1

CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.1 The Problem

1.2 Definitions .

1.3 Significance of the Study

1.4 Relevahce of Study

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3

1.1 The Problem : Stratification on the basis of differential social status of

various groups is a common f~ature of human societies, but the traditional

pattern of social stratification in India has certain characteristics, which are

rather unique, and these have attracted many scholars all over the world. The

structural and cultural characteristics of the traditional pattern of stratification

in India have deep roots in the past. They have been given many twists and

tum by numerous socio-cultural currents and cross currents through all these

millenniuml. The caste s-ystem enjoyed both legal and religious sanctions in

traditional Indian society. Different castes were assigned different rights not

only in economic matters but alst) over a wide range of social phenomena. 2

The Indian caste system has unique features among the systems of

social stratification. It is infact, the significance of caste that more than

anything else that characterizes India. Every Hindu necessarily belongs to the

caste of his parents and in that caste inevitably remains. No accumulation of

wealth and no exercise of talents can alter his caste status? Caste system has

no basis in Hindu religion and is a product of Hindu traditional law and of the

weakness of the central political authority during much of India's history.4

The caste system of India is very complex even in contemporary

period; it can be understo<?d through reviewing the ancient period of Indian

caste system. The Indian society was divided into four 'Vamas', viz.,

'Brahmin', 'Kshatriya', 'Vaishya' and '~udra'. The first three vamas were

twice born, while the -'Sudra' was born only once,5. 'Manusmriti' imposed

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several social restrictions on the 'Sudras' and placed them in the lowest

position in ritual purity6. The 'Sudras' suffered social and economic inequity

from the ages and hence the concept of pollution was attached to them, they

were treated as 'untouchable' castes7. The 'Sudras' were known with variety

of nomenclature in the ancient and modem India. Some of them are,

'Untouchables', 'Sudras', 'Atisudras', 'Panchamas', 'Harijans', 'Dalits',

'Depressed Castes' etc. 8 The. untouchable castes were systematically listed in .,.

the 1931-Census of India were officially defined as 'Depressed Castes' in

1932 9. These listed castes were named as 'Scheduled Castes' for the first time

by the 'Simon Commission' and placed it in the Government of India Act-

1935. The Government of India published a list of Scheduled Castes under the

'Government oflndia (Scheduled Castes) Order-1936 10. After the adoption of

Constitution, the Gov_er~ent of India issued the Constitution (Scheduled

Castes) Order-I 950 11.

The caste system in' India during ancient period was very much rigid

but during the colonial period, the rigidity came in declining position. 12 Apart

from that, some socio-religious movements like 'The Prarthana Samaj' in

1845 'The Aryasamaj' in 1857, The Brahmo Samaj' in 1928 etc. have

declined the ~aste system in India.13 After the World War- I (1914-1918),

India came to be industrialized country, whi4h led to the migration of the

people from villages to cities. The growth: of cities with its migratory

population brought the changes.,. in the rigidity of the caste system in India. 14

The process of industrializ~tion and the pro~ess of urbanization continued

5

more constructively in Independent India, which further encouraged the

breaking of rigid natured caste system.' The Government of India enacted

several laws, which discouraged the rigid. structure of castes. Some important

acts are- Equality before law (Art. -14), Prohibits the discrimination on the ~ .

grounds of religion, sex, place of birth, race and caste (Art. 15), Abolition of

Untouchability (Art. 17) etc. 15 During the last five decades, there has been a

considerable change in the caste system in India. Though the two important

features., hereditary membership and hierarchy, have not changed at all. but the

purity of pollution, social restriction, traditional occupation etc. have changed

to great extent. C~st€? no longer rigidly determines an individual's

occupationl6.

However social resttictions imposed on Scheduled Castes in ancient

period, continued even in the post-Independence period with declining

intensity. 17 Social discrimination and economic disabilities have strong

relation in Indian caste system. 18 'Economic inequality is typical outcome of

social inequality and reverse is also true. The political and ideological

developments in India need to be viewed in the light of the country's

economic and social conditions. The inequalities have been solidified by the

rigid social stratification of which the institution of caste is the most

significant manifestation.

