Simon McGirr – 245666

Digital Art and Technology

Can changing modalities of learning through new technologies be predicted by

generational theories?

University of Plymouth

School of Art and Media

Can changing modalities of learning through new technologies be predicted by

Generational theories?

Simon McGirr

April 2010

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I would like to thank Dr. Martha Blassnigg of the University of Plymouth for her

continuing support and guidance. Your help was invaluable.

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Abstract.......................................................................................................................5

Introduction.................................................................................................................6

CHAPTER 1 Psychological Learning Theories...........................................................11Behaviourism.............................................................................................................................................................12Cognitivism................................................................................................................................................................. 15Constructivism..........................................................................................................................................................17

CHAPTER 2 The Generation Game...........................................................................21Generation X...............................................................................................................................................................24Generation Y...............................................................................................................................................................25

CHAPTER 3 The New Generation.............................................................................28Generation Z...............................................................................................................................................................28Technological Determinism vs. Social Constructivism............................................................................30

References.................................................................................................................35

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Abstract

To generalize, humans have always had the desire to use tools. These tools were to do

tasks that we couldn’t do with our bodies. A great example of this is depicted in the film

2001: A Space Odyssey by Stanley Kubrick, where the apes work out that if they use the

club or stick to hit, and kill, another ape they can gain territory and ultimately get to the

water that they need. This pattern in behaviour still exists today, it is the need to develop

and work out how to do things more efficiently. Information technologies are growing

more and more every day, these tools are becoming so embedded into our lives that we

now need to understand the effect that they are having on our behaviour. This essay tries

to incorporate different theories to help us understand that psychological learning theories

combined with generational theory can help us understand the development of

technology through the means of experiential learning. Learning to use tools has been, in

my opinion, the most important thing a human has learnt to do. The fact that we can

predict an outcome is a remarkable feat that generally we all take for granted.

Psychologists studying human behaviour analyze our interaction, responses etc but they

don’t seem to include the idea that our experiences, living through a particular period of

time, changes they way we use our tools. We fabricate these tools to fit in with our

present needs. If we created tools for a purpose that didn’t exist there would be no use for

it, obviously. This is where theories of technological determinism and social

constructivism come into play. Are these tools made for a purpose or are they a

requirement of society?

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Introduction

Learning is acquiring new knowledge, behaviours, skills, values, preferences or

understanding, and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to

learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. - John Holt, 1983.

The effects of the Internet and technologies have played an important part on learners.

There are many theoretical frameworks and empirical findings which analyze the effects

of TV and computer games, many of which either look at the effect of violent content or

the impact on children’s cognitive development. Cheryl C. Bracken and Matthew

Lombard (2004) have documented research that children recall what they learn from a

computer, especially if they are rewarded. It seems however that the majority of current

research examines the intended use of digital technologies in the form of effecting certain

skills, competencies and behaviours and does not account for external shifts in society

over time.

The term eLearning can have multiple meanings. In the business world it can refer to how

a training course is delivered to employees through a company network. In most

universities it is used to define a specific mode to deliver course content and activities.

The concept behind eLearning can be tracked back to Rene Descartes, a 17th century

philosopher. During the 17th century people were being offered shorthand classes by

correspondence courses through the mail. Caleb Philips was the first to teach shorthand

by correspondence in Boston 1728. The improvement of the postal service made this

method of distance learning very popular (Gall, 2009). The postal service enabled people

to communicate effectively, much in the same way that the Internet does. It provides a

platform for people to use and the content is user driven. Overall, eLearning can provide

benefits for both the individuals and organizations. The level of access can play a very

important role for the individual, on a basic term some people might prefer to work in the

evening rather than morning. Tailoring content to the individual is shaping the digital

revolution.

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To explain how technology is changing the way we learn it is worth mentioning the

Harvard Law School. In the late 1990s they invested money into renovating some of their

old classrooms. They decided to add new chairs with an Ethernet port along with an

electrical outlet for laptops. This was where the students of the time were starting

innovative Internet companies. The point of this being that the school never considered

the effect of Internet access would have on the students during class would be. The

Ethernet ports were disconnected almost immediately after the new classrooms were built

as the professors felt uneasy (Palfrey, 2008). Nowadays most schools try to provide each

student with at computer each. Internet access blankets many schools and campuses and

as a result of this some institutions are trying to block access inside the classrooms.

Constant Internet access has been so apparent that it has affected most generations. The

latest generation, Generation Z, has only ever known life with Internet access. There are

many trends that flow throughout each generation. Information access is always

something that each society strives for. No matter how wealthy, poor, young, old, as a

society we seek out new information and continually try to better our understanding of

the world around us. Each generation has passed on their experiences and the following

generation have accepted them and adapted.

In 2006, David Nye, a Professor of American History at the University of Southern

Denmark, published Technology Matters: Questions to live with. Nye asks us to think

about the economic, social, environmental and psychological impact technology has on

human lives. Natalie Heineman of Suffolk University wrote that “Nye’s ultimate

challenge is to deny technological determinism and to make informed decisions about the

impact technology will have on his or her life.” The book makes for an interesting read

but it does not lead to discover how his research can suggest a course of action. Nye

merely provides the reader with questions that leads us to search for our own answers.

