical factors that affect the adoption of e-government in Saudi

Arabia?

Conclusion 2019


To adequately achieve the aim of this research and answer the research question above,

a quantitative research methodology is adopted in this study. This leads to the

development of a conceptual framework for better understanding the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia based on the review of the relevant literature. With the

use of SEM, the proposed conceptual framework is tested and validated using the

survey data collected from the citizens in Saudi Arabia for identifying the critical

factors for the adoption of e-government.

This chapter summarises the research findings of the study and their contributions to

the e-government research. It further discusses the limitation of the study and future

research topics in this area. In what follows, Section 7.2 presents an overview of the

research findings in this study. Section 7.3 states the contribution of this study to the

field of the e-government literature. Section 7.4 discusses the limitation of this study

and suggests the possible future research in the related area.

7.2 Summary of the Research Findings

The development of e-government in Saudi Arabia for improving the delivery of

public services is still in its infancy stage (Almukhlifi et al. 2019a; Alzahrani et al.

2018). This is illustrated through the fact that the current adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia is not encouraging (Alghamdi 2016). Various studies investigating the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia support this observation (Albesher &

Brooks 2014; Alharbi et al. 2016).

Conclusion 2019


This study further reinforces this observation on the unsatisfactory adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia by surveying citizens. The study shows that 63.2% of the

respondents to the survey do not use e-government frequently. There are only 27.6%

of the respondents who use e-government on a frequent basis. Further, 9.2% of the

respondents have never used e-government to access public services. Such results

demonstrate that the potential benefits of e-government have not fully materialised in

Saudi Arabia.

This study has evaluated the transparency of public decision making through e-

government in Saudi Arabia. A total of 144 public organisation websites are examined.

The study shows that most public organisations in Saudi Arabia focus on using e-

government only to publish their address and news. There are less than half of the

public organisations investigated use e-government to provide various stakeholders

including citizens with downloadable forms, policies and regulations, public tenders,

budgets and expenses, and annual reports. This shows that Saudi Arabia still lacks

transparency of public information. There is much to be done in the utilisation of e-

government to improve the transparency of public decision making in Saudi Arabia.

This study has examined the emerging patterns and trends of e-government adoption

in Saudi Arabia from several perspectives. The frequency of the use of e-government

with respect to gender of the participants is explored in this study. It indicates that

males use e-government more than females. The results show that many male

participants (35.4%) use e-government once every few months. Only 6.5% of them

never use e-government. In contrast, 4.6% of female participants use e-government

Conclusion 2019


once every few months. Only 0.6% of them use e-government at least once a day.

Overall, most male and female participants (40%) use e-government not at all often.

The frequency of the use of e-government with respect to the age of citizens is

investigated in this study. The results show that the age group of 18–45 years

represents about 72.1% of e-government users in Saudi Arabia. In particular, 20.9%

of these users use e-government on a frequent basis. There are 51.2% of the

participants who do not use e-government frequently. This study reveals that about

6.9% of the participants in this age group have never used e-government to access

public services.

The use of e-government with respect to the education level of citizens is explored in

this study. The results indicate that citizens with undergraduate and postgraduate

degrees constitute about 80% of e-government users in Saudi Arabia. They further

show that most of the participants in this study use e-government at a frequency of not

at all often and have a diploma degree. This study reveals that about 7.7% of the

participants with such educational levels have never used e-government to access

public services.

The use of e-government with respect to the occupation of the citizens is examined in

this study. Th results show that 56.2% of the participants who use e-government on a

frequent basis are government employees. The results further show that about 25% of

these participants use e-government not at all often (once every few months). This

Conclusion 2019


study reveals that 3.3% of participants with such occupation have never used e-

government to access public services.

This study has developed a new conceptual framework based on a comprehensive

review of the related literature for investigating the critical factors for the adoption of

e-government in Saudi Arabia. Such a framework extends TAM by considering the

unique circumstances of this study via the addition of transparency and Wastta to

explore the adoption of e-government from the perspective of citizens. Such a

framework is then tested and validated using SEM based on the survey data collected

from Saudi Arabia.

The study shows that CSE has a significant positive effect on PU (Bhuasiri et al. 2016;

Rana, Nripendra P & Dwivedi 2015) and PEOU of e-government (Chomchalao &

Naenna 2013; Susanto & Goodwin 2013) with respect to the adoption of e-government

in Saudi Arabia. This suggests that citizens who have higher levels of CSE would find

e-government more useful than those citizens who have lower levels of CSE. The study

further shows that citizens who are confident in their ability to deal with the different

functions of computers would find e-government easy to use. The enhancement of the

confidence of Saudi citizens in using computers would help them to improve their

perception of the ease of use and the usefulness of e-government systems in the

adoption of e-government. Such findings suggest that enhancing CSE would improve

the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia.

Conclusion 2019


The study finds that PI has a significant positive influence on PU (Algunto 2016; Hsiao

et al. 2012) and PEOU (Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Hsiao et al. 2012) in the adoption

of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The results indicate that Saudi citizens who enjoy

using innovations are often more open to using e-government if they find e-

government systems easy to use and useful. Citizens who stay updated on innovative

products would perceive the simplicity and benefits of e-government more than

citizens who do not pay attention to innovations. The greater the innovativeness of

Saudi citizens, the more likely the adoption of e-government.

