Integrated Science Full Review2016-2017 Amended Edition

Nathan Gilbert

IntroductionScience – a system of knowledge based on facts and principles3 Main Branches of Science

1. Physical (Chemistry, Physics)2. Life (Biology)3. Earth/Space

Scientific Method – Observe, Question, Data, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data & Observations, ConcludeHypothesis – an educated guess at the results of the experimentScientific Theory vs. Scientific Law

Law – summary of natural events that can be continually proven by experimentsTheory – summary of natural event with evidence but can’t be proven by experiments

Bias – prejudice or inclination to perceive observations or results in a particular direction Technology – applied scienceModel – used to represent an idea or object unable to be observed directlyObservation – the process of gathering information via the sensesVariable – factor that can cause a change in the results of an experimentConstant – a variable that does not change when others doControl – standard used for comparisonConversions – transferring a measurement from one unit into anotherSI System – System International (metric) used in almost all science

- Know basic units for each measurement type- Know conversion factors for mega, kilo, deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, pico- Derived Units – metric units made up of two or more bases (ex: m/s, g/mL)

Types of Graphs – Bar, Line (including scatter plots), Pie (Circle)Interpreting Graphs

Variables and AxisIndependent Variable – on X (horizontal) Axis (usually time if that is a variable)Dependent Variable – on Y (vertical) Axis, depends on independent variable

Pay attention to axis titles and unitsSignificant Figures

1. All non-zeros are significant2. Zeros between non-zeros are significant3. Trailing zeros in a number with a decimal are significant4. Leading zeros are NOT significant

Scientific Notation – allows you to write big numbers in a small formatStep 1. Move the decimal to the right of the number furthest to the left that isn’t zeroStep 2. Count how many places you moved the decimal

a) If you moved the decimal to the left, the exponent is positiveb) If you moved the decimal to the right, the exponent is negative

Examples: 582,000 = 5.82 x 105 or 0.00000013 = 1.3 x 10-7

Precision – measurements that are close together, consistency Accuracy – measurements that are close to the accepted valueQuantitative Observations – expressed in numbersQualitative Observations – expressed as descriptions without numbers

APA Formatting1” margins each sideFont: Arial, Times New Roman, or Calibri and size 10-12For science no personal nouns or pronounsDouble space all pages

Header has all caps title top left (“Running head:” page 1) and page number top rightTitle page includes title, author, organization, instructor, and date, all bold and centeredAbstract page has bold, centered “Abstract” and a short, non-indented paragraph summary of the paper, including results.Lab Report includes the sections: Title, Introduction, Materials, Procedures, Data and Observations, Discussion, ConclusionBibliography page has bold, centered “Bibliography.”

References include author, date, title italicized with only first word capitalized, city, publisher, date retrieved (web)

ChemistryChemistry – study of matter and how it changesMatter – anything that has mass and takes up spaceLaw of Conservation of Matter – matter cannot be created or destroyedLaw of Conservation of Energy – energy cannot be created or destroyedAtom – smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of itNucleus – center of atom contain protons and neutrons with an overall positive chargeSubatomic Particles – 3 small parts of the atom

Protons – Positive charge found in the nucleusNeutrons – Neutral charge found in the nucleusElectron – Small negative charge found in clouds outside of nucleus

Valence electron – electron on highest energy levelAtomic Theories

Democritus – came up with concept of an atomDalton’s Atomic Theory - all substances made of tiny particles that cannot be subdivided (wrong)Bohr’s Model – electrons orbit around nucleus like planets around sunModern Theory – electrons vibrate between energy levels

Electron Energy Levels – Electrons have a high probability of acting on certain levelsOrder – 1S, 2S, 2P, 3S, 3P, 4S, 4D, 4P, 5S, 5D, 5P…

- Where S can hold 2 electrons, p 6, d 10, f 14Shortcut to highest level by looking at period (periodic table row) by relabeled group (column)Octet rule – 8 valence electrons to be stable

Electron Configuration – arrows demonstrating spin of electrons by energy levelElectron Orbitals – Circles demonstrating energy levels of electronsPure vs. Impure Substances

Pure substances (elements/compounds) are in exact ratios vs Impure (mixtures) which are notElement – pure substance with elements that are all alike (ex: C {carbon}, He {Helium})

Most abundant in humans is OxygenMost abundant in earth is IronMost abundant in atmosphere is NitrogenKey elements 1-36, Ag, Au, Hg, and Pb (know name, symbol, atomic #, uses of most)Period Table – arranged by number of protons

4 Important Families (related sections of the table)1 – Alkali – very reactive metals that form salts with halogens (group 1)

Explode in water2 – Alkaline Earth – reactive metals (group 2)3 – Halogens – poisonous reactive nonmetals that form salts with alkalis (group 17)

Used in cleaning supplies4 – Noble Gases – stable gases (group 18)

Used in storage of materials Developed by Mendelev with Atomic MassEdited by Moseley by Atomic NumberPeriods – horizontal rowsGroups – vertical columnsPeriodic Table Regions

Metals – left side, mostly solids, shiny, malleable, conduct heat and electricityNonmetals – right side, mostly gases, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricityMetalloids – along stairstep, mixed metal and nonmetal properties

Compound – pure substance formed of atoms of multiple elements chemically bonded together (ex: H2O, NaCl)Mixture – a combination of more than one pure substance

Miscible – liquid dissolves in liquid (ex: alcohol in water)Immiscible – liquid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: oil in water)Homogenous – solid dissolves in liquid (ex: salt in water)Heterogeneous – solid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: flour in water)Gas dissolved in liquid (ex: CO2 in soft drinks)

Physical vs. Chemical ChangePhysical Change – any change that does not change the chemical identity (ex: ice melting, tearing paper)Chemical Change – any change that does change the chemical identity (ex: chemical reaction, rust, burn)

Physical vs. Chemical PropertyPhysical Property – can be observed with a physical change (ex: change of state, malleability)Chemical Property – observation requires a chemical change (ex: flammability, reactivity)

Density – physical property of mass per volumeEquation – D = m/VBuoyancy – less dense items float, more dense items sink

Viscosity – Resistance of a fluid to flow (ex: molasses more viscous than water)Ionic vs. Covalent Bonding

Ionic – electrons are donatedName using metal followed by nonmetal with –ide ending

For transition metals include charge in roman numerals after metal nameCation – positively charged ionsAnion – negatively charged ionsOxidation Number – number that indicates how many electrons gained or lost by an atomPolyatomic Ions – charged group of atoms, know 16 primary name, formula, and charge

PO43-,CN-, SO4

2-, ClO2-, CH3COO-, O2

2-, HS-, C6H5COO-, CrO42-, OH-, CO3

2-, NO3-, MnO4

-, ClO3-, NO2

- SO32-

Covalent – electrons are sharedDiatom – two atoms of the same element bonded togetherName using least electromagnetic first with –ide ending, include the number of atoms of each element

Chemical Equation – a symbolic representation of a reactionReactants – ingredients placed on the left of the equationProducts – final results of a reaction on the right of the equationYield – arrow representing the direction of the reaction, similar to an equal sign of the equation