Scheduled Castes account for 179.7 million, represents 17.5 per cent of

the total population ofIndia in 2001 19. The decadal growth of SCs (India) over

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1991 is 30 per cent, which is more than decadal growth general population.2o

"' 81 per cent of SCs are living in rural area 21. Uttar Pradesh alone accounts for ,

21.2 per cent of the total SCs. Nearly 84 per cent of SCs population live in ten

states viz. Andra Pradesh (7.7 per cent), Bihar (9.1 per cent), Karnataka (5.3

per cent), Kerala (2.1 per·cent), Madhya Pradesh (7 per cent), Maharashtra

(6.3 per cent), Rajasthan (5.5 per cent), Tamil Nadu (7.8 per cent), Uttar

Pradesh (21.2 per cent) and West Bengal (11.6 per cent) 22. In few states they

constitute more than 20 per cent of the state's total population viz. Punjab

(28.3 per cent), Himachal Pradesh (25.3 per cent), West Bengal (23.6 per

cent), Uttar Pradesh (21 per ~ent) 23.

Scheduled Castes are sharing significant amount of population in the

total population, hence it is very interesting to know the status of them in

socio-economic angle. It is clear that, even now, the caste plays a significant

role in social and economic condition of man. Social and economic statuses

are interdependent and interrelated to each other. One determines the other and

one depends on other. Social inequality stands as a main cause of economic of"

inequality and at the same, time, economic inequality is followed by social

ineqUality. Therefore the 'Scheduled Castes' must be studied in socio-

economic angle, so as to make clear and complete study. The researcher has

studied the socio-economic status of the castes of the Scheduled Castes as a

comparative analysis with reference to 'Kolhapur' District.

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The researcher has analysed the socio-economic status of the castes of

the Scheduled Castes, namely, 'Mahar', 'Mang' and 'Chambhar'. The

researcher has measured the disparity between these castes. The researcher

dealt with the socio-economic status of castes of Scheduled Castes. The social

indicators like 'Education', 'Family', 'Housing Condition', 'Sanitation' etc.

have been used as the determinants of the social status and the ' Land' ,

'Income', 'Occupation' etc. have been used as the determinants of the

economic status. The researcher has selected rural area of 'Kolhapur' District

in 'Maharashtra' State. The title of the research topic is. "The Socio-

Economic Status of ScheQuled Castes : A Comparative Study (With Special

Reference to Kolhapur District)".

1.2 Definitions

.,. 1.2.1 The researcher has used different terminologies, which are to be

defined clearly in order to make sound analysis. The definitions or the

meanings have been given with reference to the anthropologists, sociologists

and economists. The terminologies or concepts, which are important in the

relevance of the study and not used commonly, have been defined here. The

researcher has neglected the most common terminologies or concepts, which

need not be defined.

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1.2.2 Definitions

1.2.2.1 Caste: The word 'caste' is of Spanish and Portuguese origin. 'Casta'

means lineage or race, it is derix.ed from the Latin word 'eastus', which means

pure 24. Ketkar S.Y. (1909) defines as, "A Caste is a social group having two

characteristics; one, membership is confined to those who are born of

members and includes all persons so born and two, the members are forbidden

by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group" 25.

Kroeber AC. (1950) 26, Morris Opler (1950) 27, Ghurye (1957) 28

,Boungle (1958) 29, Bailey (1960) 30, Srinivas M.N (1962) 31 , Theodorson

(1969) 32 and other scholars also have defined, the 'caste'. (For details see

Chapter No. III)

1.2.2.2 Sub-caste: Ketkar S.Y. (1909) has thrown light on 'sub-caste'.

According to the author, "the word caste and sub-caste are not absolute but

comparative in signification. The larger group will be called as castes, while

smaller group will be called as sub-castes" 33 .

1.2.2.3 Scheduled Castes: The 'Simon Commission' in 1935 first coined the

term 'Scheduled Castes'. All the untouchable castes, which were listed in

1931-Census of India, came to be known as the 'Scheduled Castes' through

the Government of India Act of 1935. The Scheduled Castes means, such

castes, races, Tribes or parts or groups within such castes, races or tribes,

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deemed under article 341 tO,be Scheduled Castes (SCs) for the purpose of this

Constitution 34.

1.2.2.4 Family: A family is a basic kinship unit in its minimal form

consisting of a husband,. wife and children. ®ts widest sense it refers to all )

the relatives living together or recognized as a social unit including adopted

person 35.

