introduction to tracer hydrology - ocw.un-ihe.org · pdf file(some ppt slides and pictures)...
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Engineering Hydrology
for the Masters Programme
Water Science and Engineering
3 Evaporation
Prof. Dr. Stefan Uhlenbrook Professor of Hydrology
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
Westvest 7
2611 AX Delft
The Netherlands
E-mail: [email protected]
Acknowledgements
for the material used in this lecture
• Dr. Pieter de Laat, prof. Huub Savenije, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, The Netherlands (wrote the course note; some pictures)
• Prof. Tim Link, Idaho, USA (some PPT slides and pictures)
• Prof. Chris Leibundgut, University of Freiburg (some PPT slides and pictures)
Evaporation - Basics
• Huge energy transfer to the atmosphere (latent heat); condensation generates sensible heat
• Often estimated by solving the water balance (uncertain!)
• Very important variable of water balance, as worldwide about 75% of continental precipitation evaporates; in Europe 60% - 85%
• Most difficult variable to estimate for a whole catchment including its space-time variability
• Good estimations are needed for water balance studies, water resources assessments, effective agriculture and forestry, ecology etc.
• Sensitive to global changes: Climate change, deforestation, urbanisation, change of CO2 in atmosphere etc.
Consumptive water use by terrestrial ecosystems as seen in a global perspective
(Falkenmark in SIWI Seminar 2001).
percentages
Some Global Estimates Blue-Green
Water Flows
Objectives of this Lecture
• Coupled Water-Energy Balance
• Processes of evaporation
• Measurement of evaporation
• Estimation of evaporation
Exoatmospheric Radiation: ~1376 W m-2
~50% to 95% of radiation reaches the surface
Incoming Solar Radiation
(Solar constant;
not really constant!)
Radiation Balance (simplified!)
nLsN RR r1R
Net radiation RN : (neglecting storage of heat below the surface)
What will happen ?
Lake Desert
Earth’s Energy Budget Coupled Energy and Water Cycle
Surface Energy Balance
Incoming Energy = Outgoing Energy + D Storage per time step
Rn = lvE + H + G + DS/Dt
Rn: Net radiation
lE: Latent heat (= evapotranspiration; Etotal)
H: Sensible heat
G: Soil heat flux
DS/Dt: Change in storage
Assuming G and DS/Dt to be negligible: Rn = lE + H
Coupled Water-Energy Balance
• Watershed mass-balance P = Q + E + DS/Dt Know this!!
• Surface energy-balance Rn = H + lvE + G + DS/Dt Know this!!
Net Solar Radiation (Snet)
Snet = Sin – Sout
Sout = Sin (a)
Snet = Sin(1 – a)
Albedo (a) is the reflection coefficient (a := Sout / Sin )
Sin Sout
Snet
a
Typical Albedo Values
Surface Albedo (%)
Water 5-10
Dry soil 20-35
Wet soil 8-15
Grass 15-30
Dense spruce forest 5-10
Mixed conifer/hardwood 10-15
Hardwoods 15-20
Fresh snow 80-95
Old snow 40-70
Objectives of this Lecture
• Coupled Water-Energy Balance
• Processes of evaporation
• Measurement of evaporation
• Estimation of evaporation
Evaporation and
Transpiration
Processes
• Free-water evaporation
– Open water surfaces • Lakes, rivers, vegetation
surfaces (interception), soil surface
• Transpiration • Roots Stem Leaves Stomata Atmosphere
Symbols and Terminology (all values in mm per time step)
Evaporation E0 : open water evaporation (often the reference E)
Es : evaporation from soil
EI : interception evaporation
Transpiration ET : transpiration of living plants (and animals/humans)
Evapotranspiration := sum of all E-fluxes Epot : potential evapotranspiration (no moisture shortage)
Eact : actual evapotranspiration (can be lower than Epot
depending on moisture availability)
Free Water Evaporation
• Lakes, soil, saturated canopy - function of: – Available Energy
– Vapor Gradient
– Atmospheric Conductance
– Albedo
• Transpiration – additional function of: – Stomatal conductance
A note about resistance (R)
and conductance (C):
inverse quantities!