4 Basic Reactions and CombustionSynthesis – A + B → AB (ex: Na + Cl → NaCl)Decomposition – AB → A + B (ex: NaCl → Na + Cl)Single Replacement – AX + B → A + BX (ex: NaCl + Li → Na + LiCl)Double Replacement – AX + BY → AY + BX (ex: NaCl + LiBr → NaBr + LiCl)Combustion – Involves the burning of Carbon in the presence of Oxygen (ex: C8H18 + O2 → H2O + CO2)

Endothermic Reaction – reaction that requires heat energy to proceedExothermic Reaction – reaction in which energy is primarily given off in the form of heatCatalyst – a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being permanently changed itselfBalancing Equations – adding coefficients to each element or compound in an equationStoichiometry – using mathematical conversions and balanced equations to predict product and reactant quantities

Method: For predictions of mass or moles, use moler mass and balanced equationHydrate – any compound containing water, usually in a definite ratio by weightIsotope – variation of an element with a specific neutron numberRadioactivity – process that occurs when a nucleus decays

4 Types1 – Alpha – weakest type stopped by paper, +2 charge, used in smoke detectors, 4

2 He2 – Beta – high energy electron, -1 charge, used in radioactive diagnosis tracers, 0

-1 e3 – Gamma – electromagnetic ray, does not require medium, doesn’t ionize, used in cancer treatment4 – Neutron Emission – high energy neutron released during radioactive decay, strongest type

Half-Life – time it takes for half of a sample to decayFusion vs. Fission

Fusion – combining of 2 nucleiFission – splitting of a nuclei

Functional Groups – a specific group of atoms that frequently bond in molecules (know list)- alkane, alkene, alkyne, phenyl, alkyl halide, amine, hydroxyl, ether, aldehyde, ketone, carboxyl, ester, amide

Intro to Biology and BiochemistryBiology – the science that uses the scientific methods to study living things (Bios=life, logy=study of)Living things have 8 common characteristics

1. Made of cellsa. A cell is the smallest unit of an organism that is considered aliveb. Unicellular are made of one cell while multicellular are made of multiple cells

2. Reproducea. Sexual reproduction – 2 different parents unite to form first cell of new organismb. Asexual reproduction – a single parent produces offspring that are identical to itself

3. Based on genetic code (DNA)a. Organisms store what they need to live, grow, and reproduce in genetic code called DNA

4. Grow and developa. Growth – an increase in the amount of living material and the formation of new structuresb. Development of all of the changes that take place during the life of an organism

5. Obtain and use materials for energya. Metabolism -combination of chemical reactions where an organism builds up/breaks down material

i. Autotroph – organism self-produces foodii. Heterotroph – organism must seek out food from other places

6. Respond to environmenta. Environment – surroundings including air, water, weather, temperature, and other organismsb. Stimulus – any condition in the environment that requires and organism to adjustc. Response – a reaction to a stimulus

7. Maintain a stable internal environmenta. Although conditions outside an organism change, conditions inside tend to remain constantb. Homeostasis – regulation of organism’s internal environment to maintain conditions for survival

8. Change over timea. Over many generations, groups of organisms adapt to their environmentb. Evolution – a change in a population of an organism over time

Levels of OrganizationBiosphere – The part of the earth that contains all of the ecosystemsEcosystem – a group of communities and their nonliving partsCommunity – a group of populationsPopulation – a group of organisms of one type that live in the same place and timeSpecies – a group of organismsOrganism – individual living thing made up of organ systems that are mad of organs that are made of tissuesOrgan System – a group of organs working together to perform a specific functionTissue – multiple cells of the same type functioning togetherCell – smallest unit of structure and function of lifeMolecule – groups of atoms, the smallest unit of most chemical compoundsAtom - smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of it

Microscope – includes parts of ocular, tube, nose, objective, stage clip, stage, diaphragm, light, base, adjustments, armOrganic vs Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds – do not contain carbono Chemicals required that do not contain carbon include water, nitrogen, and oxygen

Organic compounds – contain carbonMacromolecules – “giant molecules” made from thousands of molecules formed by polymerization

Four basic macromolecules – Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins1. Carbohydrates – made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

a. Sugars that provide cell with energy Monosaccharide – single simple sugar (ex: glucose)

Polysaccharide – complex sugars (ex: glycogen)2. Lipids – macromolecules made mostly of carbon and hydrogen

a. Not soluble in water (ex: fats, oils)3. Nucleic Acids – contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and Phosphorus

a. Made of nucleotidesb. Contain genetic information and make up DNA and RNA

i. DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acidii. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid

4. Proteins – contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygena. Made up of amino acids

i. Amino Acid – composed of carboxylic acids, amines, and side chainsii. More than 20 different amino acids found in nature

b. Control how fast chemical reactions occurc. Enzyme – Protein that acts as biological catalyst (speeds up reaction)

i. Lowers activation energyii. Induced Fit Model – substrate and enzyme mold together

1. Return to original shape after reaction completesiii. Substrate – reactant of enzyme-catalyzed reactioniv. Denaturing – high temp, pH misshapes enzyme, becomes ineffective

CellsCell – basic unit of lifeHuman body is made up of 75-100 trillion cellsHooke – used early microscope to view cork and discover cellsVan Leeuwenhoek – used microscope to view pond water and saw “critters”Schleiden – plants are made of cellsSchwann – animals made of cellsVirchow – all cells come from existing cellsCell Theory

1. All living things made of cells2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function3. Cells are produced from existing cells

2 Types of Cells1. Prokaryote – cell with no nucleus and DNA free floating inside (mostly single-celled)2. Eukaryote – cell contain nucleus with DNA inside and has membrane-bound organelles (mostly multi-celled)

Cell Membrane – thin flexible barrier around a cell that regulates what enters and exitsCell Wall – rigid structure located ouside of membrane that provides additional support and protection (plants, fungi)

Plasmodesmata – microscopic channels in cell walls of plant cells enabling transport and communicationCytoplasm – clear gelatinous fluid inside cell that surrounds organellesOrganelle – structure within a eukaryotic cell that performs important function

Nucleus – largest organelle surrounded by double membrane and contains DNA to make proteinsNucleolus – organelle with nucleus that makes ribosomesNuclear Envelope – Double membrane with nuclear pores that surrounds nucleusRibosome – move out of nucleus and produce proteinsEndoplasmic Reticulum – site of cellular chemical reactions that transports proteins to golgi apparatus

Rough ER – covered with ribosomes and makes proteinsSmooth ER – contains no ribosomes and makes lipids

Golgi Apparatus – sorts proteins into packages to be sent to appropriate destinations in or out of cellVacuole – temporary storage of materials (one large in plants, many small in animals)Lysosomes – small organelle filled with enzyme to break down lipids, carbohydrates, waste, and invadersPlastids – organelle mostly in plants used to store starches, lipids, and contains pigment to give color

Chloroplast – only in green plants and some protists, captures light energy and produces foodMitochondria – powerhouse of the cell that makes energyPeroxisome – break down fatty acids and hydrogen peroxide