The study finds that CA has a significant negative influence on PU of e-government

adoption in Saudi Arabia (Huang & Liaw 2005; Oktal et al. 2016). This suggests that

citizens who are more anxious about dealing with computers are less likely to find e-

government useful. This is because the apprehension of citizens in using computers

causes a loss of time when requesting public services through e-government. Such

apprehension limits the benefits of using e-government. As a result, the adoption of e-

government is affected.

This study reveals that CA has no effect on PEOU in the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia. This result differs from existing literature including the research findings

of Park et al. (2014) and Ustun et al. (2017). This study suggests that there is no

relationship between Saudi citizens’ anxiety about using computers and PEOU. Such

a finding may be due to the fact that about 88.5% of the participants in this study have

a diploma degree and above. Participants with such educational background are likely

Conclusion 2019


to have adequate knowledge and skills to overcome the difficulties of using computers

when accessing public services through e-government.

This study finds that services quality has a significant positive effect on PU (Chen et

al. 2015; Chomchalao & Naenna 2013) and PEOU of the adoption of e-government

(Chomchalao & Naenna 2013; Mustapha & Obid 2015). This means that the delivery

of public services through e-government can help citizens to obtain the benefits of e-

government. The study shows that the delivery of quality e-government services can

overcome the difficulties in requesting online public services.

The study shows that IQ has a significant positive effect on PU and PEOU of the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia (Almazan & Garcia 2012; Chomchalao &

Naenna 2013). This suggests that the availability of quality public services online

would encourage citizens to adopt e-government as they would find such services easy

and useful. The availability of quality public services online would help citizens to

meet their needs of public services in an effortless manner.

The study indicates that PU and PEOU have a significant positive influence on the

adoption of e-government (Hung et al. 2013; Rehman et al. 2012). This suggests that

the adoption of e-government would be improved if citizens perceive that e-

government is easy to use and more useful. Citizens would welcome the introduction

of e-government for requesting public services if it is not complex to use. Furthermore,

Conclusion 2019


the greater the benefits e-government provides, the more likely citizens will be to use

e-government for requesting public services.

The study proves that transparency and Wastta have significant moderating influences

on the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. This suggests that transparency

strengthens the relationships between the PEOU and the adoption of e-government,

and the PU and the adoption of e-government. When the transparency of public

decision making is higher, the positive influence of the PEOU on the adoption of e-

government is stronger. PU has a stronger positive influence on the adoption of e-

government when public information and procedures are available through e-

government. The study suggests that Wastta negatively affects the relationship

between PU and the adoption of e-government. The prevalence of Wastta in Saudi

society limits the benefits of the adoption of e-government, thereby reducing the use

of e-government to request public services.

7.3 Research Contributions and Implications

This study makes theoretical contributions to the field of e-government research with

practical implications for the development of e-government in Saudi Arabia. From the

theoretical perspective, this study contributes to the literature of e-government by (a)

developing and validating a conceptual framework for investigating the critical factors

for the adoption of e-government, (b) extending TAM to study the adoption of e-

government in an unique environment, and (c) exploring the influence of contextual

Conclusion 2019


factors on the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of

citizens.

This study makes a significant contribution to the existing literature of e-government

by developing a new framework for improving the adoption of e-government. The

study demonstrates how contextual factors including transparency and Wastta can

collectively contribute to better understanding the adoption of e-government from the

perspective of citizens. The developed framework is the first to explore the moderating

influence of transparency and Wastta on the adoption of e-government. The framework

answers the call for considering the influence of the context in which e-government is

developed to better understand the adoption of e-government (Dwivedi et al. 2012;

Shareef et al. 2016; Venkatesh et al. 2016; Wirtz & Daiser 2018). The framework

would be of great use in better understanding the adoption of e-government in other

developing countries where lack of transparency and the presence of Wastta are

common in the society.

This study extends TAM for better understanding the adoption of e-government by

investigating the role of contextual factors in improving the adoption of e-government.

The current TAM-based e-government models focus primarily on the factors related

to individuals and system characteristics. This study extends TAM by investigating the

effect of transparency and Wastta as external factors on the adoption of e-government

from the perspective of citizens. This study demonstrates the applicability of the

extended framework in exploring the adoption of e-government with the empirical

evidence in the context of developing countries.

Conclusion 2019


This research advances the literature of e-government adoption in the context of Saudi

Arabia. The research findings help to better understand and improve the adoption of

e-government by exploring the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia. This research suggests that contextual factors are important in

comprehending the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of

citizens. It provides empirical evidences of the moderating influence of transparency

and Wastta on the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia, where lack of

transparency and the use of Wastta are very common in public organisations.

From a practical perspective, this study provides valuable research findings for

different stakeholders of e-government in Saudi Arabia including public organisations,

e-government designers and developers to improve the delivery of public services. The

research findings of this study provide public organisations in Saudi Arabia with

beneficial information and guidelines for improving the development of specific

strategies and policies for the successful implementation of e-government initiatives.

With better understanding of the critical factors for the adoption of e-government,

public organisations in Saudi Arabia could more efficiently manage the

implementation of e-government initiatives to encourage Saudi citizens to use public

services through e-government. The research findings demonstrate the practical

importance on how lack of transparency and the prevalence of Wastta in Saudi Arabia

affect the adoption of e-government. Public organisations in Saudi Arabia could take

appropriate actions in advance to ensure the effective development of e-government

to improve the delivery of public services. By successfully understanding the most

appropriate public information that needs to be transparent, public organisations in

Conclusion 2019


Saudi Arabia can ensure the delivery of the benefits of e-government adoption to

citizens.