1.2.2.5 Agricultural Land:, The land, which is generally used to agricultural

purposes and partly for allied activities. 36

1.2.2.6 Farmers: The department of agriculture (Maharashtra) (1993) has

classified or defined the farmers into five categories.

Marginal farmers: Having a land less than 1 Hect.

Small Farmers: Betweeu 1.1 to 2 Hects.

Semi-medium farmers: Between 2.1 to 4 Hects.

Medium farmers: Between 4.1 to 10 Hects.

Large farmers: Having a land Above 10 Heets.

1.2.2.7 Classification of Main workers (Agriculture)

1.2.2.7.1 Cultivators: Includes both owner and tenant cultivator

1.2.2.7.2 Agricultural Labourers: All the persons who are working land as

labourers on wage without holding any right upon the land.

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I 1.2.2.7.3 Landless Labourers: All those who "not possess any landholding.

1.2.2.8 Household: A household is usually a group of person who normally

live together and take· their meals from a common kitchen unless the

exigencies of work prevent any of them from doing so 37.

1.2.2.9 Head of Household : The head of household is a person who is

recognized as such by the household. He or She is generally the person who

bears the chief responsibility for managing the affairs of the household and

takes decision on behalf of the household 38.

1.2.2.10 Literacy: The ability to read and write in a language. The 'functional

Literacy' is an attempt to identifY minimum levels of reading/writing

efficiency in a society as reaqing newspapers, sign boards etc.39.

1.2.2.11 Occupation: A set of activities centered on an economic role and

usually associated with earning a living. An occupation is a social role that

determined by the general division of labour within the society 40.

1.2.2.12 Rural Area: Census of India-2001 explains the meaning of rural

area by defining the urban area 41. According to it, the Urban area means-

a) All places with Municipality, Corporation, Cantonment

Boards or notified town area committee.

(

\ \

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b) A place satisfying the following three criteria

simultaneously

1. a minimum population of 5000.

ll. at least 75 per cent of male working population

engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. of" .

111. ,A density of population of at least 400 per sq.

km.

A place, which does not include any of above, is rural area.

1.2.2.13 Social Class: A large category of people within a system of social

stratification who have a similar socio-economic status in relation to other

segments of their community or society 42.

1.2.2.14 Social Distance: A feeling of separation or actual social separation

b . d··d I 43 etween 10 IVl ua or groups .

1.2.2.14.1 Horizontal Social Distance: Social distance between persons or

groups with social status of equal rank.

1.2.2.14.2 Vertical Social Distance: Social distance between persons or

groups of unequal status level. of"

~'1 1.2.2.15 Stat!JS: The 'Status' has been defined ~many scholars in different

---ways but the meaning of all the definitions is more or less same.

'y

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Linton Ralph (1936) says that, 'status is primarily a position in a social

structure involving rights, duties and reciprocal expectations ofbehaviour'44.

Horton Paul & Hunt Chester (1972) defines as, ' the status is usually

defined as the rank or position of an individual in a group or of a group in

relation to other· groups'. The authors further have argued that, there are two

types of 'status', one is, 'Ascribed Status' and two is, 'Achieved Status.' --_ .. _---_ .. --- ...-----

Ascribed status is that, 'which comes from birth in the society, irrespective of

individual qualities or efforts.' And Achieved Status is that, which is secured

through one's ability, performance, good fortune etc.45 .

Weber Max (1978) says that, 'Status, Class or Income and Political

power are the three major dimensions of social stratification 46.

Sharma B.B. (1992) argues that, "status is a defined position in the

social structure of a society that is distinguished from others" 47.

1.2.2.16.1 Social Status: According to Hurst Charles (1998), "Social status

refers to an individual's rCJTIking with respect to some socially important

characteristics. For example; one's family, the street where he lives, race,

education etc." 48.

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1.2.2.16.2 Economic Status: "Economic status refers to an individual's

ranking with respect to some economically important characterstics, which

includes income, standard of living, occupation and wealth" 49 .

1.2.2.16.3 Socio-economic Status: Is a person's position on several

continuous social and economic hierarchies such as education, income,

. al h 50 occupation, we t etc .

1.3 Significance of the Study:

The study dealt with the socio-economic status of Scheduled Castes.