This essay will analyze and discuss the psychological and societal theories in the context

of shifting uses and interpretations of technology that require the complementary

inclusion in the study of generational shifts in order to achieve long-term impact and

prediction. Also, in contrast, the social implications that influence learning and

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developing technologies.

The first chapter will introduce the foundations of learning that have been explored by

many psychologists, they have tried to define patterns of behaviour and conclude how

people (and animals) learn through different ways of absorbing and processing

information. The uses of technology that are explored by psychologist have produced

interesting results (Mason, 2006). Behaviours that have never been seen before are

arising out of studying technological use. Educational learning theories have been

discovered in order to categorize these behaviours in a learning environment. There are

many educational theories: The persuasion theory, psychological characteristics influence

a person’s response. The theory of a reasoned action identifies how social influences

affect behaviour, including beliefs and perceived social norms. Social learning theory is

based upon people learning by observing others and the consequences of their behaviour,

and subsequent imitation and adaptation of similar behaviours (Huitt, 2006). In Diffusion

theory, behaviour spreads through a community or group over a period of time i.e.

Television may plant the idea, but social networks reinforce it and cause it to grow. The

introduction of digital and social media poses questions about whether there are new

behaviours arising, some of which may not have existed before, as the old technologies

never brought out those responses.

Social media allows synchronous and asynchronous participation; this phenomenon was

first explored during the instant messaging (MSN) boom at the turn of the century. Users

are able to respond as quickly as they like, they can formulate a better response or reply

instantly while being thousands of miles apart, this maybe why the telephone has

remained a popular technology, the difference being is that answering machines have

allow us to respond to call whilst we are otherwise engaged. Vint Cerf, co-creator of the

Internet described the internets style of operation as the antithesis of what most countries

had been accustomed to and the “In the early days telephony and telegraphy there was

only one network and it was often managed by and operated by the government, giving

them substantial control.” According to Virginia Matthews (2008), young generations are

more likely to use technologies in many different aspects of their lives, which has led to a

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plethora of research that looks into the individual and social uses of current information

technologies.

With the current trend in information technologies it is important to include many

different factors that may be changing or propelling the further development of

technology. However, this is essay will propose the idea that technological development

has to include generational theory as a proponent in the development of future

technologies. As a consequence the second chapter will explore Generational Theory.

The term ‘generation’ initially founded by the French lexicographer Emile Littre. In the

19th century he defined a generation as “all men living more of less at the same time”.

However, it was Karl Mannheim who is regarded as the grandfather of Generational

research (Macleod, 2005). Several trends promoted a new idea of generations, of a

society divided into categories based on age. These trends were all related to the process

of Industrialisation, modernisation or westernisation. Many people felt that society and

life was changeable and that civilization could progress, these changes help define the

generations over the centuries. Political rhetoric of the 19th century often emphasized on

renewing power and change of the youth culture. As a result, movements such as Young

Italy, Young Germany, Sturm und Drang and the German Youth Movement prevailed

among others (Wohl, 1979). Robert Wohl describes social generation as “an original

spiritual milieu, a collective state of mind incarnated in a human group that lasts a certain

period of time.” Towards the end of the century European intellectuals started thinking of

the world in generational terms, and in terms of youth rebellion Strauss (1991).

In current terms, the ideas of generations have been more apparent. Jeff Bezos, the CEO

and founder of Amazon.com said, “To make sense of our history we contextualize our

experiences into a social bond. We like to share our thoughts and ideas and strive to feel

unique. Social media platforms facilitate the idea that we are now able to communicate to

anyone around the world, pretty much instantly.” Dr Aleks Krotoski said in a recent BBC

Documentary “Over the last 10 years I’ve watched the World Wide Web being

transformed, already a quarter of our planet is connected, providing individual users with

access to knowledge and each other unprecedented in human history. Psychological

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experiments typically reflect on what has already happened. By analyzing different

generations we can predict trends and patterns in society, much like psychological

experiments. Bezos further states that “what you've seen evolving on the web is a great

example of how humans co-evolve with their tools, we change our tools and then our

tools change us and that cycle continues.”

In the third and final chapter the essay will look at the newest Generation of cohorts using

technology and analyze the arguments between technological determinism and social

constructivism. As we explore the different generations it will become apparent that the

uses of technology, by different age groups, can affect the way we communicate

information. This essay will further explore the concept that psychological learning

theories do not account for social desires and the way technologies are being interpreted

and used through generational shifts.

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CHAPTER 1 Psychological Learning Theories

This chapter will explore the history of psychological learning theories, it is important to

understand how we learn in order for us to grasp an understanding on the technological

implications on the human mind. The uses of technology are changing and the effect it

has on individuals that can sometimes be overlooked. To include social theories we must

look at individuals first, this will shape the idea that our individual experiences combined

with our social experiences can have a dramatic effect on technology and learning.

Learning has changed, and our understanding of it, dramatically over the past 30 years

since the rise of content that is widely available on the Internet. Children, and college

students, can easily gather information from a wide range of sources in a few clicks of a

button. Where as in the past a trip to the library may have been the preferred option. For

the newer generations this transformation makes researching, arguably, a lot easier.

However this transformation does not show us the implications of these changes in the

long term, as this chapter will reveal.