Cytoskeleton – gives cell support and structure, made of microtubules and microfilaments

Centrioles – microtubules that help with cell divisionCilia – short numerous hair-like projections that increase surface area and aid in movementFlagella – long tail-like projection that moves cell with whip-like motionDifferences in Plant and Animal Cells

Plant Cell: photosynthesis, chloroplasts, chlorophyll, cell wall, large central vacuole, square, largeAnimal Cell: no photosynthesis, no chloroplast, no chlorophyll, no cell wall, many small vacuole, round, small

Cell Boundary and TransportPhospholipid Bilayer – gives cell membrane flexible structure and strong barrier

Fatty Acid Tail – hydrophobic interior of membranePhosphate Head – hydrophilic exterior of membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model – phospholipid bilayer includes transport proteins and channelsConcentration – the mass of solute in a given volume of a solutionDiffusion – particles moving from an area of high concentration to area of low concentrationDynamic Equilibrium – when concentration of solute is same throughout the system, substances still move in and outOsmosis – diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membraneSolution Types:

1. Isotonic – solution concentration is same as inside the cell2. Hypertonic – solution concentration is higher than cell, water moves out of cell causing plasmolysis, shrinking3. Hypotonic – solution concentration is lower than cell, water moves into cell causing cytolysis, swelling

Facilitated Diffusion – membrane channels help diffusion of concentrate across membraneTransport Protein – allows transport in and out of cell via a transport channel

Active Transport – use of energy (ATP) to transport small molecules against concentration gradientEndocytosis – process of taking material into the cell by means of enfolding

Phagocytosis – taking in solid food particlesPinocytosis – taking in liquid

Exocytosis – forcing contents out of cell

ThermodynamicsKinetic Theory – as temperature increases particles move faster and spread out

1. All particles are in motion2. Smaller Particles move faster3. Warmer Particles move faster

Types of heat transferConduction – heat transfer between two items in contact

Conductor – anything that readily allows the transfer of heat energy (ex: iron)Insulator – anything that prohibits the transfer of thermal energy (ex: air)

Convection – heat transfer in fluid through currents of hot (less dense) rising and cold fallingRadiation – electromagnetic heat transfer which does not require a medium (material) to travel through

Temperature – measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a systemCelsius: C = 5/9 (F – 32) or C = K – 273Fahrenheit: F = (9/5 C) + 32Kelvin: K = C + 273

Absolute Zero – temperature of 0 K where particles would stop movingSpecific Heat – the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of a substance by a degree Celsius

Q = m*(TF-TI)*CHeat of Fusion – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from solid to liquidHeat of Vaporization – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from liquid to gasThermal Energy – sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the particles in an object1st Law of Thermo – the increase in thermal E equals work done on the system plus the thermal E transferred2nd Law of Thermo – it is impossible for thermal E to flow from a cold object to a warmer object unless work is doneInternal Combustion Engine – intake, compression, power, exhaustEntropy – a measure of how spread out or dispersed energy is

Forces and Motion

Displacement – the distance and direction of an object’s final position from its initial positionVector – a quantity showing both size and direction of a motionFrame of Reference – a set of criteria or stated values in relation to which measurements or judgments can be madeSpeed – the distance an object travel per unit of time (v = d/t)

Instantaneous Speed – the speed of an object at a single instant in timeAverage Speed – the total distance traveled divided by the total travel timeVelocity – the speed of the object and its direction of motion

Acceleration – the change in velocity divided by the change in time (a = (vf-vi)/tf-ti))Force – a push or pull that one object exerts on another

Net Force – the cumulative force of two objectsBalanced vs. Unbalanced Forces

Balanced Forces – equal and opposite forces having a net force of 0Unbalanced Forces – forces combine to produce nonzero net force causing acceleration

Friction – the force that opposes the sliding motion of two surfaces that are in contactStatic Friction – frictional force that prevents 2 surfaces from sliding past each otherSliding Friction – force that acts in the opposite direction to the motion of sliding objectsAir Resistance – friction against an object moving through the air

Terminal Velocity – final velocity where force of air resistance equals gravityNewtons 1st Law – Only unbalanced forces change motion

Inertia – the tendency of an object to resist a change in motionNewtons 2nd Law – the acceleration of an object is in the same direction as the net force on the object

Force = mass x accelerationNewtons 3rd Law – for every action there is an equal and opposite reactionMomentum – the product of an object’s mass and velocity

Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v)Law of Conservation of Momentum – total momentum is conserved within a system

Gravity – the attractive force between two objects based on mass and distanceF = G(m1m2)/d2

Weight v Mass – mass is amount of substance while weigh is how gravity impacts massCentripetal Acceleration – acceleration toward the center of a curved circular pathCentripetal Force – net force exerted toward the center of a curved pathCentrifugal Force – force that acts outward on a body moving around a center, arising from inertiaProjectile Motion – curved path that thrown/shot objects follow due to forward velocity and downward acceleration

Work and EnergyEnergy – the ability to do work

Measured in Joules (J)Kinetic Energy – the energy of a moving object has because of its motion

KE = ½ x mass x velocity2

Potential Energy – stored energy due to potentialElastic Potential Energy – energy stored by something that can stretch or compress such as a rubber bandChemical Potential Energy – energy stored in the form of chemical bondsGravitational Potential Energy – energy stored due to an objects position above the earth

GPE = mass x gravity x heightMechanical Energy – the total amount of potential and kinetic energy in a systemProjectile Motion – curved motion of a thrown or hit object as its energy changes between mechanical and potentialLaw of Conservation – Energy is conserved but some energy in a system may be lost as heat due to frictionFusion and Fission – Mass can be converted to energy through the processes of nuclear fusion and fissionCalorie – unit used by nutritionist to measure how much energy comes from various foodsWork – the energy transferred when a force makes an object move, has direction

Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)Power – the amount of work done in one second or the rate at which work is done

Power (W) = Work (J) / Time (s)Machine – device that makes doing work easier by multiplying force or changing direction

Work Input = Work Output

Mechanical Advantage – ratio of output force to input forceMechanical Advantage = output force (Newtons) / input force (Newtons)

Efficiency – a measure of how much of the work put into a machine is change into useful work outputEfficiency (%) = work output (J) / work input (J)

Simple Machine – a machine that does work with only one movement1. Lever – a bar that is free to pivot or turn around a fixed point

a. 1st Class – fulcrum in center (pry bar)b. 2nd Class – output force in center (wheelbarrow) c. 3rd Class – input force in center (baseball bat)

2. Pulley – grooved wheel with a rope, chain, or cable running along ita. Fixed Pulley – single pulley attached to a fixed positionb. Moveable Pulley – a pulley in which one end of the rope is fixed and the wheel is free to movec. Block and Tackle – a system of pulleys consisting of both fixed and moveable

3. Wheel and Axel – consists of a shaft or axle attached to the center of a larger wheel and rotate togetherEx: screwdriver, doorknobs, faucets, gears