This study provides valuable research findings to e-government developers in Saudi

Arabia. The importance of this study to e-government developers lies in offering these

developers with useful information in applying appropriate design strategies for the

development of e-government. The developers of e-government would be able to

implement appropriate design strategies in designing user-friendly interfaces. This

would accommodate citizens with various needs and expectations in requesting public

services through e-government.

7.4 Limitations and Future Research

There are limitations in this study that could be considered in future research. This

research only investigates the critical factors that influence the adoption of e-

government in Saudi Arabia. To obtain more reliable insights into the adoption of e-

government, the same study could be extended to other developing countries, as well

as developed countries.

This study adopts a quantitative methodology for investigating the critical factors for

the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The adoption of other methodologies

for explaining more deeply the findings of this research is needed. Such a need arises

because this study is the first study that investigates the moderating influences of

Conclusion 2019


transparency and Wastta on the adoption of e-government. Future research could seek

to explain why these contextual factors influence the adoption of e-government using

other research methodologies.

This research investigates the critical factors for the adoption of e-government from

the perspective of citizens. This may threaten the validity, generalisability and

reliability of the research findings for improving the adoption of e-government in

general. There are other stakeholders with different perceptions of the adoption of e-

government such as employees and users other than Saudi citizens. These stakeholders

may have various thoughts, needs, and expectations regarding the adoption of e-

government. Future research should consider the perceptions of these stakeholders to

broaden the scope of the study to obtain a better understanding of the issues that affect

the adoption of e-government.

This study only investigates the moderating influences of transparency and Wastta on

the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. The investigation of the direct effects

of transparency and Wastta on the adoption of e-government could provide valuable

findings on how a lack of transparency and the presence of Wastta in a specific society

discourage citizens from adopting e-government. Such investigation could help to

better understand the role that public policies and cultural differences play in the


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Appendices

Appendix A

The Survey Questionnaire

(The English Version)

E-government

In this survey, e-government refers to the use of information and communication

technologies to improve the transparency in public decision-making through

facilitating accessing to specific decision-making information in a specific situation.

Transparency in public decision-making

Transparency in public decision-making refers to the availability of relevant decision-

making information and procedures to all the stakeholders in the public decision-

making process.

This survey contains the following sections:

Part I: identification of the demographic information of the respondent

Part II: investigation of the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in Saudi

Arabia from the perspective of citizens.

Your assistance is requested in anonymously answering the questions in the

questionnaire. Your responses will be strictly confidential.

Thank you in advance.

Appendices 2019

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Part I- Demographic data

1. What is your gender?

Male

Female

2. Which of these age groups are you in?

18-20

21-30

31-45

46-60

More than 60

3. What is your nationality?

………………………….

4. What is your level of education?

No formal school

Secondary school

High school

Diploma/ Advanced diploma

Bachelor’s degree

Master’s degree

Doctoral degree

5. What is your occupation?

Student

Government employee

Private sector employee

Self-employed

Unemployed

Retired

6. How often do you use e-government services such as issuance or renewal of

a driver's license, issuance or renewal of a passport … etc.?

Very often (i.e., at least once a day)

Often (i.e., a few times a week)

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Not very often (i.e., a few times a month)

Not at all often (i.e., once every few months)

Never

Part II

The purpose of this section is to investigate the critical factors for the adoption of e-

government. Please rate your responses based on your opinion.

7. To what extent is information quality in e-government important to you?

[Tick (√) on the scale below: 7 = Highly important……. 1 = Not important at all]

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

7a Information presented on e-

government websites is accurate.

7b Information presented on e-

government websites is up to date.

7c Information presented on e-

government websites is relevant.

7d Information presented on e-

government websites is

understandable.

7e Information presented on e-

government websites is sufficient for

my purpose.

8. To what extent is service quality in e-government important to you?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

8a E-government websites informing

public when services will be

performed.

8b E-government websites providing

services at the time it promises to do

so.

8c Public feeling safe in their

transactions with e-government

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websites in terms of security and

privacy protection.

8d E-government websites providing

public services that have been

delivered physically.

8e E-government’s employees have the

knowledge to do their job well.

8f E-government websites providing

follow-up service to public inquiries

or requests.

9. To what extent is perceived ease of using e-government important to you?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

9a It is easy to become skillful at using

e-government websites.

9b Using e-government websites does

not require a lot of effort to learn.

9c It is easy to get websites of public

organisations to do what I want it to

do.

9d E-government websites are clear and

understandable to interact with.

9e Instructions provided online help

public to learn how to use e-

government websites easily.

10. To what extent is perceived usefulness of e-government important to you?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

10a Using e-government is a convenient

way to conduct public services.

10b Using e-government would help

conducting public services quickly.

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10c E-government websites make it

easier for public to communicate

with public organisations.

10d Using e-government would enhance

public services effectiveness.

10e I would find the use of e-government

is useful.

11. To what extent is the transparency of public organisations important to you?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

11a Public information is accessible

online without restrictions.

11b Public services procedures are

published online.

