Introduction to SociologyIntroduction to SociologyUnit 1

What is Science?What is Science?Science: The study of various topics

using logical progression and experimentation.

Includes: ◦ Natural Sciences

Biology, Anatomy & Physiology, Medicine, etc.◦ Social Sciences

Psychology Social Psychology

Sociology Anthropology

Archaeology Linguistics Cultural Anthropology Human Ecology

Economics Political Science

Politics Government

Sociological StudySociological StudyTheory: A set of ideas or relationships studied using scientific research methods◦More on this & Research Methods in the next chapter!

The BIG DEBATE in Sociological Research: ◦Value-Free vs Commitment to Reform

Development of SociologyDevelopment of Sociology Historical Events

◦ Exploration of new areas◦ 18th Century - European

Enlightenment◦ 19th Century - Industrial Revolution ◦ 1825 – French Ministry of Justice

report of Justice & Criminal Statistics 1833 – André Michel Guerry’s Moral Statistics

of France Stability within one city Variability between cities

Chicago SchoolChicago School 1842 – 1st Dr. of Sociology

from University of Chicago University of Chicago became

the Chicago School – ULTIMATE Social Science Institution

Founded on the research of… Robert Park Lester Ward George Herbert Mead

Auguste ComteAuguste Comte“Father of Sociology”Coined “Sociology” as a termTwo areas for research:

Social Statistics: Order and stability

Social Dynamics: Reaction to change

Auguste ComteAuguste Comte“Father of Sociology”Coined “Sociology” as a termTwo areas for research:

Social Statistics: Order and stabilitySocial Dynamics: Reaction to change

3 Stages of Societal Development◦ Theological Stage◦ Metaphysical Stage◦ Scientific Stage

Jeremy BenthamJeremy BenthamBritish lawyer focusing on social reform law

Believed government was just a metaphor for social control

Famous/Inspiring Quote that influenced future sociologists..◦ “The community is a fictitious body

composed only of its individual members, and thus the interest of the community is no more than the sum of the interest of the individual members who compose it.”

Thomas HobbesThomas HobbesPhilosopher focusing on politics

Believed social order comes from a need to escape/avoid conflict

Important question posed: How can people live together and still escape the fear of civil conflict?

Major Perspectives of Major Perspectives of SociologySociology

3 Broad Categories of Sociology◦Functionalist Perspective◦Conflict Perspective◦Interactionist Perspective

Functionalist PerspectiveFunctionalist PerspectiveCore Belief:

◦The individual parts of a society maintain the society as a whole

Functionalist PerspectiveFunctionalist PerspectiveSociety is seen as:

◦Stable◦Integrated System◦Members agree on basic values◦Change is disruptive unless slow

Functionalist PerspectiveFunctionalist PerspectiveFocus of Study:

◦End consequence, not purpose of change

Functionalist PerspectiveFunctionalist PerspectiveTypes of Functions:

◦Manifest Function: The intended consequence

◦Latent Function: An unintended consequence

Functionalist PerspectiveFunctionalist PerspectiveMajor Theorists:

◦Herbert Spencer◦Emile Durkheim◦Talcott Parsons◦Robert Merton

Herbert SpencerHerbert SpencerFocus of Study:

◦Social order ◦Social change

Major Theory: ◦Social Darwinism

Emile DurkheimEmile DurkheimFocus of Study:

◦Social order◦Shared values and beliefs◦Religion and ritual

Major Theory: ◦Causes of Suicide

Egotistic Suicide: Disconnection Altruistic Suicide: For the good of

society Fatalistic Suicide: Powerlessness Anomic Suicide: Lack of social order

Talcott ParsonsTalcott ParsonsFocus of Study:

◦Social order◦Balance and functions of society

Major Theory: ◦Equilibrium

Robert MertonRobert MertonFocus of Study:

◦Function of the pieces of society◦Integration of theory and empirical research

Major Theory: ◦Middle-Range Theory

Conflict PerspectiveConflict PerspectiveCore Belief:

◦Change in society is due to conflict between individuals, groups, etc.

Conflict PerspectiveConflict PerspectiveSociety is seen as:

◦Constantly changing◦Permanently in conflict◦“Faking it” when apparently in agreement

◦“Forced” to conform and comply by the powerful

Conflict PerspectiveConflict PerspectiveFocus of Study:

◦Conflict among groups leading to change Tension Competition Change

◦Change can be good or bad!