CR
1
Transpiration Process by which water vapor escapes
from living plants and enters the atmosphere
It includes water which has transpired
through leaf stomata
Very Difficult to Measure
Usually Lumped in with Total Evaporation
“Evapotranspiration” but “Total Evaporation” is the preferred term
Transpiration Process Consider the structure of a leaf
Epidermis
Epidermis
Cuticle
Cuticle
Mesophyll
Stomatal Pore
High Vapor Pressure
Low Vapor Pressure
Water vapor exits
when pore is open to let
carbon in (photosynthesis)
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Resistance Analogs
Open Water Leaf
RH=100%
RH=100%
RH<100% RH<100%
Atmospheric
Conductance
Atmospheric
Conductance
Stomatal
Conductance
Relative
humidity
Evaporation from Soil
• If saturated, behaves like water – Depending on solar energy and vapor pressure of air
– Occurs normally for 1 to 3 days max • Depending on weather and soil conditions and characteristics
• If surface not saturated: – Evaporation in soil profile
– Air in soil pores ~es
0%
100%
Evap. ra
te
Bare Soil
Soil w/ Litter
0 5 10 15 Time (days)
Comparison of forested and deforested
areas Average annual water balances in forested and deforested areas in %
(Baumgartner, 1972). P = Precipitation Etotal = ES + EI + ET R = Runoff ES = Soil evaporation EI = Interception evaporation ET = Transpiration
P Etotal R
Expressed in % of Etotal
ES EI ET
Forests 100 52 48 29 26 45
Open
land
100 42 58 62 15 23
(from lecture notes, De Laat & Savenije 2008)
Energieflüsse
Challenges for understanding and
estimating TRANSPIRATION
• Very different for different plants
• Density and geometry of stomata and canopy
• Stomatal mechanics are bio-chemically controlled
• Environmental feedbacks: – Solar irradiance
– Air temperature
– Vapor pressure deficit
– Soil moisture
– CO2 in the atmosphere
• ETC!!
Evapotranspiration (ET) combination of Evaporation and Transpiration
• Potential (PET): A theoretical rate of ET when all surfaces have unlimited water supply
– Depends on surface albedo (% of energy reflected) and other meteorological parameters as well as the vegetation
• Actual (AET): The true rate of ET, of most interest to water managers
– Depends on plant, soil, and soil water properties and soil water availability
• Often done in practice: estimate PET for a defined land use and adjust with a crop coefficient (k)
• Consumptive use: mainly an irrigation term describing the “actual” (seasonal) consumption
Some PET and AET values
• PET from open water – Tropical regions 1500–3000 mm/a
– Mediterranean area 1000–1500 mm/a
– Humid temperate area 550–800 mm/a
– Cold humid or mountainous 300 mm/a or less
(in mm/a)
Comparison Eact (= AET) and Epot (= PET)
for cropped surface vs. bare soil
Fig. 3.1 Relative evapo(transpi)ration from an initially wet
(bare and cropped) surface during a rainless period.
Estimation of ET using crop factors
• In various handbooks crop factors kc are tabulated in relation to a particular ETref . The reference evaporation is often taken as the evaporation of an open water surface, Eo neglecting the storage of heat. In The Netherlands potential evapotranspiration of grass may then be estimated from
• This shows that the crop coefficient, kc is time-variant. FAO defines ETref as the potential evapotranspiration of short grass. It has to be noted that a different definition of ETref results in a different set of crop factors.
refcpot ET kET
period summer the for E 8.0ET opot
period winterthe for E 7.0ET opot
Terminology and Processes
Some Terminology
• Interception: The process by which precipitation falls on vegetative surfaces and is stored there.
• Gross rainfall (R): The rainfall measured above canopy or in open areas.
• Direct Throughfall (Rd): Proportion of rainfall that passes through the canopy without being detained (“free throughfall”).
• Canopy Throughfall (Rc): Proportion of rainfall that contacts the canopy before reaching the ground; can have different chemistry than Rd.