A common definition of learning is a process that brings together cognitive, emotional,

and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making

changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views. (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod,

1995).

A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping

us to understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two

chief values according to William Hill (2002). One is providing us with vocabulary and a

conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The

other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do

not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in

finding solutions. Hills theory is subjective, as are all theories; it could be argued that

through his experiences that he has arrived at that conclusion.

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The following pages will analyze the three main categories or philosophical frameworks

under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive

theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views

learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or

concepts.

Behaviourism

John Broadus Watson established the psychological school of behaviourism.

Controversially, Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted one of the most

controversial experiments in psychology, known as the Little Albert Experiment. The

experiment took place in 1920 it was to show how classical condition could condition the

fear of a white rat into an 11 month-old boy called ‘Little Albert’. Previously in 1913,

Watson published The Behaviourist Manifesto; it outlined the major features of his

philosophy of psychology called “behaviourism”.

As a theory, behaviourism was pioneered by B.F. Skinner. It includes work carried out by

Pavlov, Thorndike, Tolman, and Hull. They all hold three basic assumptions to be true:

1. Learning is manifested by a change in behaviour

2. The environment shapes behaviour

3. The principles of contiguity and reinforcement (how close in time two events

must be for a bond to be formed and increasing the likelihood that an event will

be repeated)

Some behaviourists assume that learners are not passive; they are reinforced by the

educators and that they don’t control the outcome but the outcomes are shaped by the

environment. And other behaviourists assume that learning is a process which involves

an organism (learner) and an environment, they believe that learning is the process of

changing the learners behaviour so that the learner will get more good responses and less

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bad responses and that the environment shapes and reinforces behaviours over time (Ng,

2009), this is called experiential learning.

Behaviourism emphasizes on reward and punishment, being rewarded is ultimately the

desire that drives us to learn. According Pavlov (1927) there are two types of

conditioning. Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning. This type of

conditioning is where the behaviour becomes more of a reflexive response to stimulus, as

in the case of Pavlov’s Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw

that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. In short, the dogs were reported to

have thought that when they saw a lab coat they were going to be given food. This is

because the person who gave them food always wore a lab coat. And the other

conditioning is Operant Conditioning is defined by the use consequences to modify the

occurrence and form of behaviour. Operant conditioning deals with the modification of

voluntary behaviour; it operates on the environment and is maintained by its

consequences. Comparatively, classical conditioning deals with respondent behaviours.

Operant conditioning was first extensively studied by Edward Thorndike (1974-1949).

He observed the behaviour of cats trying to escape from homemade puzzle boxes. When

first constrained in the boxes, the cats took a long time to escape. With experience,

ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more

frequently, enabling the cats to escape in less time over successive trials (Thorndike,

1901).

Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that responses that produce a satisfying effect are more

likely occur again in a similar situation. Conversely, responses that produce an unpleasant

effect are less likely to occur again in the situation. Psychologists have always had an

issue with measuring such terms like ‘satisfying effect’. Terms like these obviously vary

from people to people. So, in the study of operant conditioning many psychologists agree

with Burrhus Frederic Skinners proposal to define a reinforcer as any stimulus that, when

presented after a response, leads to an increase in the future rate of that response.

Notably, John Watson rejected Thorndike’s Law of Effect due to ‘unnecessary subjective

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elements’. Furthermore, to add to Pavlov’s types of conditioning there are also a few

more observed behaviours according to Daniel Bryn. In Brief:

Reinforcement (aka. Reward) - Anything that makes a behavior more likely to

occur.

Punishment - Anything that makes a behavior less likely to occur.

Negative Reinforcement - Rewarding a behavior by removing something

unpleasant.

Negative Punishment - Punishing a behavior by taking away from pleasant.

Schedule - A system by which rewards or punishments are doled out over time.

Extinction - When a behavior fades over time, usually because it's not being

reinforced.

Experiential learning is very important; it helps us deal with emotions and allows us to

communicate effectively. By accepting that we all experience things differently we are

able to share our ideas and feelings, not just on a psychological level but in many parts of

our lives. Behaviourism reflects our need to understand the world around us. During an

age where technological advances are happening regularly we are constantly changing

the way we learn, interact and experience the world around us.

Many people feel that behaviourists suppress a learner’s creativity. If it’s true that we do

seek to gain a reward then surely we must not be aimed for our own needs and desires but

seeking reinforcement from the educators. There are other theories that build upon the

foundations of this early psychological theory, one of which is Cognitivism.

Summary of strengths and weaknesses of Behaviourism

Weakness The learner may find himself or herself in a situation where the stimulus

for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot

respond. Workers fail to understand anomalies, as they would have been

conditioned to deal with a certain response.

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Strength The learners can be very focused on a specific goal and responds

automatically. WWII pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of

enemy aircraft; over a period of time this became an automatic response.

Cognitivism

The origins of cognitive thinking such as computational theory of mind can be tracked

back to Descartes in the 17th century (Sun, 2008). Ulric Neisser is credited with coining

the term ‘cognitive psychology’ in 1967. In his book cognitive psychology he states that

cognitive psychology is “characterizing people as dynamic information-processing

systems whose mental operations might be described in computational terms”. He also

emphasized that it is a point of view that postulates the mind as having a certain

conceptual structure. This point of view is based on our experiences thus rendering each

point of view differently. Cognitive psychology aimed to measure these cognitive

responses.

