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J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 43 (2012) S1–S3

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Journal of Behavior Therapy andExperimental Psychiatry

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Editorial

Introduction to the special issue autobiographical memory and psychopathology

Sometimes, when attempting to retrieve a specific memory ofan event from one’s life, abstract ideas, summarized events oreven no event at all come into mind. If this happens repeatedly, itis called overgeneral memory (OGM). OGM describes difficultiesthat individuals havewhen attempting to retrieve a particular auto-biographical life event in response to a cue. Thus, instead ofresponding with one specific event (i.e., to the cue “happy” with“the day when I passed my final exam”) the response circumscribesa group of events (i.e., “always when I succeed in something”). Thephenomenon of overgeneral autobiographical memory retrievalhas been extensively investigated over the past decades ever sinceits preliminary observance in a group of suicidal patients byWilliams and Broadbent (1986). In most studies the autobiograph-ical memory test (AMT) as developed by Williams and Broadbentwas applied. OGMhas always been discussed and seen as a potentialcorrelate of psychopathological processes and, similarly, as a poten-tial means of affect regulation in clinical as well as in healthysamples. A comprehensive review (Williams et al., 2007) integratedthe complex literature and theoretical explanations related to OGMin one model. Here, three main processes are postulated to explainOGM: (1) capture and rumination (CaR), (2) functional avoidance(FA) and (3) executive control dysfunction (X).

One robust finding in this area of research is the associationbetween OGM and symptoms of mood disorders, in particularMajor Depression Disorder (for a recent review see Sumner,Griffith, &Mineka, 2010). Secondly, OGMhas been found in connec-tion with presence of both trauma history and posttraumatic stress(PTSD) symptoms over and above presence of co-morbid depres-sive symptoms (Brennen et al., 2010; Kuyken, Howell, &Dalgleish, 2006; McNally, Lasko, Macklin, & Pitman, 1995;McNally, Litz, Prassas, & Shin, 1994; Wessel, Meeren, Peeters,Arntz, & Merckelbach, 2001; for a review see also Moore &Zoellner, 2007). For both disorders OGM has not only been shownto be a correlate, but also a predictor of symptoms (Bryant,Sutherland, & Guthrie, 2007; Kleim & Ehlers, 2008; Stokes,Dritschel, & Bekerian, 2004) or a predictor of recovery of symptoms(Nandrino, Pezard, Poste, Reveillere, & Beaune, 2002; Scotti, Beach,Northrop, Rode, & Forsyth, 1995). Interestingly, OGM seems not tobe present in anxiety disorders (i.e., Wenzel, Jackson, Brendle, &Pinna, 2003), and its role in several other disorders is yet unclear(i.e., schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder; Arntz,Meeren, & Wessel, 2002; Renneberg, Theobald, Nobs, & Weisbrod,2005; Spinhoven, Bamelis, Molendijk, Haringsma, & Arntz, 2009;Taylor, Gooding, Wood, & Tarrier, 2010). As mentioned above, onehypothesized role of OGM is (dys)functional avoidance by remain-ing within an abstract level of retrieval; in the sense that more

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intensive emotional reactions that usually accompany specificmemories and thus vivid mental images can be avoided(Hermans, Defranc, Raes, Williams, & Eelen, 2005; Raes, Hermans,Williams, Geypen, & Eelen, 2006). Such avoidance is supposed toallow maintenance of concurrent task performance in the shortterm but possibly results in clinical psychological symptoms inthe long run. Whether avoidance is functional or dysfunctional,however, is still insufficiently understood. Finally, by assuminga hierarchical and effortful retrieval process in intentional autobio-graphical remembering, retrieving a particular specific event at theend point of a search process might be hampered by diminishedexecutive control capacity. Cognitive processes that may be closelylinked to both avoidance and reduced executive functioning arerumination and thought suppression. Accordingly, the associationbetween rumination and OGM is a robust finding (Watkins &Teasdale, 2001, 2004). Being captured and abstract in one’s thinkingalso seems to be problematic when trying to find functional andconcrete solutions to future problems. OGM thus has been hypoth-esized to be a contributor to suicidal tendencies (Williams,Barnhofer, Crane, & Beck, 2005). Furthermore, the associationbetween OGM and restricted problem solving abilities as well asthe ability to imagine the future has been shown (Evans,Williams, O’Loughlin, & Howells, 1992; Goddard, Dritschel, &Burton, 1997).

The importance of OGM is reflected in an extensive body ofresearch, aiming at furthering our understanding of this phenom-enon in healthy and psychopathological samples. The presentspecial issue comprises several studies which mirror the breadthof OGM-related research topics and current open research ques-tions. Therefore, some of the included studies extend to the areaof adjacent cognitive (i.e., memory) processes whereas otherstudies attempt to take a new perspective on previous results.

Given the long tradition of research in this field, the task condi-tions under which OGM has first been found have undergone crit-icism, changes and specifications and constitute a theoreticalquestion on its own. Most studies use the autobiographicalmemory test (AMT) as originally employed by Williams andBroadbent (1986); see also Brittlebank, Scott, Williams, andFerrier, (1993). However, the way the AMT is applied varies andthe role that these methodological issues play have often beenemphasized and yet insufficiently been investigated.

The paper by Griffith et al. (in this issue) is devoted to this partic-ular topic and addresses relevant questions in this area. Starting offby briefly discussing several methods of investigating OGM andadjacent topics, the authors then turn towards methodologicalaspects of the AMT. They conclude that the test is indeed a robust

Editorial / J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 43 (2012) S1–S3S2

and recommendable method in order to investigate autobiograph-ical memory and psychopathology. They take on the variety of waysthis test was applied, the consequences these variations have on theresults and finally provide recommendations on its future applica-tion as well as necessary research in this field.