One basic contribution of this study is that, it is analyzing the comparative

position of castes of Scheduled Castes. In 'Maharashtra' there are 59 identified

castes as Scheduled Castes 51. 'Mahar' caste of Scheduled Caste is dominating

in terms of population compared to other castes of Scheduled Castes. 'Mang',

'Chambhar' castes are followed by it. According to 1931 Census Report,

'Mahar' caste was contributing 68.3 per cent, 'Chambhar' and 'Mang' caste

was contributing each 13.9 per cent of the Scheduled Castes population in

Maharashtra. As an aggregate analysis, these three major castes were

contributing about 96.1 per cent of the Scheduled Castes and rest of the

castes of Scheduled Castes were contri~uting negligible share in terms of

52 - . population . Many scholars have analysed the Scheduled Castes as a whole.

[See Khan Mumtaz Ali (1980), Shah Ghanshyam (1982), Pimpley & Sharma of"

(1985) and others] But so far comparative position of 'Castes' of Scheduled

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Castes has not been analysed except few, which were conducted long back.

[See Bhagat (1935) 53and Bhatt Vamanrai A. (1941)54] Some scholars have

considered 'Mahar' as analyzing group, but this group has not been compared

with other castes of its own group. [See Kothari Rajani (1972)] 55 However in

the contemporary period, the comparative status among the dominating castes .,. ,

of Scheduled Castes has not been analysed. The researcher dealt with the

comparative status analysis of selective dominant castes of Scheduled Castes

hence, the study has got valid significance. Scheduled Castes and Non-

Scheduled Castes , these two groups are socially & economically different

than each other and hence these can be compared and conclusions can be

drawn. But comparing t~e castes of its own group i. e. Scheduled Castes is

interesting. The researcher has analysed the socio-economic status of castes of

Scheduled Castes. While analyzi,ng the study, the researcher has used different

social and economic indicators, which have been recommended by

sociologists and economists. Kahl J. A. & Davis James (1959) have

recommended as the best measurable indicators of socio-economic status as,

Occupation, Education, Source of Income, Amount of Income, Dwelling area

and House type 56. The researcher has used these indicators and some other

important socio-economic indicators, which are helpful in determining the

socio-economic status of castes of Scheduled Castes. Hence the present study

is important in the contemporary position of the society.

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1.4 Relevance of Study :

The researcher has' analysed the socio-economic status of selected

dominant castes of Scheduled . Castes with reference to the rural area of

Kolhapur District (Maharashtra State) The researcher has given the clear

picture of status differences in the castes of Scheduled Castes of the selected

region on the basis of different socio-economic indicators. However the study

is relevant to all the regions of Maharashtra, since the composition of castes of

Scheduled Castes in all parts of Maharashtra is more or less same. Hence the

conclusions drawn through the present analysis can be applicable anywhere in

Maharashtra. Above all, in those regions of India, where the caste composition

is more or less similar to the existed composition of selected region, the study

can be applicable. Howe~er, even the caste composition may be different in

some parts of India, but the theme of the conclusion can be found similar in all

parts of India. Hence the present study is very relevant and can be generalised.

1.5 The researcher dealt with the socio-economic status of Scheduled Castes.

It is a comparative analysis of'" the Castes of Scheduled Castes. The details

about the review of literature and research methodology have been given in

the next chapter. (Chapter II)

References:

I

1. Indradev Shriramiin Sharma K. L. (ed.) (1995), , Social inequalitY in India', Rawat Publication, New Delhi. P. 13

2. Beteille Andre (1996), ' Caste, Class and Power', Oxford University Press, Delhi. ~.191

3. Indian Statutory Commission (1930), p.3568

·4. Panikkar K.M. (1955), ' Hindu Society at the Crossroads' Asia Publishing House, ~ombay. , p. 121

5. Kamble N. D. (1982), ' The Scheduled Castes', Ashish Publishing house, New Delhi. pp. 8-9

6. Ibid. p. 20

7. Ibid. p.30

8. Khan Mumtaz Ali (1980), ' Scheduled Castes and Their Status in India', Uppal Publishing House, New Delhi. pp.2-5 /

9. Harold Issac (196~) , 'India's Ex-untouchables' Asia Publishing House, Bombay. p.35

10. Kamble N. D. (1982) op.cit. p.31

16

[Also see , Singh and Malik (2001), 'Socio-economic Development of Scheduled Castes in India' Aalekh Publishers, Jaipur. p.2 ,