4. Inclined Planes – a sloping surface that reduces the amount of force required to do worka. Screw – inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a cylinder b. Wedge – an inclined plane with one or two sloping sides

Compound Machine – two or more simple machines that operate together

WavesWaves – repeating disturbance that transfers energy (not matter)Mechanical vs. Electromagnetic

Electromagnetic – a wave not requiring a medium (ex: ultraviolet light can pass through outer space)Mechanical – a wave requiring a medium (ex: sound waves cannot be heard in outer space)

Medium – matter though which energy travels (ex: the medium for an ocean wave is the water)Transverse vs. Compressional Mechanical Waves

Transverse – wave which energy and matter move perpendicular to each other (up and down)Example: water wave

Compressional – wave which energy and matter move parallel to each other (long ways)Example: sound wave

Parts of WavesCrest – high point of transverse waveTrough – low point of transverse waveCompression – compacted part of compressional waveRarefaction – less dense or spread out portion of a compressional waveNormal – middle or rest line

Amplitude – amount of energy transferred by the wave which determines the intensity- measured from the normal to either the crest or the trough

Wavelength – the distance of one wave (represented by the symbol Lambda {λ})Period – the time it takes for one wave to passFrequency – the number of waves that pass a point each second

- Calculated by f = 1/T where T is the time period- Units – Hertz (Hz)- Pitch – human perception of the frequency of sound waves

Wave Speed – product of frequency and wavelength (v = f λ)Electromagnetic Spectrum

Gamma Rays – highest energy, highest frequency, lowest wave length, used to treat cancerX-Rays – used in medicineUltravioletVisible Light –

Color Spectrum-Lights – as lights add together they produce white

- objects can only reflect the colors available in the light- white light includes all colors of light

Pigments – as pigments add together they produce blackInfraredMicrowavesRadio Waves – lowest energy, lowest frequency, longest wave length, used for communication (includes TV)

Interactions of waves with the environmentReflection – bouncing back of a wave (examples: mirrors and sonar)

Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflectionReal vs. Virtual Image

Real Image – Image seems to pass through (curved mirrors)Virtual Image – Image seems to be behind mirror (plane mirrors)

Sonar – echolocation (ex: submarines, bats, dolphins)Refraction – bending of a wave as it goes from one medium to another (ex: straw in glass of water)

Dispersion – light refracting through a prism is broken into individual colorsDiffraction – bending of a wave around a corner (ex: double slit experiment)

- When a wave goes through a slit it forms a new wave on the other side- When a wave goes through two slits the two new waves interfere with each other

Interference – two waves interact with one anotherConstructive Interference – two waves add togetherDestructive Interference – two waves subtract from one another

Standing Wave – wave pattern where two equal and opposite wave continually interfere (used in music)Node – point of no movement (at normal)Anti-nodes – points of maximum vibration (crests and troughs)

Wave Travel and State of Matter – waves travel faster when particles are closer together but stop soonerResonance – vibration of one particle at a natural frequency causes vibration of the next (ex: guitar)Doppler Effect – wave moving towards observer increases frequency and away decrease frequency

Electricity and MagnetismStatic Electricity – the accumulation of excess electric charge on an objectLaw of Conservation of Charge – charge can be transferred from object to object but not created nor destroyedCharges exert forces on each other, opposites attract while likes repelElectric Field – area surrounding every electric charge where force is exerted on other electric charge

- Arrows point in to negative and out from positiveConductor – a material in which electrons are able to move easily (ex: metals)Insulator – a material in which electrons are not able to move easily (ex: plastic, wood, rubber, glass)Charging – transfer of electrons between two objects near one another

Charging by Contact – process of transferring charge by touching or rubbingCharging by Induction – the rearrangement of electrons on a neutral object caused by a nearby charged objectStatic Discharge – transfer of charge between two objects because buildup of static electricity (ex: lightning)Grounding – connecting an object to earth to prevent unwanted static discharge to another object

Electric Current – the net movement of electric charges in a single direction- Measured in amperes, 1 ampere = 6,250 million billion electrons flowing past a point each second

Voltage Difference – place where electric charge flows due to difference in electrical charges- Measured in volts

Dry-Cell Battery – consists of two electrodes surrounded by electrolyte (dry paste) enabling charges to moveWet-Cell Battery – contains two connected plates of different metals and a conduction solution, usually several wellsLead-Acid Battery – contains series of 6 wet cells of lead/lead dioxide plates, sulfuric acid solution, ex: car batteryResistance – tendency of a material to resist the flow of electrons

- Measure in OhmsOhm’s Law – current is equal to the voltage difference divided by resistanceCircuit – a closed path that electric current follows

Series Circuit – single pathway for current to flow, “bad Christmas lights”Parallel Circuit – multiple branches or pathways for current to flow, “good Christmas lights”

Fuse – contains small piece of metal that melts if temperature gets too high, must be replacedBreaker – contains a small piece of metal that bends if temperature gets too high, must be bent back or “flipped”Electrical Power – the rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form of energy

Power (watts) = current (amperes) x voltage difference (volts)Electrical Energy – amount of electrical power consumed in an amount of time, how power companies calculate bill

Electrical Energy (kWh) = power (kW) x time (h)Magnetism – the properties and interaction of magnetMagnetic Field – exerts a force on other magnets and other magnetic materials

Stronger closer to poles and closer to magnetMagnetic Poles – polarized part of magnet (North or South) where magnetic field is strongest

Location is dependent upon the shape of the magnetCannot be separated, cut magnet has two new poles

Magnetic Field Direction – point out from North and in to south, compass points along lines toward southEarth’s Magnetic Field – earth behaves like a giant bar magnet due to iron and nickel core

Poles switch every 10,000 years or so, can be seen through rock layersGeographic North is Magnetic South, and Geographic South is Magnetic North

Magnetic Materials – Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, and others with electric current flowingMagnetic Domains – groups of atoms with aligned magnetic poles

Can be realigned by nearness to a magnetCan be randomized through heating or banging

Electricity and Magnetism1820 Hans Christian Oersted observes relationship

Electric Current creates a magnetic fieldElectromagnet – temporary magnet made by wrapping a wire coil carrying current around an iron core

Electromagnet in a speaker converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and into soundGalvanometer – devices that use an electromagnet to measure currentSolenoid – a single wire wrapped into a cylindrical wire coil

Electric Motor – device that changes electrical energy into mechanical energyIncludes a wire coil, permanent magnet, and electric current source

Electromagnetic Induction – the generation of a current by a changing magnetic fieldGenerator – uses electromagnetic induction to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy

The current in coil changes direction each time ends of coil move past the permanent magnet polesTurbine – large wheel that rotates when pushed by water, wind, or steam, connect to rotating magnets

AC vs DCDirect Current – “DC” current flowing in only one direction from a batteryAlternating Current – “AC” reverses direction of the current in a regular pattern, used in wall outlets

Transformer – device that increases or decreases voltage of an alternating currentStep Up Transformer – increases voltage as power leaves plant to high powered lines

Low number of primary coil wraps to high number secondary coil wrapsStep Down Transformer – decreases voltage as power leaves high power lines and enter homes