11c Public organisations display

organisational charts, duties and

responsibilities of public sector staff

online.

11d Public policy drafts, laws or

regulations are published online for

public consultation.

11e Public organisations publish tenders

online.

11f Public organisations disclose their

budget /expenses online to show

accountability of their expenses.

11g Public organisations display staffs

contact information online.

11h Public organisations disclose their

annual plan and progress online to

show their accountability of

achieving public goals.

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12. To what extent do you agree with the following statements about computer

self-efficacy on the use of e-government?

[Tick (√) on the scale below: 7 = Strongly agree……. 1 = Not agree at all]

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

12a I am confident of using e-

government websites if I have the

online instructions.

12b I am confident of using e-

government websites if I only have

the online “help” function.

12c I am confident of using e-

government websites if I have never

used such a system before.

12d I am confident of using e-

government websites if I have just

seen someone using it before trying

it myself.

12e I am confident of using e-

government websites if there is no

one around to show me how to do it.

13. To what extent do you agree with the following statements about the use of

Wastta?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

13a I believe that Wastta plays an

important role in simplifying

procedures of public services.

13b I believe that Wastta helps me in all

kinds of interactions with public

organisations.

13c I believe that it is not important to

fulfill all requirements of public

services if I have Wastta.

13d I relay on Wastta in conducting

public services.

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14. To what extent do you agree with the following statements about your use of e-

government?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

14a I use e-government for conducting

public services.

14b I use e-government for gathering

public information.

14c I use e-government on a regular

basis.

15. To what extent do you agree with the following statements about the personal

innovativeness on the use of e-government?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

15a If I heard about a new technology, I

would look for ways to experiment

with it.

15b Among my peers, I am usually the

first to explore new technologies.

15c I like learning using new

technologies.

15d In general, I am hesitant to try out

new technologies.

16. To what extent do you agree with the following statements about computer

anxiety on the use of e-government?


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

16a I feel apprehensive about using

computers.

16b It scares me to think that I could

cause the computer to destroy a large

amount of information by hitting the

wrong key.

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16c I hesitate to use a computer for fear

of making mistakes I cannot correct.

16d Using a computer is somewhat

intimidating to me.

Appendices 2019

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(The Arabic Version)

الحكومة اإللكترونية

المعلومات واالتصاالت لتحسين الشفافية في في هذه الدراسة، تعرف الحكومة اإللكترونية باستخدام تكنولوجيا

اتخاذ القرار العام من خالل تسهيل الوصول إلى معلومات صنع القرار في حالة معينة.

الشفافية في اتخاذ القرارات العامة

الشفافية في اتخاذ القرارات العامة تعرف بتوافر معلومات التخاذ القرارات ذات الصلة واإلجراءات لجميع

المصلحة في اجراءات اتخاذ القرار العام. أصحاب

:يحتوي هذا االستبيان األقسام التالية

لجزء األول: تحديد المعلومات العامة للمشارك.ا

الحكومة اإللكترونية في المملكة العربية السعودية من وجهة لتبنيالجزء الثاني: التحقق من العوامل الحاسمة

.المواطنيننظر أفراد

سرية تامة.الستبيان. علما ان ردودكم ستكون تعامل بعدتكم في اإلجابة على أسئلة امسا نتمنى

شكرا لكم مقدما.

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األول: المعلومات الشخصية الجزء

الجنس ؟ .1

ذكر

انثى

؟ العمرية الفئة. 2

18-20

21-30

31-45

46-60

سنة 60أكبر من

. الجنسية ؟3

………………………….

. المستوى التعليمي ؟4

غير متعلم

الكفاءة المتوسطة

العامة االثانوية

العام الدبلوم

البكالوريوسدرجة

ماجستيرالدرجة

درجة الدكتوراة

المهنة ؟ 4

طالب

موظف في القطاع الحكومي

موظف في القطاع الخاص

اعمال حرة

غير موظف

متقاعد

أو تجديدها أو القيادة رخصة إصدار :مثل ،اإللكترونية الحكومة خدمات ماتخدأي مدى تقوم بإس. الى 6

?.إلخ... تجديده أو السفر جواز إصدار

(اليوم في واحدة مرة األقل على أي،) غالبا

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(األسبوع في مرات عدة أي،) األحيان من كثير في

(الشهر في مرات عدة أي،) ليس غالبا

(أشهر بضعة كل واحدة مرة أي،)قليل

.اإللكترونية الحكومة خدمات ماتخدال أقوم بإس

الثاني الجزء

يرجى. اإللكترونية الحكومة لتبني )استخدام( الحاسمة العوامل من قالتحق هو الجزء من االستبيان هذا من الغرض