II. Ibid.

12.' Ghurye (1961), ' Caste, Class and Occupation', Popular Prakashan, Bombay. p.190

13. Pimpleyand Sharma (1985) , ' Struggle for Status', B. R Publishing Corp. New Delhi. pp.126-150

14. Ghurye (1961) op.cit. p.202

15. Singh and Malik (2001), 'Socio-Economic Development of Scheduled Castes in India', Alekh Publishers, Jaipur. pp.7-9

16. Ghurye (1961) op. cit. p.209 ,

17. Kamble 1. R (1979), ' Rise and Awakening of Depressed Classes in India', National publishing House, New Delhi. pp.3-ll

18. Myrdal Gunnar (1968) , ' Asian Drama', Vol. II

19. Five Year Plan (2Q02-2007), Vol. II, Planning Commission, Government ofindia, P. 405

20. Ibid. p.419 ..

21. Ibid. p.405

22. Ibid. p. 405

23 .. Ibid. pp. 405-406 ~

24. Ketkar S.Y. (1909); [reprinted in 1979], 'History of caste in India' A venture of Low Price Publication. p. 12

25. Ibid. pp.15-16

26. Kroeber AL. (1950), 'Caste' in Edwin, Seligman et.al (1950) (ed.), 'Encyclopedia of Social Sciences', Mac Millan Co., New York. pp.254-257

27. Morris Opler (1950) op. cit. p.284.

I

28. Ghurye(1961), ' Caste, Class and Occupation', Popular Prakashan, Bombay. pp.2-19

17

29. Boungle C. (1958), 'The Essence and the Reality of the Caste System' in Contribution to Sociology p.9

30. Bailey (1960), 'Tribe, Caste and Nation', Manchester University, Manchester.

31. Srinivas M.N (1962), , Caste in Modem India and other Essays', Media Publishers, -Mumbai.

32. Theodorson & Theodorson (1969), , A Modem Dictionary of Sociology', Methuen & Co. Ltd. Publication. p.38 ..

33. Ketkar S.V. ( 1909) lOp. cit. p. 15

34. See a) Kamble N. D. (1982), 'The Scheduled Castes', Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. and

b) Harold Issac (1965) c) The Consti~ution Scheduled Castes Order-1950 ..

35. Theodorson & Theodorson (1969), Op. cit. p.41

36. Environmental Statistics (1999), Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, Government ofIndia Publication, New Delhi. p.

37. Census ofIndia-200I' op. cit. p.77

38. Ibid. p.77

39. Crystal David (1990), ' The Cambridge Encyclopedia' , Cambridge University Press. p.71O.

40. Theodorson & Theodorson (1969), Op. cit. p. 280

41. Census ofIndia-2001 Op. cit. p.73.

42. Crystal David (1990), Op. cit. p. 384

43. Crystal David (1990), Op. cit. p.384.

44. Linton Ralph (1936),,' The Study of Man', in Kuper & Kuper (1985), 'The Social Science Encyclopedia' p. 826

45. Horton Paul & Hunt Chester (1972), ' Sociology', McGraw Hill, p.l05

46. Weber Max (1978), 'Economy and Society'

47. Sharma B.B. (1992), ' Encyclopedia Dictionary of Sociology' , Vol. 4 p.952

48. Hurst Charles (1998) (reprinted), 'Social inequality', Allyn & Bacon Co. London, p.36

49. Ibid. p. 16

50. Ibid. p. 394

51.. District Census Handbook-1991 (Kolhapur)

52. Bhatt Vamanrai A. (1941), 'The Harijans of Maharashtra' , published by Thakkar A.V., Harijan Sevak Sangh, Delhi.

53. Bhagat (1935), 'The untouchable Classes ofMaharashtra', Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. IV, Part I,July, 1935, Republished by_Bhagat M.G.(1935), School of Economics & Sociology, University of Bombay, Bombay.

18

54. Bhatt Vamanrai A. (1941) op. cit.

55. Kothari Rajani (1972), 'Introduction: Caste in Indian Politics' in Kothari Rajani (ed.), 'Caste in Indian Politics', Orient Longman, New Delhi. .

56. Kahl 1. A. & D~vis James in Packard Vance (1959), 'The Status Seekers', Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd., London.

19