High number of primary coil wraps to low number secondary coil wraps

Earth’s Internal ProcessesContinental Drift – Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1915 that all continents were once one supercontinent

Pangaea – name former supercontinent theorized by WegenerEvidence for Pangaea includes matching coastlines, fossil records, mountain ranges, seafloors, rock ages

Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis – Hess proposed that seafloor was diverging as magma is forced up due to low densityMid-Ocean Ridge – continuous system of twin mountain ranges with a rift valley extending around the earthRift Valley – long, linear, drop down valley between twin parallel mountain ranges at a fault

Theory of Plate Tectonics – Theory that earth’s surface is made up of many oceanic and continental plates moving- Plates move due to convection current in plastic-like asthenosphere having rigid lithosphere moving on top1. Divergent Boundary – Plates move apart2. Convergent Boundary – Plates move together

o Subduction – one plate dives below the other due to lower density, produces volcanoa. Oceanic under Continental – Produces mountain near sea trench. Example: Andes Mountainsb. Oceanic under Oceanic – Produces island arc volcano. Example: Japanc. Continental and Continental – Produces large mountain range. Example: Himalayas

3. Transform Plate Boundary – Plates move past each other, produces earthquakes. Example San Andreas

Earthquake – seismic vibrations that often occur at transform fault boundaries or just before volcanic eruptionsStress – force per unit area that acts on a material

1. Compressive Stress – mass is squeezed or shortened2. Tension Stress – mass is stretched or lengthened3. Shear Stress – parts of mass are moved in opposite directions along a plane4. Torsion Stress – mass is subjected to twisting Deformation – Change in shape that occurs when stress is applied

1. Plastic Deformation – material deforms and remains in new shape after stress removed2. Elastic Deformation – material deforms but snaps back to origin shape after stress removed

Fault – crack along which movement has taken placeElastic Rebound – sudden energy release that goes with fault movementFocus – point of origin of an earthquake undergroundEpicenter – point on Earth’s surface above focusBody Waves – earthquake waves that travel through Earth

1. Primary (P) Waves – cause Earth particles to compress and retract2. Secondary (S) Waves – cause Earth particles to move transversely, only travel through solids

Surface Waves – earthquake waves that travel across Earth’s surface, cause structural damageRichter Scale – uses the amplitude of the largest waveMercalli Scale – rating based upon intensity and damagesEarthquake Proofing – engineers use base isolation, damping, and diagonal braces to reduce quake damage

Discontinuity – boundary that marks a density change between layers of EarthShadow Zone – area between 105-140 degrees from earthquake focus where waves are not recorded

- Basis for understanding of how Earth’s interior isLithosphere – Outer rigid layer of Earth composed of crust and outermost mantleAsthenosphere – plastic-like layer of Earth resting below lithosphere Volcano – weak spot in Earth where less dense hot magma rises through conduit to reach the surface

Lava – magma that escapes onto Earth’s surfaceSubduction Zone – area where many volcanos occur between colliding platesHot Spot – area where volcano occurs due to weak spot in Earth’s crust (Pompeii, Hawaii) Volcanos release solid pyroclastic particles and bombs, superheated carbon and sulfur gases, and liquid lava

Liquid Lava – classified based upon viscosityViscosity – measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow, influence by makeup and temperature

1. Low Viscosity – generally basaltic, low silica, cover long distance creating flat volcanos2. High Viscosity – generally higher silica, does not flow very far creating taller volcanos

3 Types of Volcanos1. Cinder Cone – produce large fragments of solid material, small (Ex: Mt. Kilimanjaro)2. Shield – abundant basaltic lava flow, broad, and flat (Ex: Mauna Loa, Hawaii)3. Composite – alternating layers, very large, very high (Ex: Mt. Rainier)

Earth’s Materials and Changing SurfaceCrust – outermost layer of Earth’s surface

Elemental Percentages by Mass: 46.6% Oxygen, 27.7% Silicon, 8.1% Aluminum, 5% Iron, 3.6% CalciumMineral – naturally occurring element or compound that is inorganic, solid, and has a crystalline structure.

Mineral physical properties can vary sample to sample1. Atomic Arrangement – arrangement of atoms and bonds between reflect properties of the mineral2. Breakage – minerals in certain families break in certain ways based upon atomic arrangement

a. Cleavage - break along plane across weak bonds producing flat smooth surface (Ex: mica)b. Fracture – breaking into uneven pieces (ex: quartz)

3. Hardness – measurement of the resistance to scratching compared on Mohs Scale (talc to diamond)4. Luster – the way a mineral reflects light, usually defined as metallic or non-metallic5. Streak – the color of a mineral in powdered form6. Crystal Shape – type of symmetry shown by mineral, often reflecting internal atomic arrangement

Mineral Formation – growth as atoms are added to surfaces, edges, or corners1. From Hot Water – when saturated solutions pass through they bond to materials (Ex: hot springs)2. From Magma – as magma cools, atoms slow down and begin to arrange into orderly structure

3. From Evaporation – when water slowly evaporates, concentrated material is left behindMineral Groups – 3,800 minerals identified in nature and grouped based on atomic arrangement

Silicates – contain silicon and oxygen bonded together in geometric tetrahedron (Ex: Quartz)Non-Silicates – include carbonates, oxide, halides, sulfides, sulfates (Ex: Hematite)

Mineral Uses – used as raw materials for industry or directly as objects of wealthRock – naturally formed consolidated mixture containing minerals, rock fragments, and/or volcanic glass

Identified by composition and textureTexture – a description that includes the size and arrangement of the rock’s components

Rock Cycle – includes chemical and physical conditions that continuously form and change rocks-Must know diagram1. Igneous Rock – rocks formed from molten material called magma

- Classified by granitic or basaltic and intrusive or extrusiveGranitic – less dense and silica-rich, high quantities of quartzBasaltic – dense and rich in magnesium and iron

a) Intrusive – forms within Earth’s crust- High temperature magmas tend to crystallize olivine and pyroxene - Grain size gives clues as to how fast they form

b) Extrusive – forms from lava on Earth’s surface- Often contaminated by materials on Earth’s surface- Often in irregular shapes or with gas bubbles due to rapid cooling in atmosphere

2. Sedimentary Rock – rocks formed from compiling and hardening of clasts- Clasts – small bits and pieces of rocks and minerals produced by physical condition at surface- Transportation and Deposition – mechanical weathering breaks rocks and moves them - Porosity – empty spaces between pieces of clasts- Compaction – pressing together of clasts- Cementation – dissolved minerals act as cement when they precipitate out of water- Detritus – another word used for clasts to classify sedimentary rocks

4 Sizes: gravel (conglomerate), sand (sandstone), silt (siltstone), and clay (shale)Chemical Sedimentary Rocks – Precipitation or evaporation from saturated water form rockBiochemical Sedimentary Rocks – contain fossils which impact formation

3. Metamorphic Rock – rocks changed by combination of thermal energy, pressure, and chemistryIdentified as either foliated or nonfoliated

a) Foliated – layers or bandsb) Nonfoliated – have random crystal orientation and uniform grain size