Regarding the cognitive and emotional processes at work in thedevelopment and maintenance of OGM as suggested in theCaRFAX-model, two papers in this issue aim at elucidating thesemechanisms and take the original ideas of the model further. Vanden Broeck et al. (in this issue) investigate OGM in BorderlinePersonality Disorder (BPD). Autobiographical memory in BPD isinteresting from a theoretical perspective, since BPD is character-ized by several of the above mentioned processes at play in OGM,a high likelihood of history of traumatic events and co-morbidPTSD as well as difficulties in emotion regulation and reduced exec-utive control (Haaland, Esperaas, & Landro, 2009; Ruocco, 2005).However, findings are inconsistent, and, as van den Broeck andcolleagues point out by summarizing the literature, the role ofdepression severity and rumination as potential moderators is yetunclear. In their study, van den Broeck et al. address all aforemen-tioned mechanisms as well as the self-concept as a potential medi-ator. Next to depressive symptom severity self-concept seems to bean important variable to explain autobiographical memory inpatients with BPD.

Ruminative thinking, depressive symptoms and OGM have alsobeen associated with reduced ability to solve future problems,based on the idea that past experiences stored in autobiographicalmemory may provide the individual with potential solutions oroutcomes (Williams et al., 2005). Also, reduced specificity whenimagining future events predicts symptoms of depression andPTSD after traumatization (Maccallum & Bryant, 2011; Williamset al., 1996). Dennis et al. (in this issue) address this topic in theircontribution. In particular, they investigate autobiographicalmemory retrieval during problem solving in a group of dysphoricand non-dysphoric participants, directly assessing potential help-fulness and scoring specificity of these memories. Furthermore,they implemented two “interventions”, aiming at imagery ability,that are hypothesized to have an impact on these processes. Theirresults open new, interesting perspectives on the question of func-tionality of specificity and avoidance in clinical vs. non-clinicalgroups.

Habitual functional avoidance is also the focus of the next twopapers in this issue: Debeer et al. (in this issue) investigate habitualavoidance in a healthy sample. By applying a real life stressor andassessing cortisol level, they directly manipulate the effect of stresson OGM, and indeed find that the stress reaction is correlated withOGM and general cognitive avoidant coping, but only in the shortterm. Again, this supports the notion that the interplay betweenavoidance and OGM is complex and depends on the sample (i.e.,clinical vs. non-clinical). Research in this field has mainly focussedon self-report measures or experimental manipulations; addinga psychobiological measure targets a yet underrepresentedresearch approach.

Habitual emotional avoidance as important candidate in OGMresearch is also examined by Geraerts et al. (in this issue). Thisresearch group addresses the question of costs and benefits ofavoidance by focussing on a group of individuals who seem to bevery successful in avoiding negative information, namely individ-uals with a repressive coping style (Weinberger, Schwartz, &Davidson, 1979). According to their hypothesis they find thatOGM is increased in high repressors, however, this effect isrestricted to negative material. This finding adds to the researchof the avoidance hypothesis, again suggesting a necessity of makinga distinction between functionality of avoidance for clinical andnon-clinical groups.

As summarized above, the connection between avoidance andOGM has intensively investigated in traumatized groups andPTSD. The next two contributions in this special issue target auto-biographical memory processes in relation to traumatic events byusing experimental analogue paradigms. Lenaert et al. (in thisissue) investigate the association between overgeneralization ofautobiographical memory and generalization of acquired responsesin a conditioning paradigm. Cognitive models of PTSD (Brewin,Dalgleish, & Joseph, 1996; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa & Rothbaum,1998) have attended to the fact that in PTSD trauma memoriesseem to be easily triggered by a wide range of stimuli. This hasbeen explained with – amongst other factors – results fromlearning and extinction paradigms (Jovanovic & Ressler, 2010;Milad et al., 2009). As mentioned above OGM has been a robustfinding in relation to PTSD, also as an aetiological factor. Lenaert’sstudy combines both lines of research, and provides a new perspec-tive on variables that play a role in the development of PTSD.

Similarly, using a film as an analogue stressor, Ehlers et al. (inthis issue) show in their contribution that neutral stimuli associ-ated with traumatic stimuli are more readily identified (priming)and are also evaluated more negatively in an evaluative condi-tioning paradigm. In addition to that, they compare three types ofinterventions, and find that autobiographical memory elaboration(in opposite to a control intervention) reduces priming effects,and also that exposure reduces negative evaluations as well asintrusive memories.

Finally, the last two papers of this special issue focus on inter-ventions outside the laboratory and address clinical samples fromthe OGM perspective. Spinhoven et al. (in this issue) investigateOGM as avoidance strategy and its relation to over- or underreportabuse in personality disorders after treatment. Their resultssupport the role of OGM as a mediator or indicator of therapeuticprocesses.

Training autobiographical memory specificity with the aim ofsymptom reduction seems a fruitful new approach in interventionresearch, and indeed several studies have shown an effect on symp-toms of depression and symptoms associated with schizophrenia(Blairy et al., 2008; Serrano, Latorre, Gatz, & Montanes, 2004).Accordingly, Ricarte et al. (in this issue) showed that depressivesymptoms and autonoetic awareness were reduced by increasingspecificity of autobiographical memories in a group of schizo-phrenic patients. This supports the notion that improving autobio-graphical memory specificity may be a promising treatmentstrategy to change symptoms in psychopathological conditions.

Altogether, the contributions in this special issue cover a widerange of approaches to investigate autobiographical memory andpsychopathology: correlational studies, experimental designs, andmanipulations of interventions. They provide new results to theintriguing question how psychopathology and autobiographicalremembering are related.

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Sabine SchönfeldTechnische Universität Dresden, Germany

Babette RennebergFreie Universität Berlin, Germany