• Stemflow (Rs): The water that reaches the ground surface by running down trunks and stems; can have different chemistry than Rd.
• Net Throughfall (Rt): The rainfall that reaches the ground surface directly through canopy spaces, by canopy drip, and stemflow.
Terminology continued…
• Canopy Interception Loss (Ec): Water that evaporates from the canopy.
• Litter Interception Loss (El): Water that evaporates from debris and litter (in forests often 0.02 to 0.05R).
• Total Interception Loss (E): canopy + litter evaporation
Canopy Characteristics
• Storage Capacity (S): The depth of water that can be detained on a plant surface [0.5 – 5.0 mm, higher for conifers (up to 8 mm) or for solid precipitation (up to >25 mm)].
• Direct Throughfall Coefficient (p): Rd = R * p
• Drainage Coefficient (b): Proceeds at exponential rate relative to canopy saturation and reaches maximum (S).
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Storm Size (mm)
Th
rou
gh
fall %
Ridge-top stand
Gum Springs watershed
Through fall as % of Storm Precipitation
Oak-Hickory Stands in Missouri Ozark
Jewitt, 2008
INTERCEPTION
• The initial processes that affect precipitation prior to ponding
and infiltration.
Interception represents a hydrologic “loss”
to the system (But, is loss the right word??)
• 10% - 40% of gross rainfall annually!
• Can have large seasonal variations
• Much more variable over short-term periods (event time scale) <0% to ~100%
• Highly dependent on rainfall frequency
• Negative interception ?! Fog/cloud interception and condensation can be significant
• Reduces rainfall intensity, but can increase it locally (channelizing of throughfall’) and, thus, can increase erosion
• Significant water storage (and loss) in snow-dominated systems
• Voluminous quantities of literature are available
• Interception reduces transpiration
Evap rate > transpiration in forests with large interception
Evap rate ~ almost transpiration (or less) in grasslands
Why? (Higher interception in forests compared to grassland)
• Throughfall chemistry
Dry deposition, thus increase of SO4, NO3, Cl, Ca, K, etc.
Leaching from leaves (mainly organic C)
• Effects on other biological processes
Epidemiology of fungal pathogens
Duration of leaf wetness key, but difficult to measure
Significant heterogeneity of wetting/drying within canopies
Interception represents a hydrologic
“loss” to the system (plan-soil-water system)
INTERCEPTION - VEGETATION CHARACTERISTICS
Interception capacity is a function of
Growth form: trees, shrubs, grasses
• coniferous trees intercept 25-35% of annual precipitation
• deciduous trees intercept 15-25% of annual precipitation, but just as
much as coniferous trees during the growing season
• grasses have high interception capacity during the growing but then
either die (annual plants) or lose mass (perennial plants); also they
are grazed and harvested (spring wheat intercepts 11-19% of
precipitation before harvest)
Jewitt, 2008
Brief Note on
Stemflow
• Stemflow, Rs, is generally low
• Conifers: <1% of gross precipitation
• Smooth barked trees: up to 5% gross precipitation; depends on geometry and structure of canopy etc.
• May play important role in nutrient delivery
• Big pain to measure, relative to canopy interception
(from A. Rodhe, Sweden)
Objectives of this Lecture
• Coupled Water-Energy Balance
• Processes of evaporation
• Measurement of evaporation
• Estimation of evaporation
Measuring Etotal
• Water Balance – Measure precipitation and streamflow (ignoring dS/dt !!)
E = P – R
– Examples: Precipitation in a catchment is 1000 mm/a, water yield is 600 mm/a, so E is 400 mm/a; ignoring storage changes (note, accumulation of errors!!)