.رأيكبناء على الردود وضع

لك؟ بالنسبة مهمة اإللكترونية الحكومة في المعلومات جودة تعتبر مدى أي إلى7-

] للغاية مهم= 7....... اإلطالق على مهم غير= 1 [:أدناه المقياس على (√) عالمة ضع

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع على المتوفرة المعلومات

.دقيقة

أ -7


.ثةمحد

ب -7


.بإحتياجاتي من الخدمات الحكومية صلة ذات

ج -7


.مفهومة

هـ -7


من الدخول على موقع الجهة لغرضي كافية

.الحكومية

و -7

لك؟ بالنسبة مهمة اإللكترونية الحكومةخدمات جودة تعتبر مدى أي إلى -8


Appendices 2019

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7 6 5 4 3 2 1

المواطنين عالمبإ اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقعتقوم

المطلوبة. الخدمات انجاز بموعد

أ -8

في الخدمات بانجاز اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقعتقوم

.بذلك فيه تعد الذي الوقت

ب -8

والخصوصية اثناء اداء باألمان ونريشع المواطنين

.اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع عبر معامالتهم

ج -8

عتقوم الجهات الحكومية بتوفير خدماتها على موق

.اإللكترونية الحكومة

هـ -8

الموظفين المسؤولون عن انجاز الخدمات يتمتع

الالزمة معرفةالب اإللكترونية الحكومة عبر الحكومية

.جيد بشكلألداء اعمالهم

و -8

متابعة خدمةبتوفير اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقعتقوم

.مستجدات الخدمات الحكومية المطلوبة

ز -8

لك؟ بالنسبة مهمة اإللكترونية الحكومةسهولة استخدام تعتبر مدى أي إلى 9-


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ا تصبح أن السهل من مواقع استخدام في ماهر


أ -9

الكثير لكترونيةاإل الحكومة مواقع استخدام يتطلب ال

.للتعلم الجهد من

ب -9

للجهات اإللكترونية مواقعال على العثور السهل من

.به القيام أريد بما للقيامالحكومية

ج -9

هـ -9 .ومفهومة واضحة اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع

Appendices 2019

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للجهات اإللكترونية مواقعال على المتوفرة التعليمات

استخدام كيفية معرفةالمواطنين على تساعدالحكومية

.بسهولة اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع

و -9

لك؟ بالنسبة مهمة اإللكترونية الحكومةفائدة استخدام تعتبر مدى أي إلى - 10


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

إلجراء مريحة وسيلة اإللكترونية الحكومة استخدام

.العامة الخدمات

أ -10

إجراء في يساعد اإللكترونية الحكومة استخدام

.بسرعة العامة الخدمات

ب -10

مع واصلالت اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع تسهل

.الجهات الحكومية

ج -10

الخدمات فعالية يعزز اإللكترونية الحكومة استخدام

.العامة

هـ -10

و -10 .مفيد اإللكترونية الحكومة استخدام

لك؟ بالنسبة مهمة الشفافية في اتخاذ القرارات الحكومية تعتبر مدى أي إلى - 11


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

مواقع عبر العامة المعلومات إلى الوصول يمكن

.قيود دون اإللكترونية الحكومة

أ -11

مواقع على العامة الخدمات إجراءات نشر يتم


ب -11

وواجبات التنظيمية تتنشر الجهات الحكومية الهياكل

مواقع على الحكومي القطاع موظفي ومسؤوليات


ج -11

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العامة السياسات لوائح و قوانين أو مسودات نشر يتم

.العام للتشاور اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع على

هـ -11

مواقع على المناقصات تنشرالجهات الحكومية


و -11

عبر نفقاتها/ ميزانيتها عنالجهات الحكومية تكشف

عن المساءلة إلظهار اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع

.نفقاتها

ز -11

بالموظفين االتصال معلوماتالجهات الحكومية تنشر

.اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع عبر

ح -11

مهاوتقد السنوية خطتها عنالجهات الحكومية تكشف

تحقيق عن مساءلتهال اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع عبر

.العامة األهداف

ط -11

الخدمات الحكومية الجراء لكمبيوترفي استخدام ا الذاتية الكفاءة حول التالية العبارات مع فقتت مدى أي إلى - 12

اإللكترونية؟ الحكومة عبر

] بشدة موافق= 7....... اإلطالق على موافق غير= 1 [:أدناه المقياس على (√) عالمة ضع

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

إذا اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع استخدام من واثق أنا

متوفرة على الموقع. تعليماتال كان

أ -12


متاحة على الموقع." المباشرة المساعدة" خدمة كان

ب -12

حتى اإللكترونية الحكومة مواقع استخدام من واثق أنا

.قبل منها أستخدم لم إذا

ج -12


ا رأيت .بنفسي تجربتها قبل يستخدمها ما شخص

هـ -12


.بذلك القيام كيفية شخص يخبرني هناك يكن لم

و -12

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؟حول استخدامك للواسطة التالية العبارات مع فقتت مدى أي إلى - 13


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ا تلعب الواسطة ا دور إجراءات تبسيط في مهم

الحكومية. الخدمات

أ -13

الجهات الحكومية مع التواصل في تساعدني الواسطة

.الحكومية الخدمات إجراءبهدف انهاء

ب -13

الخدمات متطلبات بجميع القيام المهم من ليس

.الواسطة لديت كان إذا الحكومية

ج -13

هـ -13 .الحكومية الخدمات إجراء في الواسطةأعتمد على

؟للحكومة اإللكترونيةحول استخدامك التالية العبارات مع فقتت مدى أي إلى - 14


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

الخدمات إلجراء اإللكترونية الحكومة أستخدم

.الحكومية

أ -14

للحصول على اإللكترونية الحكومة أستخدم

.الحكومية المعلومات

ب -14

ج -14 .منتظم بشكل اإللكترونية الحكومة أستخدم

اإللكترونية؟ الحكومة استخدام في الشخصي ابتكارك حول التالية العبارات على توافق مدى أي إلى - 15