Cognitivism became the prevalent force in psychology in the late 20th century, replacing

behaviourism as the most popular paradigm for understanding mental function using

quantitative and scientific methods. Cognitive psychologists believe that its cognitivism

is an expansion on behaviourism that accepts that mental states exist (such as belief,

desire and motivation). Famously, Noam Chomsky's argued that language could not be

acquired purely through conditioning, and must be at least partly explained by the

existence of internal mental states. Some cognitivists believe that learners try to make

sense based on things in which they already know about and that they try to fit

experiences into existing concepts. Learners cannot be forced to learn this shows that an

intrinsic motivation process occurs and depending on their response determines how

much they are willing to learn. According to Jean Piaget this desire to learn stems from

cognitive development at an early age.

Jean Piaget acknowledged himself as an epistemologist, the process of qualitative

development of knowledge. He believed that he could categorize the development of

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cognitive structures. Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that

underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development

(Neisser, 1967). There are four primary cognitive structures (i.e. development stages)

according to Piaget: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal

operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor

actions. Intelligence in the preoperational period (3-7 years) is intuitive in nature. The

cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but

depends upon concrete referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years),

thinking involves abstractions.

In contrast, to Piaget, most schema theorists say that there is not just one body of

knowledge available to learners at any given stage of development, but rather a network

on context-specific bodies of knowledge that learners apply to specific situations

(Widmayer, unknown).

Immanuel Kant first introduced the word "schema." Kant describes the "dog" schema: a

mental pattern which "can delineate the figure of a four-footed animal in a general

manner, without limitation to any single determinate figure as experience, or any possible

image that I can represent in concreto" (Kant 1781). The Schema Theory is now

considered as a basic concept in cognitive psychology. A schema is a mental structure

that represents some aspect of the world; it is also described as a structured cluster of pre-

conceived ideas and an organized pattern of thought or behaviour (Brewer, 1981). Plato’s

famous description of ideal types tells us that we can recreate anything in the mind

without restrictions; ‘a perfect circle which exists in the mind but which no one has ever

seen.’ These schemas can be used not only to interpret but also to predict situation

occurring in our environment. Schema Theorists suggest that you use your schema to

predict what someone was going to say and to correctly interpret "thingamabob" as the

hammer needed to nail something into the wall (Widmayer, unknown).

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Cognitivism is somewhat different from behaviourism because it assumes our innate

capacity for learning and that everyone seeks out to acquire new knowledge. We can

assume that people learn differently from the same learning process this reinforces

cognitive psychologists with a knowledge that there is a scope in which the desire to

learn varies between peoples own specific needs.

Summary of strengths and weaknesses of Cognitivism

Weakness The learner can work a way to complete a task, it may not be the most

efficient way, or suited to the learner or situation i.e. logging onto one

computer might not be the same as logging onto another.

Strength Learners are able to gain consistency. Logging on and off a workplace

computer is the same for all employees; it may be important to do an exact

routine to avoid problems.

Constructivism

Frederic Bartlett (1932) is credited with the creation of constructivist approach (Good,

1990) Constructivists believe that we construct our own reality based upon our

interpretations of our experiences. "What someone knows is grounded in perception of

the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson,

1991). Constructivism is a theory of learning that is based on the idea that knowledge is

constructed by the learner based on mental activity. Thinking is grounded in perception

of physical and social experiences.

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on

our own experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. There

are several principles of constructivism according to Jacqueline Brooks (1993):

1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues

around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.

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2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be

understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on

primary concepts, not isolated facts.

3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to

perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.

4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning,

not just memorize the “right” answers and regurgitate someone else’s meaning.

Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure

learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it

provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In fact,

constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether

learners are using their experiences to understand a lecture or following complex

instructions. In both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct

knowledge out of their experiences. However, constructivism is often associated with

pedagogic approaches that promote active learning, or learning by doing.

Social constructivism is similar to social constructionism, both suggests that people work

together to create experiences. However, both are different for the following reasons:

- Social constructivism focuses on an individual’s interactions and their

learning that takes place within a group.

- Social constructionism focuses on the experiences created within a group by

looking specifically at social interactions.

There are similarities between constructivism and cognitivism. Schema theory,

connectionism are both two examples which show that is can be quite confusing to

determine which learning theory certain theologists might be adhering to. Jonassen

(1991) tells us in his paper Thinking technology that the difference between constructivist

and cognitivist instructional design is that cognitive design has a pre-determined outcome

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and implies a pre-determined concept of reality into the learners mind. Whereas

constructivism maintains that the learning outcomes are not always predictable therefore

instruction should not control learning.

Summary of strengths and weaknesses of constructivism

Weakness Divergent thinking and action can cause problems.

Strength The learner is able to deal with real life situations better. If they can

problem solve, they may be better at applying their existing knowledge to

an alien situation.

Technological advances of the 80s and 90s have enabled designers to move toward a

constructivist approach. Hypertext (HTML) allows for a branched design rather than a set

of linear instruction. Hyperlinks have allowed for learner control that is said to be crucial

to constructivist learning. There is one major downfall is that the learning curve can be

too steep for some and many users can become lost, especially those from older

generations.