Conflict PerspectiveConflict PerspectiveMajor Theorists:

◦Karl Marx◦C. Wright Mills◦Ralf Dahrendorf◦Randall Collins

Karl MarxKarl MarxFocus of Study:

◦Philosophy◦Economics◦Political Science◦History

Major Theory: ◦Class Conflict

Strongly Influenced: ◦Socialism◦Communism

C. Wright MillsC. Wright MillsFocus of Study:

◦Conflict as a fact of lifeMajor Theory:

◦Sociological Imagination: 3 pieces connecting the individual & society History: Events Biography: Connections of history &

the individual Social Structure

Ralf DahrendorfRalf DahrendorfFocus of Study:

◦Social order◦Class designations

Major Theory: ◦Class Conflict in Industrial Society

Interesting Fact: Lived through Nazi-Germany and was encamped for anti-socialist and anti-Nazi activities

Randall CollinsRandall CollinsFocus of Study:

◦Non-Marxist Conflict◦Racial Inequality◦Violence

Major Theory: ◦None yet – but he’s still going strong!

Interactionist PerspectiveInteractionist PerspectiveCore Belief:

◦Society is developed on the interactions between the individuals in the society.

Interactionist PerspectiveInteractionist PerspectiveSociety is seen as:

◦Ever-changing & evolving◦Dependent on the individual◦Based on symbolic interaction

Interactionist PerspectiveInteractionist PerspectiveFocus of Study:

◦Individual behavior◦Reactions to the behaviors of others

◦Mechanics of daily life

Interactionist PerspectiveInteractionist PerspectiveMajor Theorists:

◦Max Weber◦George Herbert Mead◦Erving Goffman◦George Homans

Max WeberMax WeberFocus of Study:

◦Value-Freedom Studies◦Social change & religion

Major Theory: ◦Capitalism

George Herbert MeadGeorge Herbert MeadFocus of Study:

◦The individual’s interactions within society

Major Theory: ◦Founded the perspective of Social Psychology

Erving GoffmanErving GoffmanFocus of Study:

◦The individual’s “roles” in societyMajor Theory:

◦Dramaturgical Perspective: Behavior as a performance! Front Stage: Performing for an audience Back Stage: Other performers are

present, but no audience Outside: No audience, but aware of

potential Borders: Controlling who has access to

the performance

George HomansGeorge HomansFocus of Study:

◦Behavior based on consequencesMajor Theory:

◦Social Exchange Theory

Other TheoriesOther TheoriesPeter Berger

◦“Debunking” true meaningLester Ward

◦Social progress through sociological knowledge

◦1833 book Dynamic Sociology Stated that a benevolent government,

universal education, elimination of class, and freedom of poverty are required for society to progress

Other TheoriesOther TheoriesRobert Park

◦Believed societies are interactive and dynamic

◦Started the study of human ecologyGeorge Simmel

◦Believed in the “free spirit” consumed by socialization to societies’ rules

◦Posed theory of dialectical tension.

Other TheoriesOther TheoriesW.E.B. DuBois

◦Human rights activist◦1899 book The Philadelphia Negro analyzed class, race, and social strata in US

Paul Lazarsfeld◦Founded Columbia University’s Bureau of Applied Social Research

◦Studied decision-making processes and influence of mass media

◦Funded through “unethical” grants

Other TheoriesOther TheoriesIda Wells-Barnett

◦Early feminist◦Believed societies could not be judged on their claimed principles, but whether their actions match up.

Jane Addams◦Founded the Hull House in 1889 –

“Teach by example, practice cooperation, and practice social democracy”

◦Believed class issues could be solved by forcing proximity

Related Psychological Related Psychological TheoriesTheories

Ecological ApproachClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningSocial LearningMoral Development

Ecological ApproachEcological ApproachDeveloped by Urie Bronfenbrenner

States that development occurs as a result of interactions with the environment.

Based on ecological models of ecosystems◦Human development occurs as we try

to survive the ecosystem of our world!◦Each context that impacts development

has its own level in the model.

Ecological ApproachEcological ApproachIndividual:

Factors directly impacting the individual. SexAgeHealth

Ecological ApproachEcological ApproachMicrosystem:

Factors impacting development that are very close or in direct contact with the individual.

WorkSchoolFamilyPeersNeighborhoodSocial ClubsReligious

Institutions

Ecological ApproachEcological ApproachMesosystem:

Provides a link between each of the individual Microsystem factors. Ex: When you

work 40 hours a week it impacts your ability to study for classes, etc.

Ecological ApproachEcological ApproachExosystem: Factors

impacting development that directly impact the Microsystem, but may not directly contact the Individual.

NeighborsFriends of FamilyMass MediaSocial WelfarePoliticsSchoolsMedical Institutions

Ecological ApproachEcological ApproachMacrosystem:

Factors impacting development that directly impact the other systems, but do not have direct contact with the Individual. The individual may not be able to affect this level even if they try.

CultureSocietal ValuesCustomsLawsGovernment

Ecological ApproachEcological ApproachChronosystem:

This level considers the impact of time and major life events on the individual.

BirthsDeathsMarriageDivorce Job ChangesMovingSociocultural

Changes with time (ex. WOMEN in the work force!)

Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningDiscovered by Ivan Pavlov when

studying digestion and salivation in dogs. ◦This theory applies to things that are already

reflexive or innate behaviors. The Discovery:

◦Morning routine: Enter room, turn on lights, feed dogs.

◦Expected pattern: Lights go on, food goes down, dogs start drooling.

◦Unexpected discovery: After a few weeks, the dogs began to drool when the lights came on!

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningDeveloped by B.F. Skinner, who

believed that Classical Conditioning was correct, but that behavior was not solely reflexive.

Behavior is a learned response, based on the consequences of previous behaviors.

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningIncreasing or Decreasing a Behavior◦Reinforcement: A consequence

that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

◦Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningGiving or Removing a Stimulus: ◦Positive:

Presenting/Giving/Introducing a new stimulus.

◦Negative: Removing/Taking Away an existing stimulus.

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningOur scenario: Your teenage

daughter just received her first car and was allowed to attend a social event alone, provided she was home by 10pm.◦Reinforcement: She was home at

9:45!◦Punishment: Little Missy strolled in at

MIDNIGHT!

Reinforcement Punishment

Positive Extend curfew to 11pm next time. (GIVING time)

Work Little Missy to death with added chores. (GIVING unpleasant tasks).

Negative Take away curfew all together – she’s trust-worthy! (TAKE AWAY restriction)

Take away her car until she learns. (TAKE AWAY valued object – the car!)

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningThe Schedule of Reinforcement can impact learning!

Timing: ◦Interval◦Ratio

Schedule: ◦Fixed◦Variable

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningExtinction:

Cessation of a behavior based on a lack of continued reinforcement, experience of a punishment, etc.

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning TheoryAlbert Bandura decided to

study learning from a social perspective.

Social Learning Theory states that we can learn just by watching others. ◦We DO NOT have to experience the consequence ourselves!

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning TheoryThe BoBo Doll Study:

◦Take groups of kids into a room and have them watch a video of a model punching/kicking/hitting a BoBo Doll.

◦Children see 3 potential endings: Actor is Punished Actor is Rewarded Nothing happens, actor

walks off-screen

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory◦Children are given an

opportunity to play with a BoBo doll. Those who saw a reward

mimic behaviors right away Those who saw neutral

mimic some behaviors. All, INCLUDING those who

saw the punishment, can mimic behaviors if asked.

Those who saw punishment were able to very closely, if not identically, mimic the video!

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning TheoryObservational Learning: The ability to learn by watching the behaviors and consequences of others.

Moral DevelopmentMoral DevelopmentLawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: May be based roughly on the cognitive development of Jean Piaget. ◦Broken down into 3 Levels, with 2 stages in each level.

◦Tests to determine which stage the individual are in are dependent on responses to Kohlberg’s Dilemmas.

Moral DevelopmentMoral DevelopmentLevel 1: Pre-Conventional: Moral

choices are based on reward and punishment. ◦Stage 1: Might Makes Right aka

Punishment-Obedience Obedience to authority is to avoid

punishment, while still furthering self-interest.

Very young children◦Stage 2: Looking Out For Number One

aka Tit-for-Tat aka Quid Pro Quo aka You Scratch My Back, I’ll Scratch Your Moral decisions are based on what the

individual can get out of the situation. Young/elementary aged children

Moral DevelopmentMoral DevelopmentLevel 2: Conventional: Moral

decisions are based on laws and trying to appear “good” to others. ◦Stage 3: Good Girl/Nice Boy aka

Conformity aka Instrumental Conformity Moral decisions are based on what will

make others like and approve of the individual.

Middle school aged children. ◦Stage 4: Law and Order aka Law of

the Land aka Judgment Moral decisions are based on being a good,

law-abiding citizen. Teenagers and many adults.

Moral DevelopmentMoral DevelopmentLevel 3: Post-Conventional: Moral

decisions are based on using one’s own conscience to decide right and wrong. ◦Stage 5: Social Contract aka Social Conformity aka Social Contract and Individual Rights Moral decisions are based on a social

contract stating that the laws in place are for the greater good of society. Any deviance will violate this contract and could lead to chaos.

Only a small portion of society.

Moral DevelopmentMoral DevelopmentLevel 3: Post-Conventional: Moral

decisions are based on using one’s own conscience to decide right and wrong. ◦Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles aka Universal Principles Moral decisions are based on a universal

values and rights that all individuals deserve. Life, Love, Peace, Happiness, Property, Education, etc.

Only a handful of people have ever coded into this category.

Moral DevelopmentMoral DevelopmentGilligan continued Kohlberg’s

theory, stating that..◦Girls tend to develop morals based

on compassion and care◦Boys tend to develop morals based

on justice and judgment