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

طرق نع فسأبحث ، جديدة تقنية عن سمعت إذا

.لتجربتها

أ -15

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التقنيات كتشفي من أول عادة أنا ، زمالئي بين

.الجديدة

ب -15

ج -15 .جديدة تقنيات استخدامتعلم أحب

هـ -15 .الجديدة التقنيات تجربة في متردد أنا ، عام بشكل

الجراء الخدمات الحكومية عبر لكمبيوتراستخدامك لالقلق من حول التالية العبارات مع فقتت مدى أي إلى - 16

اإللكترونية؟ الحكومة


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

أ -16 .الكمبيوتر أجهزة استخدام من بالقلق أشعر

الكمبيوتر إتالف في أتسبب قد بأنني االعتقاد يخيفني

على الضغط طريق عن المعلومات من كبيرة لكمية

.الخطأ المفتاح

ب -16

أخطاء ارتكاب من خوف ا الكمبيوتر استخدام في أتردد

.تصحيحها يمكنني ال

ج -16

بالنسبة الشيء بعض مخيف أمر الكمبيوتر استخدام

.لي

هـ -16

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Appendix B

The Invitation to Participate in Research

INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE IN A

RESEARCH PROJECT

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION

Project Title: Investigating the critical factors for the adoption of e-government in

Saudi Arabia

Investigators: Prof. Hepu Deng

Prof. Booi Kam

Ayman Almukhlifi (PhD candidate)

Dear participant,

You are invited to participate in a research project being conducted by RMIT

University. Please read this sheet carefully and be confident that you understand its

contents before deciding whether to participate. If you have any questions about the

project, please ask one of the investigators.

Who is involved in this research project? Why is it being conducted?

The principal researcher, Ayman Almukhlifi is a PhD student at the School of Business

School of Business IT and Logistics

Building 80 Level 8

445 Swanston Street

Australia

Tel. +61 3 9925 5969

Fax +61 3 9925 5850

• www.rmit.edu.au

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Information Technology and Logistics, RMIT University. His supervisors for the PhD

research are Professor Hepu Deng and Associate Professor Booi Kam. The research

project aims to investigate the critical factors for improving the transparency in public

decision-making through e-government development in Saudi Arabia from the

perspective of citizens. The RMIT University Human Research Ethics Committee

(HREC) has approved this research project.

Why have you been approached?

You have been approached to participate in this research randomly because you are a

Saudi citizen and may have used e-government services. Your participation in the

survey is completely voluntary. You can withdraw from this activity at any point of

time.

What is the project about? What are the questions being addressed?

E-government has become a popular means to improve the delivery of public services.

How to improve the transparency of public decision making through the development

of e-government, however, is unclear. There is a lack of studies for identifying the

critical factors for improving the transparency of public decision making through e-

government development, in particular in Saudi Arabia. This study aims to investigate

the critical factors for improving the transparency in public decision-making through

e-government development in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of citizens.

The primary research question in this study is:

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How can the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia be improved?

If I agree to participate, what will I be required to do?

If you agree to be part of this project you will be asked to complete a questionnaire.

The questionnaire consists of two parts. The first part asks for basic demographic

information of yourself including age, gender and level of education. This part should

take no more than five minutes to complete. The second part consists of specific

questions related to the identification of critical factors for the adoption of e-

government with respect to your perception and view. This part should take

approximately 20 minutes to complete.

What are the possible risks or disadvantages?

There are no apparent or hidden risks in participating in this research. If any questions

may cause you concern, you are free not to answer them. You will not be asked to

provide any personal information. If you are unduly concerned about your responses

to any of the questions or if you find participation in the survey distressing, you should

advise the researcher that you want to discontinue the survey. The researchers will

discuss your concerns with you confidentially and suggest appropriate follow-up

actions if necessary.

What are the benefits associated with participation?

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Findings from this study will be used to develop and validate a framework for the

adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. Your contribution is important since you

are a user of e-government services. Participating in the survey is a valuable

opportunity for you to express how transparency in public decision-making could be

improved through e-government development. The outcome of the research will

provide useful information for Saudi government that could draw on to improve

transparency in public decision-making through e-government development.

What will happen to the information I provide?

This project will use a secure RMIT University server to create, collect, store and

analyse the data from the survey. The data collected will be securely stored for a period

of five years in the School of Business IT and Logistics, RMIT University. The data

on the RMIT University server will then be deleted and expunged. All information

collected will be treated in complete confidence and can only be accessed by the

investigators. The research findings will be written up in a PhD thesis and in relevant

academic papers without any details of participants disclosed. In any event, neither

individuals nor their organisations will be identified. Because of the nature of data

collection, we are not obtaining written informed consent from you. Instead, we

assume that you have given consent by your completion of the questionnaire.

For the hard-copy survey, the survey data will be treated in a strictly confidential way

and will only be viewed by the researchers involved in this project.

What are my rights as a participant?

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As a participant in this research you have:

• The right to withdraw from participation at any time.

• The right to have any unprocessed data withdrawn and destroyed, provided it

can be reliably identified, and provided that so doing does not increase the risk

for the participant.

• The right to have any questions answered at any time.

Whom should I contact if I have any questions?

The primary investigator, Ayman Almukhlifi.