Nitrogen Cycle – cycle by which nitrogen is converted into various forms and circulates in atmosphere and ecosystem- Must know diagram

Carbon Cycle – cycle by which carbon is exchanged among biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere- Must know diagram

Weathering – process of physical or chemical breakdown of a material at or near Earth’s surfaceMechanical Weathering – turns big pieces into small by applying forces of impact, expansion, and contractionChemical Weathering – forms new compounds and releases elements into the environment

Rock Rust – oxidation of iron occurs producing rustFeldspar Weathering – weathering of feldspar minerals into clay minerals

-Differential Weathering – the types of minerals, cementing agent, defects, and fractures impact weatheringSoil – a mixture of weathered rock, organic matter, water, and air that is capable of supporting plant life

Soil Horizons – unique color, texture, and composition in layers of soilSoil Types – often impacted by weather and climate and parent materialsSoil Conservation – the continuous recycling of plant matter returns elements back to soil

Erosion – removal of surface material through the processes of weatheringSediment Transport – the movement of eroded materials from one place to another by water, wind, or glaciersDeposition – the dropping of an erosion load that has been transportedRunning Water – downward force on slopes causes erosion

-Steeper areas create v-shaped valleys while small slope produce u-shaped valleys Drainage Basin – large area that slopes into a single body of waterChannel Development – as surface water flows downhill due to gravity erosion creates a new path

Stream Deposits – sediment accumulation where water slows, drops sediment, generally around bendsFloodplains – outer banks of river that contain water during most floodsDeltas – fan-shaped sediment deposit at the mouth of a stream

Glaciers – when winter snowfall exceeds summer melt year after year and snow moves down a slopeGlacial Erosion Features - glaciers leave behind grooves or striations

Dump all the rock material they carry without sorting itWind – lacks ability to pick up large particles but acts as a sand blaster and blow sediment around

Wind Erosion Features – produces polished surfaces and dunesWave Action – zone where land meets open water and extreme forces cause erosion at shorelineMass Wasting – erosion primarily result of gravity, usually due to water influx, earthquakes, or human activity

Mass Wasting Features – tend to dump sediment in a disorganized fashionGroundwater – water held underground in soil or in pores and crevices in rock

Infiltration – process by which water enters Earth to become groundwater below the surfaceWater Table – boundary separating the saturated and unsaturated zones

Unsaturated Zone – region near the surface where water can infiltrate freelySaturated Zone – deeper region where water completely fills pore spaceAquifer – a rock unit that can transmit water through its pore space (Ex: sandstone and limestone)

Permeability – measure of how well a fluid can pass through a material Wells drilled into aquifers under natural pressure force water up

Aquitard – a rock that slows or stops infiltration (Ex: shale)Time – determined by the position of Earth with respect to the Sun during a cycle of Earth’s rotation

Absolute Dating – process of assigning a precise numerical age to an organismo Use of radioactive decay by quantities of unstable elements (Ex: Carbon-14)

Half-Life – the amount of time that it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decayRelative Dating – process of placing objects or events in the proper sequence

Superposition – relative dating based upon vertical depth or objectsUniformitarianism – states that the laws of nature operate today as they have in the pastFossils – remains or traces of organisms found in the geologic rock record

o Can be direct remains or casts

Weather and ClimateAtmosphere – the envelope of gases surround Earth’s surface

- 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% water vapor, argon, and trace gases Troposphere – layer extending 30 km above Earth’s surface

Temperature Inversion – when temperature increases with as opposed to normal, produces fogStratosphere – extremely dry layer rich in ozone above troposphere

Greenhouse Effect – re-emission of infrared radiation back to Earth’s surface (increases temperature)Latent Heat – heat energy released or absorbed during the phase changes of waterVaried Surface – different surfaces heat at different rates causing pressure differences and windTwo basic cloud types:

1. Cumulus – form from rising air parcels, produce brief rains, puffy2. Stratus – form when layers of air rise gently, produce long-lasting rain, flat and elongated Cumulonimbus – thunderhead that forms from unstable air and brings intense rain

Global Water Cycle – precipitation, runoff, storage, and evaporation - Plants are an important part of the water cycle, affecting absorption and runoff and evaporation return- Know diagram of cycle

Atmospheric Pressure – pressure from gas molecules moving and colliding with each other and surfaces they touchWeather Patterns – result from complex global patterns of wind and pressure

Westerlies – winds that blow from west in middle latitudesTrade Winds – winds that blow from the east in the tropicsJet Streams – fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents that control many weather processesSubtropical Highs – relatively stable belts of high pressure near latitude 30Coriolis Effect – deflects air to right in northern hemisphere causing clockwise motion toward low pressure

Air Mass – large units of air with relatively uniform moisture and temperatureWeather Front – zones of interaction between air masses

Cold Front – cold air pushes warm air aloft in a chaotic fashion forming cumulus clouds, showers, and stormsWarm Front – warm air rises gently above cold air forming layered stratus clouds, fog, and steady drizzle rainStationary Front – when weak cold and warm front move into each other and stop, producing rainOccluded Front – boundary between old and new cold fronts with warm air above producing storms

Downdraft – sinking current of cold air pulled down during a thunderstormSquall – windy gusts formed when downdraft hits surface with strong forceDownburst – cold air descends from a thunderstorm and hits the ground and burst outward

Tornado – intense, short-lived localized storms in mid-latitudes originating from cumulonimbus cloudsHurricane – tropical storm that covers vast areas for daysClimate – long-term average weather conditions (wind, temperature, precipitation, moisture) of an area

Biogeophysical Climate System – 5 spheres: atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphereBiosphere – everything organic including plants, animals, and humansHydrosphere – liquid water in oceans, lakes, rivers, soil, and undergroundCryosphere – frozen water in snow, ice, and glaciers

Latitude is the primary factor that determines climate at a given locationOther factors that impact climate include high mountains and distance from major bodies of water

Lee Rain Shadow – when wind blows perpendicular to one side of a mountainSea Breeze – blows from water toward land in afternoon and back at night due to temperature change

Continental Climate – areas with little ocean influence with steep temperature gradients Maritime Climate – areas with strong ocean influence with milder summers and warmer wintersClimate Types – scientists divide climates various ways based on temperatures, vegetation, and precipitationGlobal Warming – increase in average global temperature of EarthOzone Hole – gap in ozone layer caused by release of chemicals into atmosphere, allowing more radiation inEl Niño – an irregular climatic event involving irregularly warm nutrient-poor water in the PacificLa Niña – an irregular climatic event causing cooler sea surface temperatures in the Pacific

Silent Spring – 1962 book by Rachel Carson about impact of DDT on environment, started environmental awareness

Energy SourcesFossil Fuels – fuels such as petroleum, oil, natural gas or coal that have formed by decay of ancient plants or animals

Petroleum – highly flammable liquid formed by decayed ancient organisms, mixture of hydrocarbonsHydrocarbon – molecules containing only carbon and hydrogenAlso used in plastics and lubricants

Natural Gas – composed mostly of methane, burn to provide energy for cooking, heating, and manufacturingHas the highest energy content of fossil fuels

Coal – solid fossil fuel that is found in mines underground, used in many power plants to provide electricityFossil fuel power plants are generally about 35% efficientNonrenewable Resource – resources that cannot be replaced by natural processes as quickly as they are used.