• Micro-meteorological measurements
• Evaporation Pan – Measure daily rate of water drop in tank
– Estimate: E = kp x Epan
(determining pan coefficient kp is difficult)
• Lysimeters: Buried tanks growing with plants
– Measure precipitation in and drainage out
– and/or weigh tank
Evaporation pan: Class A pan
Evaporation pan: Class A pan
Class A pan
Class A pan
(Picture from Prof. Peter Troch)
Measuring evaporation of a lake
Estimation of evporation using a
Class A pan (simple example)
In a floating class A plan the water height at day one was at 6 AM
is 210 mm, and at the next morning (also at 6 AM) the water level
was estimated to a depth of 220 mm. During that day a
precipitation event of 15 mm occured. What was the evaporation?
mm/d 5E
mm/d 10mm/d 15E
ΔhPE w
Note: To calculate the evaporation from a Class A pan located on
the land surface, the pan coefficient needs to be considered (‘oasis
effect’).
panpanref EkE The coefficient varies between 0.35 and 0.85 depending on time
scale (day, month, or year), climate, soils etc.
Weight according
to Wild
Piche-Evaporimeter
Lysimeter Set-up
Fig. 3.7 Lysimeter with controlled water table
Excellent measurement of real E, in
particular if a weighted lysimeter is used
But,
Point measurement and regionalisation to
catchment scale is difficult
Soil column often not undisturbed (not
natural)
High experimental effort; costly in particular
for weighted lysimeters (the most useful
type!)
Lysimeter: pros and cons
Estimation of ET using a lysimeter
The only real measurement of ET from land!
Ea: Actual/real ET [mm d-1]
Po: Precipitation at the ground [mm]
percsoil: Percolation out of the soil column [mm]
DSsoil: Change of soil water content during
time step Dt [mm]
Dt: time step [d]
Δt
ΔSpercPEa
soilsoilo
The following variables were measured within 24
hours (7 AM – 7 AM): Precipitation 10 mm,
percolation 1 mm, and change of soil water content 3
mm (increase of soil water).
mm/d 6 Ea
1d
mm 3mm 1mm 10Ea
Δt
ΔSpercPEa
soilsoilo
Estimation of ET using a lysimeter
(a simple example)
Measurement of
through fall
Throughfall
Measurement
Measurement of
stem flow
Stemflow Measurement
Objectives of this Lecture
• Coupled Water-Energy Balance
• Processes of evaporation
• Measurement of evaporation
• Estimation of evaporation
Evaporation Estimation
Depends on:
Climate
1. Net radiation (atmosphere, albedo, exposition, topography etc.); energy is the most important parameter
2. VPD (relative humidity)
3. Temperature (more correctly temperature on evaporating surface: soil, water surface, or leaf)
4. Wind speed, transporting saturated air masses away
5. Soil water status/supply (moisture storage capacity)
Vegetation Characteristics
6. Height, canopy, roughness (atmos. conductance)
7. Species, age (stomatal conductance) • Response to environmental variables
Estimating Evaporation Some examples for widely used formulae
• Thornthwaite – PET of grass cover
– Uses Ta, heat index
• SCS Blaney-Criddle – Uses Ta, day length, crop and geographical coefficients
• Jensen-Haise – Uses T, Sin, VP, elevation
• …. there are many, many more empirical formulae (see text books or course note)!