Yours sincerely,

Ayman Almukhlifi Professor Hepu Deng

PhD Candidate Primary Research Supervisor

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Appendix C

A List of Public Organisations

Public Organisations WV WA TOS BD

PN POD PF PPR PT PBE PAR ADS TN EM

1. Alahsa Municipality Yes Yes 108 X X X X X X

2. Taif Municipality Yes Yes 31 X X X X X X

3. Eastern Province Municipality Yes Yes 93 X X X X X

4. Albaha Municipality Yes Yes 28 X X X X X

5. Aljouf Municipality Yes Yes 22 X X X X X X

6. Riyadh Municipality Yes Yes 63 X X X X X X X

7. Qassim Municipality Yes Yes 57 X X X X X X

8. Madinah Municipality Yes Yes 44 X X X X X X X X

9. Tabuk Municipality Yes Yes 42 X X X X X X

10. Jazan Municipality Yes Yes 24 X X X X X X

11. Assir Municipality Yes Yes 33 X X X X X

12. Najran Municipality Yes Yes 39 X X X X X X

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13. Islamic University of Madinah Yes Yes 71 X X X X X X

14. Saudi Electronic University Yes Yes 94 X X X X X X X

15. Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University Yes Yes 78 X X X X

16. Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University Yes Yes 58 X X X X X

17. Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University Yes Yes 62 X X X X

18. Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University Yes Yes 84 X X X X X X

19. Al-Baha University Yes Yes 34 X X X X

20. Jouf University Yes Yes 79 X X X X

21. Northern Borders University Yes Yes 19 X X X

22. Taif University Yes Yes 43 X X

23. Qassim University Yes Yes 67 X X X X X X

24. Majmaah University Yes Yes 98 X X X X X

25. King Khalid University Yes Yes 64 X X X X

26. Bisha University Yes Yes 11 X X X X

27. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology Yes Yes 3 X X X

28. King Saud University Yes Yes 81 X X X X X

29. King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences Yes Yes 33 X X X X

30. King Abdulaziz University Yes Yes 103 X X X X

31. King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Yes Yes 61 X X X X X

32. King Faisal University Yes Yes 119 X X X X

33. Umm al-Qura University Yes Yes 72 X X X X X

34. Tabuk University Yes Yes 40 X X X X X

35. Jazan University Yes Yes 13 X X X X

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36. Jeddah University Yes Yes 22 X X X X

37. Hail University Yes Yes 61 X X X X X

38. Shaqra University Yes Yes 9 X X X X

39. Taybah University Yes Yes 36 X X X X X X X

40. Najran University Yes Yes 41 X X X X X X

41. National Center for Aِssessment Yes Yes 13 X X X X X X

42. Technical and Vocational Training Corporation Yes Yes 87 X X X X X

43. The King Abdulaziz and His Companions Foundation for

Giftedness and Creativity Yes Yes 6 X X X X

44. Education and Training Evaluation Commission Yes Yes 2 X X X X

45. Institute of Public Administration Yes Yes 67 X X X X X X

46. Red Crescent Authority Yes Yes 5 X X X X X X X

47. King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital Yes Yes 29 X X X X

48. King Fahad Medical City Yes Yes 7 X X X X

49. King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre Yes Yes 23 X X X X X

50. King Abdullah Medical City Specialist Hospital Yes Yes 6 X X X

51. King Saud Medical City Yes Yes 3 X X X

52. Prince Mohammed Bin Abdulaziz Hospital Yes Yes 3 X X

53. National Guard Health Affairs Yes Yes 16 X X X X

54. Armed Forces Medical Services Yes Yes 7 X X X X X X

55. Armed Forces Hospitals Southern Region Yes Yes 13 X X X X

56. Al kharj Armed Forces Hospital Yes Yes 5 X X

57. King Fahd Armed Forces Hospital Yes Yes 16 X X X X X X

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58. Jubail Armed Forces Hospital Yes Yes 5 X X

59. North West Armed Forces Hospital Yes Yes 12 X X X X X

60. The Northern Area Armed Forces Hospital Yes Yes 2 X X X X X

61. Sharurah Armed Forces Hospital Yes Yes 0 X

62. Alhada Armed Forces Hospital Yes Yes 24 X X

63. Prince Sultan Military College of Health Sciences Yes Yes 15 X X X X X

64. Saudi Commission for Health Specialties Yes Yes 12 X X X X X

65. Council of Cooperative Health Insurance Yes Yes 41 X X X X X X

66. Ministry of Communications and Information Technology Yes Yes 12 X X X X X X X

67. Ministry of Housing Yes Yes 21 X X X X X X X X

68. Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture Yes Yes 78 X X X X X X X X X

69. Ministry of Commerce and Investment Yes Yes 96 X X X X X X X X X X

70. Ministry of Education Yes Yes 156 X X X X X X X

71. Ministry of Hajj and Umrah Yes Yes 52 X X X X

72. Ministry of National Guard Yes Yes 5 X X X X X X

73. Ministry of Foreign Affairs Yes Yes 84 X X X X X

74. Ministry of Civil Service Yes Yes 27 X X X X X X X X X

75. Ministry of Interior Yes Yes 67 X X X X X X

76. Ministry of Défense Yes Yes 1 X X X

77. Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Dawah and Guidance Yes Yes 7 X X X X X

78. Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs Yes Yes 44 X X X X X X

79. Ministry of Health Yes Yes 11 X X X X

80. Ministry of Energy, Industry and Mineral Resources Yes Yes 4 X X X X

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81. Ministry of Justice Yes Yes 28 X X X X X X X X

82. Ministry of Finance Yes Yes 26 X X X X X X X

83. Ministry of Media Yes Yes 9 X X X X X

84. Ministry of Economy and Planning Yes Yes 1 X X X X X X

85. General Authority for Competition Yes Yes 11 X X X X X

86. Public Transport Authority Yes Yes 14 X X X X X

87. General Authority for Awqaf Yes Yes 0 X X

88. Saudi Exports Development Authority Yes Yes 5 X X X X X

89. Saudi Wildlife Authority Yes Yes 10 X X X X

90. Saudi Authority for Industrial Cities and Technology Zones Yes Yes 8 X X X X X X

91. Saudi Standards, Metrology and Quality Organisation Yes Yes 13 X X X X X

92. General Authority for Statistics Yes Yes 8 X X X X X

93. Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority Yes Yes 19 X X X X

94. General Authority of Zakat and Tax Yes Yes 64 X X X X X

95. Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage Yes Yes 18 X X X X X X X X X

96. General Authority of Civil Aviation Yes Yes 36 X X X X X X X

97. Saudi Ports Authority Yes Yes 17 X X X X X

98. Riyadh Development Authority Yes Yes 1 X X X X

99. Makkah Development Authority Yes Yes 1 X X X X X

100. Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu Yes Yes 157 X X X X X X

101. National Anti-Corruption Commission Yes Yes 5 X X X X X

102. Saudi Customs Yes Yes 34 X X X

103. Saudi Arabian Monetary Authority Yes Yes 9 X X X X X

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104. Communications and Information Technology Commission Yes Yes 14 X X X X X X

105. Saudi Broadcasting Authority Yes Yes 2 X

106. Capital Market Authority Yes Yes 51 X X X X X X X

107. Economic Cities Authorities Yes Yes 31 X X X

108. The Electricity and Cogeneration Regulatory Authority Yes Yes 29 X X X X X X X

109. General Commission for Audio-visual Media Yes Yes 5 X X X X X

110. General Culture Authority Yes Yes 1 X X X

111. General Entertainment Authority Yes Yes 3 X X X

112. General Sport Authority Yes Yes 2 X X X X X X

113. Presidency of Meteorology and Environment Yes Yes 9 X X X X X X X

114. General Authority of Small and Medium Enterprises Yes Yes 16 X

115. Saudi Energy Efficiency Centre Yes Yes 2 X X X X

116. King Abdulaziz Centre for National Dialogue Yes Yes 0 X X X X

117. King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Centre Yes Yes 0 X X X X X

118. King Fahd Cultural Centre Yes Yes 1 X X X X

119. Council of Saudi Chambers Yes Yes 6 X X X X

120. The General Commission for The Guardianship of Trust

Funds for Minors and their Counterparts Yes Yes 7 X X X X X X

121. Saudi Organisation for Certified Public Accountants Yes Yes 3 X X X X X X X

122. King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives Yes Yes 17 X X X X

123. General Auditing Bureau Yes Yes 18 X X X X X

124. Social Development Bank Yes Yes 12 X X X X X X X X X

125. Agricultural Development Fund Yes Yes 10 X X X X X X X X

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126. Saudi Industrial Development Fund Yes Yes 13 X X X X X X X X

127. Human Resources Development Fund Yes Yes 28 X X X

128. King Khalid Military Academy Yes Yes 3 X X X

129. King Fahd Security College Yes Yes 6 X X

130. Shura Council (Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia) Yes Yes 10 X X

131. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology Yes Yes 20 X X X X X X

132. King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy Yes Yes 2 X X X X

133. King Fahad National Library Yes Yes 15 X X X X X X

134. King Abdul Aziz Public Library Yes Yes 2 X X X X

135. Saudi Post Yes Yes 22 X X X X

136. Bureau of Experts Yes Yes 2 X X X X X X

137. Saudi Geological Survey Yes Yes 28 X X X X X

138. Saudi Press Agency Yes Yes 2 X X X

139. The General Presidency for the Affairs of the Grand

Mosque and the Prophet's Mosque Yes Yes 13 X X X X X

140. Saline Water Conversion Corporation Yes Yes 5 X X X

141. The General Presidency of Scholarly Research and Ifta Yes Yes 1

142. Public Pension Agency Yes Yes 53 X X X X X X X

143. Saudi Grains Organisation Yes Yes 11 X X X X X X

144. Saudi Irrigation Organisation Yes Yes 4 X X X X X X

WV: website visibility, WA: website accessibility, TOS: total of public services, BD: basic data, ADS: address, TN: telephone number, E-M: electronic email, PN:

publication of news, POD: publication of open data, PF: publication of forms, PPR: publication of policies and regulations, PT: publication of tenders, PBE: publication

of budget and expenses, PAR: publication of annual reports.

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Appendix D

The Initial Full Measurement Model

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Appendix E

One-factor Congeneric Models

Computer Self-efficacy

Personal Innovativeness

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Computer Anxiety

Information Quality

Adoption

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Service Quality

Perceived Ease of Use

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Perceived Usefulness

Transparency

Wastta

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Appendix F

The Final Full Measurement Model