Before personal computing, radio transmissions and televisions were two of the main

sources to receive information. Information could be relayed across vast distances with

radio and the television has always been a passive medium whereas now the Internet and

computing in general requires active participation. Over the past century many

technological changes have brought out a variety of different behaviours many of which

psychologists were unable to quantify.

Psychological learning theories have so many definitions. What this chapter has set out to

do was to portray the idea that learning has been integral to our development into the

digital age and try and find out why the learning patterns, according to psychologists,

over the past century have changed. The next chapter will now work alongside these

theories established here. It is important that we try to understand the patterns in society,

outside of learning, over the past century in order for us to determine the progress of

technology. Learning is about acquiring new knowledge, Seymour Papert went beyond

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Piaget’s constructivism approach in order to assert that constructivist learning happens

especially well when constructing a product. Promoters of the use of computers in

education see an increasing need for students to develop skills in computing literacy in

order to use these tools in constructivist learning. How could Papert’s theory be applied

to different generations of people?

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CHAPTER 2 The Generation Game

Why precisely is it that in most recent times people have become conscious of

generational unity? - Karl Mannheim, 1928.

As discussed in the previous chapter, we are affected by the world around us that can

change our psychological development. This chapter will look at a variety of different

generations in order to contextualize the development of learning by looking at the

societal factors that people have had to endure.

The word generation means to “beget” in Latin. It is also known as procreation, the act of

producing offspring. Also it can be used in familial terms such as the succession of a

descendant in the same line of family i.e. grandmother, mother, daughter. As of 2004 the

length of a familial generation is 27.4 years in the UK and 25.3 years in the US (BBC

News, 2004).

Historically, Auguste Comte, a French 19th century philosopher, was the first person to

recognize the relationship between generations. In his book Cours de Philiosophie

Positive Comte suggests that social change is determined by the change between

successive generations (H, Jaeger. 1977). According to Karl Mannheim (1936) there are

two schools in the study of generations of that time. Positivists and romantic-historical.

Mannheim argued that Comte was a positivist and that she reduced history into a

chronological table. Whereas, the romantic-historical school emphasized the individual

experience at the expense of social context. He also explains that the acceleration of

social change in any youth culture was crucial to the formations of generations.

For the purposes of this paper the generations which are outlined in Table 1.1 will be

used as a guideline as to the dates and events in which people of that time shall be labeled

as. It is important to note that these labels are subjective and that they are all open to

interpretation.

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Time table Generation Sub-generations Notable occurrences

1901-1924 Greatest Generation G.I Generation Experienced WWII in adulthood

1925-1945

1946-1964 Baby Boomers

Silent Generation

Boom Generation/Hippie

Experienced WWII in childhood,

Civil Rights Movement

Space exploration, First Modern

“counterculture”

1965-1980 Generation X Baby Busters Experienced Vietnam War/Cold

War. Most families had a

television

1975-1985 MTV

Generation/Boomerang

Generation

Rise of Mass Media/end of Cold

War

1978-1990 Generation Y Echo Boom (Generation

McGuire)

Millennial Generation

Rise of the Information

Age/Internet/War of Terror/ Iraq

War/Rising gas and food prices.

1995-

Present

Generation Z New Silent Generation Rise of the Information

Age/Internet/dot com

bubble/Digital Globalisation

Table 1 – List of Western Generations

Generation Theory is not just limited to Western Cultures. Eastern Cultures have their

own list of generations. For example, China has had the After-Eighty Generation (the

equivalent of Generation Y), people born between 1980 and 1989. They are also called

‘Little Emperors’ because of China’s one-child policy. This generation of people has

been characterized by its optimism for the future (Tammy Erickson, 2009), excitement

for consumerism and acknowledging its own historic role in transforming China into an

economic superpower.

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In Generations: The History of America’s Future, 1584 to 2069, William Strauss and

Neil Howe conclude that the length of each generation is based on the length of a phase

of life. Each phase is outlined thus:

Youth (age 0-21)

Dependence (growing, learning, accepting, protection and nurture,

avoiding harm and acquiring values)

Rising Adulthood (age 22-43)

Activity (working, starting families and livelihoods, serving institutions,

testing values)

Midlife (age 44-65)

Leadership (parenting, teaching, directing institutions, using values)

Elderhood (age 66-87)

Stewardship (supervising, mentoring, channeling endowments, passing on

values)

Just to note, all of Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development occur in the Youth

phase. It would be realistic to conclude that our cognitive development does not stop at

the age of 12. Many people are ‘late learners’ this doesn’t necessarily mean they are slow

it could simply mean that society might be moving to fast for them.

Strauss also recognizes that these roles are suggestive and that all that they required for

their research was that each stage was different and the borders could be well defined.

They came to the conclusion that roughly every twenty-two-years is the length of a

generation, but the world is too complicated to follow such a simple model. As a society

we recognize that there is a moment when we separate the dependence of youth from the

independence of adulthood. Most societies also recognize that when we are of an age of

declining physiological potential we are expected or forced to retire from strenuous social

and economic life.