Nuclear Energy – energy released when the nucleus of an atom breaks apart, called fissionNuclear Reactor- uses the energy from controlled nuclear reaction to generate electricityNuclear Fuel – Uranium-235 is the primary elemental isotope usedReactor Core – contains uranium dioxide fuel in tiny pellets bundled in tubes with a metal alloyFission – process of splitting an atomic nucleus into two or more nuclei with smaller masses, releases energyRisks of Nuclear Energy – mining, cooling, storage of nuclear waste, radioactive meltdowns (Ex: Chernobyl)

Nuclear Waste – any radioactive by-product that results from radioactive material usage Nuclear Fusion – reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei form a nucleus with a larger mass

Renewable Resource – energy source that is replaced almost as quickly as it is usedSolar Energy – using photovoltaic cell to harness power from sunlight

Photovoltaic Cell – converts radiant energy from the sun directly into electrical energyHydroelectricity – electricity produced from the energy of moving water

Disadvantages: Dams produce artificial lakes that disturb natural ecosystems Advantages: Nearly twice as efficient as fossil fuels

Tidal Energy – using tides from the ocean or sea to turn turbines and generate electricity, very limited areaWind Energy – using windmills with turbines turned by the wind to produce electricity, limited areasGeothermal Energy – using thermal energy in magma for energy or to generate electricity, limited areasBiomass – renewable organic matter (wood, sugarcane, rice, manure) used as energy source for human needs

Animal Anatomy and PhysiologyOrgan Systems – There are 11 organ systems in the human body

1. Nervous Systema. Structures – CNS made of brain and spine, PNS made of peripheral nervesb. Function – recognize and coordinate body’s response to the environment

2. Integumentary Systema. Structures – Skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis), hair, nails, sweat and oil glandsb. Function – serves as a barrier against infection and injury, regulate temperature

3. Respiratory Systema. Structures – Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungsb. Function – provide oxygen needed for cellular respiration and removes excess carbon dioxide

4. Digestive Systema. Structures – Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectumb. Function – converts food into simpler molecules used by the cells, absorbs food, eliminates waste

5. Excretory Systema. Structures – skin, lungs, kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethrab. Function – eliminate waste products from the body to maintain homeostasis

6. Skeletal Systema. Structures – Bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendonsb. Function – support the body, protect internal organs, allow movement, blood cell formation

7. Muscular Systema. Structures –Skeletal Muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscleb. Function – works with skeleton in voluntary movement, helps to circulate blood and move food

8. Cardiovascular Systema. Structures – Heart, blood, arteries, arterioles, veins, capillaries, b. Function – bring oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells, fight infection, remove cell waste

9. Endocrine Systema. Structure – Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testesb. Function – control growth, development, and metabolism, maintain homeostasis

10. Lymphatic/Immune Systema. Structure – White blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vesselsb. Function – helps protect the body from disease, collects fluid lost from blood vessels and returns it

11. Reproductive Systema. Male Structure – Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, and penisb. Female Structure – Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vaginac. Male Function – produce reproductive cellsd. Female Function – produce reproductive cells, and nurture and protect embryo

Plant DiversityPlant – multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls made of cellulose and carry out photosynthesis

- 4 types of plants evolved from green algae1. Bryophytes (Mosses) – nonvascular plants including mosses, hornworts, and liverworts

a. Life cycle that depends on water for reproductionb. No vascular tissue and must live near water to draw by osmosisc. Rhizoid – root like structure that anchors plant to the ground and absorbs water/minerals

2. Pterophytes (Seedless Vascular) – earliest vascular plants include ferns, club mosses, and horsetailsa. Vascular tissue is made of xylem and phloem and can move fluids through plant bodyb. Fronds – large leavesc. Rhizome – creeping or underground stem

3. Gymnosperms (cone plants) – seeds are bore directly on surface of cone (naked seed)a. 4 types – Gnetophytes, Cycads, Ginkgoes, and Conifers

i. Gnetophytes – 70 current speciesii. Cycads – palm-like plants growing in tropical and subtropical places

iii. Ginkgoes – Only one species remaining in Ginkgo biloba

iv. Conifers – 500 known species including pines, spuces, firs, cedars, redwoods4. Angiosperms (flower plants) – develop unique reproductive organs known as flowers

a. Flowers contain ovaries which surround and protect the seedb. Fruit – a wall of tissue surrounding a seedc. 2 Classes – Monocots and Dicots

i. Monocots – single cotyledon, parallel leaf veins, 3x flower petals fibrous rootsii. Dicots – two cotyledons, branched leaf veins, 4x or 5x flower petals, taproot

d. Life Spansi. Annual – complete life cycle within one growing season such as wheat and pansies

ii. Biennial – complete life cycle in two years such as parsley and primroseiii. Perennials – live for more than two years such as maple trees and honeysuckles

Plant AnatomyThree principal organs of plants are roots, stems, and leaves

1. Roots – absorb water and dissolve nutrients, anchor plant, hold soil in placea. Two types – taproots and fibrous roots

i. Taproots - long and thick with small secondary roots (dicots)ii. Fibrous – branch to large extent (monocots)

b. 3 zones at growth – zone of cell division, zone of elongation, zone of maturationc. Contains Casparian Strip which prevent backflow of water out of the vascular cylinder

i. Enables root pressure to force water up instead of down2. Stem – support system for the plant body, transport system that carries nutrients, defense against predators

a. Primary growth – growth in length of the plantb. Secondary growth – growth in width of plant and can produce wood

3. Leaves – main photosynthetic system, controls gas exchangea. Most photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll which makes up the bulk of the plant

i. Spongey Mesophyll – loosely packed ground tissue allowing gas exchange in leaf bottomii. Palisade Mesophyll – tightly pack ground tissue where most photosynthesis occurs

b. Transpiration – the loss of water through its leavesc. Leaves take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen during photosynthesis

Water is transported into and through the plant via root pressure and uptake, capillary action, and transpirational pullFour types of plant tissue are dermal, vascular, ground, and meristematic

1. Dermal – “skin” of the plant that protects ita. Epidermis – outside covering of the plantb. Endodermis – often covers inside portions of the plant

2. Vascular – “vascular system” of plant that passes water and nutrients throughout planta. Xylem – consists of tracheids and vessel elements that pass waterb. Phloem – consists of sieve tube elements and companion cells and passes nutrients

3. Ground – “in-between” tissue of plant that provides its structurea. Consists of Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma

4. Meristematic – reproductive tissue of the planta. Found in two places at shoot tip and root tipb. Cells differentiate as they maturec. Indeterminate Growth – Plants grow throughout lifetime

TaxonomyClassification is a way to group organisms in a logical manner so scientists can study the diversity of life

- Currently 1.5 million species have been identified- Between 2-100 million more need to be discovered and identified