• Penman-Monteith (most physically based approach) – Often used to calculate reference vegetation ET
– Uses climate and vegetation characteristics
– Widely accepted to be appropriate for different land uses
– Has many parameters, thus needs many observations
Example: Results of the application of the
Thornthwaite formula (for details see lecture notes)
Mansoura, Egypt
Tn J EP Dn Nn E E oC (-) mm/month d hr mm/month mm/d
Jan 13.3 4.4 26.4 31.0 10.4 23.7 0.8
Feb 14.0 4.8 30.1 28.0 11.1 26.0 0.9
Mar 16.3 6.0 42.7 31.0 12.0 44.2 1.4
Apr 19.6 7.9 66.0 30.0 12.9 71.0 2.4
May 24.4 11.0 111.2 31.0 13.6 130.2 4.2
Jun 26.1 12.2 130.2 30.0 14.0 151.9 5.1
Jul 26.6 12.5 135.6 31.0 13.9 162.3 5.2
Aug 27.0 12.8 141.1 31.0 13.2 160.3 5.2
Sep 25.8 12.0 126.2 30.0 12.4 130.4 4.3
Oct 22.9 10.0 95.8 31.0 12.0 98.9 3.2
Nov 19.9 8.1 68.8 30.0 10.6 60.8 2.0
Dec 15.2 5.4 36.5 31.0 10.8 34.0 1.1
J = 107.0, a = 2.4 Average = 3.0
Table 3.6 Example computation of ETTHORN
Comparison of different empirical
methods to estimate evaporation
Eo open water evaporation in mm/d
C Conversion constant
RN net radiation at the earth surface in W/m2
L latent heat of vaporization (L = 2.45*106 J/kg)
s slope of the temperature-saturation vapour pressure curve
(kPa/K)
es saturation vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
ed actual vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
γ psychrometric constant (γ = 0.067 kPa/K)
cp specific heat of air (cp = 1004 J/kg/K)
ρa air density (ρa = 1.2047 kg/m3 at sea level)
ra aerodynamic resistance (s/m), which is function of windspeed U2
s
r/eecsR
L
CE
adsapN
o
5.0U 54.0
245r
2
a
Open water evaporation: Equation of Penman
Required meteorological data (24 hour means at 2 m height):
Ta temperature of the air
RH relative humidity or actual vapour pressure
U2 windspeed
n/N relative sunshine duration or radiation
s
r/eecsR
L
CE
adsapN
o
Open water evaporation:
Equation of Penman
Evapotranspiration ET
Penman - Monteith equation
ra aerodynamic resistance (s/m)
rc crop resistance (s/m)
For a soil amply supplied with water rc reaches a minimum value and
Eact = Epot
Example aerodynamic resistance of grass:
Minimum value crop resistance grass
(crop well supplied with water)
rc = 70 s m-1
ac
adsapN
rr1 s
r/eecsR
L
CET
2
aU
208r
• Standard for estimating potential evapotranspiration (FAO).
• Suitable to directly estimate potential evapotranspiration, if the crop resistance is known (the one-step method), but it may also be used for estimating the reference crop evaporation in the two-step method.
• Definition of the reference crop:
The reference evapotranspiration, ETref, is defined as the rate of evapotranspiration from a hypothetical crop with an assumed crop height (12 cm) and a fixed canopy resistance (rc = 70 s.m-1) and albedo (r = 0.23) which would closely resemble evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water. With crop coefficients this ETref can be adjusted for other land uses.
Penman-Monteith Equation
Modelling total Eact using the Penman-Monteith
approach in a mountainous catchment (Ott and Uhlenbrook, 2004, HESS)
Modelling of Eact on a hourly base at a sunny
summer day
(Ott, Uhlenbrook 2004, HESS)
Mean annual PET for grass for Germany (German Hydrological Atlas)
Input parameters:
• sunshine duration
• air temperature
Calculated for every raster
cell on monthly basis and
summed up.
Min: in elevated areas (pre-
alpine and alpine mountains) =
350-400 mm a-1
Max: Upper Rhine valley =
>650 mm a-1
Difficulties to estimate areal ET
Irrigation
Land use change – Deforestation
Land use and land use change – Urbanisation
Land use – Intensive Agricultural Production
Take Home Messages • Coupled water-energy balance; evaporation is the
link!
• Differentiate between the processes/variables: Etotal, ES, EI, ET, ET, ETref, ETact, ETpot and different rainfall components in vegetated areas
• Note, importance and effects of interception
• Measurement of evaporation is difficult (i.e. different devices and techniques)
• Penman/Penman-Monteith equation is most accurate method to estimate evaporation (but needs a lot of input data …); it is a physically based method
• Areal estimation (space time variability!) of evaporation is even more difficult (i.e. different methods)
A note on units …
• Heat Fluxes are expressed in units of:
E L-2 T-1 (e.g. J m-2 s-1)
-or-
Energy per unit area per unit time (e.g. W m-2)
-or-
Power per unit area
The SI unit of Power is the Watt (W)
The SI unit of Energy is the Joule (J)
note: 1J = 1W x 1s