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They also conclude that each generation experiences one or more social moment. A social

moment can be described as an era that typically lasts around a decade and is when

people perceive that when an event of some significance has a dramatic effect on their

social environment. Historically, social environments have changed dramatically.

According to Strauss there have been four periods that America has been able to define as

separate entities: Colonial (1621-1733), Revolutionary (1734-1821), Civil War (1822-

1885), and Great Power (1886-1966). We haven’t finished the fifth cycle, Millennial, that

began in 1967 until present. The first four cycles have averaged at eighty-nine years in

length so predictably this period will last roughly until 2054. Within each period there are

generations and then sub-categories of generations that happen typically in this order:

Idealist, Reactive, Civic, and Adaptive. Just to note Strauss and Howe were the first to

define these periods.

For the purposes of this paper we will look at the fifth cycle, Millennial.

Thinking about the behaviourist approach, which was explained in chapter 1, it is

interesting to think that the experiences that Piaget was talking about could be linked to

these social moments that are mentioned throughout generational theory. It would seem

appropriate to consider that as we experience major social events in our lives we change

our behaviours too. For this purpose the following sections provide an overview on

characteristics of social behaviour during a specific period of time.

Generation X

Generation X was originally referred to as the Baby Bust generation; this was due to the

lower birth rate after the Baby Boomers generation. However, Jane Deverson first used

the term in 1964 in a study of the British teenager at the time. Deverson summarized that

in general teenagers sleep together before marriage, hesitate to believe in God, dislike the

Queen and don’t respect their parents. At the time her findings were quite controversial.

The term Generation X was then popularized by Douglas Coupland in his 1991 novel

titled Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture. ‘X’ described the lack of identity

24

that members of Generation X felt – they didn’t know where they belonged but it

certainly wasn’t the Baby Boomers. The media had promoted their stereotype by

portraying them as grunge-listening, Starbucks-drinking slackers who were quietly

revolting against their overachieving, conservative Baby Boomer parents (Wallace,

2010).

The idea of Generation X exists in many cultures around the world. In France, people of

similar age are labeled ‘Generation Bof’; this translates to ‘Generation Whatever’. Many

people believe that the transition from colonialism to globalism and the relative safety

many Brits and Americans enjoyed after World War II was the social moment that

effected this generation. Whereas as their parents social moment might have been when

they marched for equal rights or maybe when they felt the impact of such events like J.F.

Kennedys assassination.

Strauss and Howe explain that members from Generation X have grandparents from the

G.I generation, their parents can be from the silent and boom generations and if they have

children they will be categorized into the millennial generation. There are prominent

figures that we all should recognize: the late Princess Diana (1961), Tom Cruise (1962),

Michael Jordan (1963), Mike Tyson (1966), Boris Becker (1967). There are some

interesting facts: Generation X is the most aborted generation in history, there has been

more divorces recorded in the generation than in any other, and are under achieving in

comparison to the predecessors. On a lighter note they have a lower risk of dying from

disease but this advantage has been offset by a higher risk of accidental death, murder,

and suicide. Tammy Erickson (2009) has outlined traits and perspectives for Generation

X for example, she thinks that commitments and employ ability are taken seriously; they

have strong survival skills and handles problems with resilience.

Generation Y

The term Generation Y has been used to describe the teenagers of the day in an editorial

from Ad Age in August 1993, typically born between 1974 and 1980. It also refers to the

25

succession from Generation X. There are many terms used to describe this period of

cultural generations:

o Echo Boomers

The size of the generation compared to the Baby Boomers

o Millennial Generation

Influence they have in the new millennium

This generation, maybe more so than others, has been shape by the events, leaders and

technologies of their time. Instant Messaging, texting, e-mail, new media sites such as

YouTube and social networking sites like MySpace, Twitter and of course Facebook has

made communication far easier than any other generation previously. The idea of

pervasive computing has become much more apparent, we can still choose to have these

devices or not. The technologies like that in Minority Report (2004) are just about still in

the conceptual stage; many have been realized even though they are not readily available.

As with all of the different generations, eastern or western, the characteristics change

according to social and economic conditions of the time. According to Britany Wilkins

(2009) China’s government is renowned for its strict censorship issues whereas its

inhabitants have a huge desire for individuality. Elsewhere, western Generation Y’s have

created a huge boom in the online gaming environments. World of Warcraft has had a

huge impact on the social psychology of many people, both negative and positive (Mary

Duan, 2009). However, other environments such as Second Life has given people the

chance to express themselves in an online environment using their online persona called

an Avatar.

It’s not just online environments that Generation Y use more than anyone else, Dr Reynol

Junco (2007) carried out research-based information on the personality profiles of this

generation. He found out that they were used technology more than any previous

generation, also that 97% of higher education students owned a computer, 94% owned a

mobile phone, 56% owned a MP3. Within these technologies: 76% multitask while using

26

instant messaging, 40% use television to get most or their news whilst 34% use the

internet.

As with Generation X Strauss and Howe (1991) explain that the members of Generation

Y will have grandparents from the silent generation, and their parents are from

Generation X. They have predicted that their children will be adaptive and Idealist and

their grandchildren will be reactive. It interesting that Strauss is able to come to these

conclusions by picking up on a very important pattern that seems to replicate throughout

different generations.