Taxonomy – the science of classifying organisms and assigning universally accepted names- Common names vary so universal names are assigned

o Universal names are written in Latin and Greeko Binomial nomenclature – two-naming system

Created by Carlus Linneaus Genus – the first part of the name which identifies a group of similar species

Species – the second part of the name which identifies the specific organism Both Genus and species are italicized, the Genus is capitalized

8 levels of classification – domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species- Domain – Largest taxon

o Bacteria – includes kingdom eubacteria which include most common bacteria Single celled prokaryotes

o Archaea – includes kingdom archaebacteria which include bacteria living in extreme environments Single celled prokaryotes

o Eukarya – includes kingdoms plantae, animalia, protista, and fungi Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes

- Kingdom – 6 Kingdom Systemo Eubacteria (formerly ½ of Monera) – Unicellular prokaryotes, peptidoglygan in cell wall

Typical bacterial (ex: Staph, Strep)o Archaebacteria (formerly ½ of Monera) – Unicellular prokaryotes, lipids in cell wall

Live in extreme places (ex: Halophiles, Thermophiles)o Protista – Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes, can be heterotrophic or photosynthetic

Any eukaryote that doesn’t fit in plants, animals, or fungi (ex: amoeba)o Fungi – Multicellular or unicellular eukaryotes that feed off dead or decaying organic matter

(ex: mushroom, yeast)o Plantae – multicellular eukaryotic photosynthetic autotrophs, cell walls with cellulose, nonmotile

4 types: bryophytes, seedless vasculars, gymnosperms, angiospermso Animalia – Multicellular eukaryotes, hetertrophic, motile

Defined by Symmetry Bilateral – mirror image when divided down the middle

o Phyla: Platyhelminth, Nematoda, Mollucsa, Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata Radial – can be cut to multiple identical sections

o Phyla: Cnidaria, Echinodermata No Symmetry – cannot be divided into identical parts

o Phyla: PoriferaPhylogeny – the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms

- The higher the level of the taxon the further back in time of the common ancestor- Cladistic Analysis – identifies and considers only new characteristics that arise as lineages evolve

o Cladogram – diagram that shows evolutionary relationships- The genes of many organisms show important similarities at the molecular level

o The more similar the DNA, the recent shared ancestor- Molecular Clock – uses DNA comparison to estimate the length of time that 2 species have been evolving

Dichotomous Key – method used to identify an object based on the structures, consist of 2 paired statements

Mitosis and MeiosisChromatin – long strands of DNA wrapped around proteinChromosome – rod-shaped structure that forms when a single DNA molecule coils tightly before cell divisionChromatid – one or two copies of each chromosomeSister Chromatids – two identical copies of a chromosomeCentromere – protein disk that attaches the two chromatidsCell Cycle – series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide

Regulated by protein cyclinCancer – uncontrolled cell replication

Interphase – cell spends most of its life growing and replicating DNAG1 – cell grows and synthesizes new proteins and organellesS – chromosomes replicate and DNA synthesis occursG2 – organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced

M-Phase – mitosis/meiosisCytokinesis – division of cytoplasm during cell division

o Cell Plate forms to make new cell wall when necessary

Mitosis – part of eukaryotic cell division during which the somatic cell nucleus divides, 4 phases, produces replicaSomatic Cell – diploid body cell

Diploid – 2 of each kind of chromosome1. Prophase – chromosomes coil, centrioles separate, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope breaks down2. Metaphase – chromosomes line up in center, each chromosome connects to spindle fiber3. Anaphase – sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and move apart4. Telophase – chromosomes gather at opposite poles and two new nuclear envelopes formProduces 2 daughter cells identical to original cell

Meiosis – process by which the number of chromosomes is halved through separation of homologous chromosomesHomologous Chromosomes – pairs of chromosomes, 1 from each parent, with similar genetic make-upDiploid to haploid in humans is 46 to 23 chromosomes

Haploid – one of each kind of chromosomeGerm Cell – a type of cell that goes through meiosis to make gametesSexual Reproduction – involves the production and fusion of haploid cellsFertilization – the uniting of male and female gametes producing a zygote

Gamete – sex cell (sperm or egg)Zygote – produced by union of egg and cell

Phases of MeiosisMeiosis I:

1. Prophase 1 – First phase of Meiosis IChromosomes coilNuclear envelope breaks downCentrioles form and move to polesSpindles fibers formPairs of homologous chromosomes come together and form a tetradCrossing Over occurs – homologous chromosomes exchange portions of chromatids

Happens an average of 2 to 3 times per pair Results in new combinations of DNA Genetic Recombination – reassortment of chromosomes and genetic information

2. Metaphase 1 – spindle fibers attach to centromere, tetrads line up3. Anaphase 1 – pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles4. Telophase 1 – spindle fibers/centrioles break down, chromosomes uncoil, envelope reforms5. Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides into 2 new cells, each with ½ genetic info of original cell

Meiosis II:1. Prophase 2 – First phase of Meiosis II

Chromosomes coilCentrioles form and move to polesSpindles fibers formNuclear envelope breaks down

2. Metaphase 2 – spindle fibers attach to centromeres, chromosomes line up single file3. Anaphase 2 – centromere splits and sister chromatids separate moving to poles4. Telophase 2 – spindle fibers/centrioles break down, chromosomes uncoil, envelope reforms5. Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides into 2 new cells producing 4 total

Meiosis provides genetic variation for 4 daughter cells in 3 ways1. 2 possibilities when chromosomes line up in Metaphase 1 (8 million possibilities)2. 8 million sperm x 8 million eggs leads to 70 trillion possible combinations3. Crossing over leads to basically infinite combinations

Animal HistologyTissues – Four main types of animal tissue

1. Epithelial – protects, absorbs, filters, and secretesa. Often in body coverings and linings, as well as in glandsb. 3 types – squamous, cuboidal, and columnar

i. Squamous – flattened, forms membranes and lines body cavitiesii. Cuboidal – cube shaped, common in glands and ducts

iii. Columnar – column shaped, often provides mucus producing gobletsc. Also defined by layering as Simple, Stratified, Transitional, or Pseudostratified

2. Connective – binds body tissues together, supports body, provides protectiona. Types – Bone, Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage, Dense, Areolar, Adipose, Reticular

i. Bone – hard matrix supports the bodyii. Hyaline – most common and makes entire fetal skeleton

iii. Elastic – provides elasticity and supports external eariv. Fibrocartilage – highly compressible, found in cushion between vertebral discsv. Dense – Collagen fibers of fibroblasts making tendons and ligaments

vi. Areolar – soft and pliable and functions as packing tissuevii. Adipose – Fat globules contain lipids which insulate and protect the body, energy reserve

viii. Reticular – interwoven fibers in lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow3. Nervous – transmits nerve impulses throughout the body4. Muscle – Produces movement

a. 3 types – Skeletal, Cardiac, Smoothi. Skeletal – Under voluntary control and pulls bone/skin

ii. Cardiac – Involuntary control in heart to pump bloodiii. Smooth – Involuntary control in walls of hollow organs