The different generations share a lot of similarities; they all seem to have experienced

some major event that shapes their views and opinions. This ultimately has an effect of

the following generation, children have always been said to do things differently from

their parents (Radick, 2009). This is because the children haven’t experienced what there

parents have therefore, it could be said that it is not the parents that shape the growth of

the children it is the times and events that happen around them. For example, the

generation who experienced war as a child would only know how to live in a certain way.

Would they think that escaping to an air raid shelter was natural every time they heard a

siren (Pedró, 2009)? It is interesting that we can look back and analyze how people

behave who are influenced by specific experiences; we could use this information to

speculate future predictions from a behaviourist approach. The idea that we can already

see trends of a new generation, Generation Z, will be explored in the next chapter and

also how our psychological needs have an impact on the shape of our future from both a

social constructivist and technological deterministic points of view.

27

CHAPTER 3 The New Generation

The greatest discovery of any generation is that a human being can alter his life by

altering his attitude. - William James, Psychologist.

Technology is only technology if it was invented after you were born – Alan Kay,

Sociologist.

The previous chapters analyzed the psychological aspects of learning and then the socio-

cultural implications of growing up during a specific period of history. In this third and

final chapter the essay will explore the newest Generation of cohorts using technology

and analyze the arguments between technological determinism and social constructivism.

Generation Z

The term Generation Z has been scrutinized and many other neologisms have been

banded around, such as the “Net Generation” or “iGeneration”. Alan Kay (2009) states

that both of these terms refer to the trends that the generations adhere to. Kay also said

that Net Generation refers to the way this generation grew up not knowing what its like to

be without the Internet and iGeneration is referring to the boom social platforms shaping

the way we communicating, also loosely based around the way Apple brand their

products, by placing a lowercase ‘i’ before a word. This has become a symbol of a new

generation of personal computing, the ‘i’ prefix being the personal part.

As mentioned in the previous chapter William Strauss categorized many of the different

generations. He labels Generation Z as the New Silent Generation (used to describe the

amount of time Generation Z spends online. According to Resli Buchel (2008) all of their

communication takes place on the Internet and they show very little communication

skills, this is an absurd conclusion that unfortunately many other people share, most

schools have traditional teaching methods which very rarely require a computer for

engagement. She argues that they will be used to instant action and satisfaction due to

28

Internet technology; this makes them impatient when it comes to waiting. The Internet is

taken for granted and most don’t mind how the net works, only driven to use it. Virginia

Matthews (2008) predicts Generation Z to have the following traits:

An essentially transient workforce, they will move to where the work is, rather

than expect to find employment in their hometown.

Relentlessly tested from nursery school onwards, they will see constant appraisal

and feedback as the norm, not the exception.

Diversity and equality will be a fundamental way of doing business, not a feel-

good perk.

They will have more degrees, certificates and diplomas than any generation in

history, but will need encouragement to notch up meaningful work experience.

Life will be lived primarily via the web and for those who find work less than

satisfying; a virtual or second life will become their comfort blanket.

Generous access to technology as children, but limited physical freedom means

they will grow up fast. The erosion of their childhood may see many of them

breaking out of the rat race later on in life.

Political life will become less significant as they exercise power via their online

identities, not the ballot box.

These traits are speculative but are loosely based on the trends in online usage. More and

more people are gaining Internet access. As of June 2009 the UK had a population of

61.11m, of that; 48.75m (79.8%) were Internet users. Remarkably, 1 million households

per year have connected to the Internet since 2004. Compare the penetration rates to the

rest of the world as in Fig. 1 we can see that Europe, including the UK, is above average

across all continents.

Fig. 1 shows more than just Internet usage, the growth column for the years between

2000 and 2009 shows that the continents with more developed countries have a much

slower growth/penetration rate compared to Africa or the Middle East. And so it is

29

estimated that out of the entire world population only 24.7% are classed as Internet users,

see Table 1.

This also tells us that within those defined world regions there are many stable

economies, if things like a solid telecommunications infrastructure are in place then the

growth factor is slower whereas if there isn’t a solid infrastructure then the jump is

greater when growth does eventually occur.

Fig. 1 (The Latest Data was accurate as of June 30th 2009 – internetworldstats.com)

Technological Determinism vs. Social Constructivism

Learning theories have been studied profusely for many decades. Psychologists are

continuing to try and pin point our behaviours based on our responses to certain stimulus.

The stimulus is an important feature; this can be anything from using a computer to

reading a book in a crowded environment. Linking sociology and technology together is a

relatively old phenomenon in social sciences. Psychological studies have only recently

involved the studies of humans in technological environments since the idea that we can

use technology to cut out labourious tasks (Sadler, 2009). It was only after the effects of

computing became apparent that psychologists noticed changes in human behaviour. In

the 19th century the role of machines had realized more or less a process of automation

and therefore modernisation for society. In brief, CJB La Roux summarizes that the

school of technological determinism argues that:

30

The development of technology itself follows a predictable, traceable path largely

beyond cultural or political influence

Technology has effects on societies that are inherent rather than socially

conditioned, and so society organizes itself in such a way as to support and further

develop a technology once it has been introduced.

The theory of technological determinism presumes that society’s technology is the main

factor that extends the development of social structure and cultural values. In the past,

technologies like radio, telephone, and TV enabled a limited view on cultural events. The

Internet has rapidly expanded the dissemination of information. This paper will now look

at the effects of technology as reported by influential researchers. The following

paragraphs will present existing evidence in areas that are said to be conclusive.

Visual-spatial skills, deal with two and three dimensional images, skills needed to read

images, spatial visualization, the ability to interpret images, are predicted to improve with

the repeated practice through the regular use of multimedia technologies and computer

games (CERI Project). Many computer applications have design features that require

visual rather than verbal information processing. Also, the continuing realism of

computer games presents new dimensions of iconic, spatial and dynamic features, which

are creating a new environment for children to develop a set of skills concerning visual

attention, orientation and spatial representation (Prensky, 2004).

Memory skills have received a vast amount of research on the impact of violent media

on young people. It can be argued that strong emotional experiences during interaction

with digital media might hinder memory skills and the long-term effects of learning. The

theory behind this is that, in the case of violence, elements of the events often cannot be

recalled and the major concern is that computer games and movies are made to provoke

strong emotional responses, and that engaging in such activities after learning would

decrease the learning effects from school or homework. Mößle et al. (2006) report such a

correlation between longer playing times of computer and video games, and low

academic achievement, based on a survey of 6000 4th graders in Germany.

31

Multitasking has become a well-documented area. In the United States 63% of young

people aged 12 to 18 multitask either most or some of the time while they are using a

computer, and that 64% do multiple things at the same time on the computer (Foehr,

2006). It is thought that media devices migrating into bedrooms is likely responsible for

media multitasking, mainly because the TV and Internet are the preferred gateways to

accessing a variety of media such as music and computer games. Neurological research

seems to suggest that brain capacity is finite and that attention to one task diminishes as

another is introduced (Just et al., 2001).

Social attitudes, there are many criticized features of digital content such as the

stereotyping of women and minorities and the enforcement of violence in video games.

The issues have worried many about the long-term effects on the social development of

young people (Lister, 2009). Building social relationships using digital media has raised

questions on the views, attitudes and behaviours for different cultures. Being part of a

social group can bring different values, lifestyles and cultural practices together and this

naturally affects the content that we share and receive.

“Technological advances are seen as the primary or causal element in processes of

social change. As a technology stabilizes, its design tends to dictate users' behaviours,

thus diminishing human society in the process, meaning that human society becomes

subject to technology development.” – Keynote Address by CJB Le Roux (10/09/09)

Le Roux, a Visual Arts Professor at the University of Zululand, exemplifies the

persistence of a technological determinist perspective, which has been opposed by several

critical voices during the last few decades. Raymond Williams (1974), for example,

introduced the conception of ‘symptomatic technology’ he explains that technology is a

symptom of social change. He further explained that according to this model, it is quite

clearly society that is in the driving seat of history: given a strong social demand then a

suitable technology will be found.

32

Similar to Williams position against technological determinism, social construction of

technology (SCOT) is a constructivist theory that is attributed to the cognitive

psychologist Lev Vygotsky. The theory argues that society and knowledge is not

technologically but sociologically constructed through the creation and sharing of social

artifacts and their shared meaning. And so global organizations, political and cultural

factors are seen as important in the development in technology.

The various uses of digital media deepen the discrepancies between the social groups

through the respective development of competencies, learning styles and strategies, as

well as attitudes and values, which then affect outcomes and life and career paths. So, in

many different ways, it appears to be the case that it is not so much that technology use

has an influence on attitudes and social values, but that rather, it is the other way round:

attitudes and social values affect technology use. The different uses of computers and the

Internet according to age, gender and educational level leads to additional inequalities.

Thus, digital media use is determined by age, gender, and educational characteristics as

well as environmental influences such as the values and preferences of parents and peers.

Experiences are individually shaped and evoke a battle between personal desire for

knowledge and what society wants us to believe/do, an area studied by psychology, in

particular why certain choices are being made.

Psychologists have conducted studies that provide insight into the way we all learn

differently. Learners demonstrate different behaviours, and different experiences evoke

different reactions. Psychological experiments help work out the inner workings of an

individual. When we look at a group of people we can begin to see new behaviours, many

of which are new. Jeffrey Bardzell wrote a paper called Seven key features of e-learning

environments for the educational section of Adobe.com. ‘Learning is Social”. Bardzell

states that learning is social and that “social interaction encourages the more subtle and

often more useful informal learning” (2006).

Throughout this paper it is apparent that all the research gathered from many different

authors is difficult to generalize, there is always a context in which the research has taken

33

place i.e. socio-economic background, gender, age, time spent in computer activities.

This paper has shown that different aspects of an individual generation and the

individuals themselves have different needs. Social experiences have played an important

role on the development of digital technologies. It is shaped by the wants and needs of

our time. By analyzing individuals we are able to extend the focus on social frameworks.

The additional inclusion of generational patterns allows us to take a look, retrospectively,

on how as a species, humans are adapting to technology.

This dissertation has attempted to show how psychological learning theories in the

context of shifting uses and interpretations of technological require a complementary

inclusion of studies of generational shifts in order to achieve long-term impact and

prediction.

34

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