Introduction to Research: Introduction to Research: Scientific Understanding of Scientific Understanding of

BehaviorBehaviorRCS 6740 RCS 6740

5/9/055/9/05

What is Research?What is Research? Main Entry: Main Entry: 1re·search1re·search

Pronunciation: ri-'s&rch, 'rE-"Pronunciation: ri-'s&rch, 'rE-"Function: Function: nounnounEtymology: Middle French Etymology: Middle French recerche, recerche, from from recerchier recerchier to investigate thoroughly, from Old to investigate thoroughly, from Old French, from French, from re- + cerchier re- + cerchier to search -- Date: to search -- Date: 11 :: careful or diligent search careful or diligent search22 :: studious inquiry or examination; studious inquiry or examination; especiallyespecially :: investigation or experimentation aimed at the investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or lawsrevised theories or laws33 :: the collecting of information about a particular the collecting of information about a particular subject subject

What is Scientific Research?What is Scientific Research?

Kerlinger (1986), Kerlinger (1986), “Scientific research is “Scientific research is systematic, controlled, systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical empirical, and critical investigation of investigation of natural phenomena natural phenomena guided by theory and guided by theory and hypotheses about the hypotheses about the presumed relations presumed relations among such among such phenomena” (p. 10).phenomena” (p. 10).

Or is it…?Or is it…?

“ “ committed to committed to understanding understanding social phenomena social phenomena from the actor’s from the actor’s own perspective” own perspective” (Taylor & Bogdan, (Taylor & Bogdan, 1984, p. 1). 1984, p. 1).

Pseudo-Research Pseudo-Research

Magazines: Cosmo Quizzes and Magazines: Cosmo Quizzes and StudiesStudies

Newspapers: Gainesville Sun Polls, Newspapers: Gainesville Sun Polls, CNN.com (Do you believe that a dog CNN.com (Do you believe that a dog could care for a baby?)could care for a baby?)

Internet: Keyword Internet: Keyword CancerCancer on Google on Google came up with 114,000,000 hits!!! came up with 114,000,000 hits!!!

Why is Scientific Research Why is Scientific Research Important?Important?

Helps us decide what is bull and what Helps us decide what is bull and what is validis valid

Provides us a means of addressing Provides us a means of addressing and answering important questionsand answering important questions

Helps practitioners with treatment, Helps practitioners with treatment, therapy, and medication choices therapy, and medication choices

Assists public policy decisionsAssists public policy decisions

Why is Scientific Research Why is Scientific Research Important Cont.Important Cont.

Influences judicial decisions (Study Influences judicial decisions (Study by Clark & Clark, 1947, influenced by Clark & Clark, 1947, influenced the landmark Brown vs. Board of the landmark Brown vs. Board of Education case)Education case)

Determines whether or not programs Determines whether or not programs (public and private) are successfully (public and private) are successfully meeting their goalsmeeting their goals

The Scientific Approach vs. The Scientific Approach vs. IntuitionIntuition

Intuition: Unquestionably accepting what Intuition: Unquestionably accepting what your own personal judgment or experience your own personal judgment or experience tells you about the world. tells you about the world. Example: Since Dr. Saxon liked it, my Example: Since Dr. Saxon liked it, my client will enjoy working at the chicken client will enjoy working at the chicken factory. factory. Scientists understand that numerous Scientists understand that numerous cognitive and motivational factors (that cognitive and motivational factors (that affect our perceptions) lead to erroneous affect our perceptions) lead to erroneous conclusions.conclusions.

The Scientific Approach vs. The Scientific Approach vs. Intuition Cont.Intuition Cont.

Illusionary Correlation: A cognitive Illusionary Correlation: A cognitive bias that occurs when we focus on bias that occurs when we focus on two events that stand out and occur two events that stand out and occur together.together.

The scientific approach requires The scientific approach requires much more evidence before any much more evidence before any conclusion can be drawn.conclusion can be drawn.

The Scientific Approach vs. The Scientific Approach vs. AuthorityAuthority

People too often accept information People too often accept information from books, media, government from books, media, government figures, and friends as being true.figures, and friends as being true.

““Persuasion is achieved by the Persuasion is achieved by the speaker’s personal character when speaker’s personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make the speech is so spoken as to make him credible. We believe good men him credible. We believe good men (people) more fully and readily than (people) more fully and readily than others.” (Aristotle)others.” (Aristotle)

The Scientific Approach vs. The Scientific Approach vs. Authority Cont.Authority Cont.

The scientific approach rejects the The scientific approach rejects the notion that one can accept on faith notion that one can accept on faith the statements of any authority. the statements of any authority.

Once again, more evidence is Once again, more evidence is needed!needed!

Skepticism and ScienceSkepticism and Science

Scientists Scientists dodo recognize that intuition recognize that intuition and authority are sources of ideas and authority are sources of ideas about behavior, but they never about behavior, but they never blindly accept either without being blindly accept either without being skeptical.skeptical.

How then, do scientists learn about How then, do scientists learn about the world?the world?

The Scientific Method and the The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach Empirical Approach

The fundamental characteristic of the The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method is empiricism scientific method is empiricism (knowledge based on observations). (knowledge based on observations).

Most importantly, the scientific method Most importantly, the scientific method embodies a number of rules for collecting, embodies a number of rules for collecting, evaluating, and reporting data evaluating, and reporting data (observations put into measurable form). (observations put into measurable form). These These rules rules will be discussed in greater will be discussed in greater detail as the course progresses. detail as the course progresses.

The Scientific Method and the The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach Cont.Empirical Approach Cont.

Elements of Goodstein’s evolved Elements of Goodstein’s evolved theory of science:theory of science:

1. Observations accurately 1. Observations accurately reported to othersreported to others

A. So that others can replicate the A. So that others can replicate the studystudy

B. So that others can see that the B. So that others can see that the data has not been fabricated. data has not been fabricated.

The Scientific Method and the The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach Cont.Empirical Approach Cont.

2. Search for discovery and 2. Search for discovery and verification of ideas:verification of ideas:

A. Scientists search for observations A. Scientists search for observations that will verify their ideas about the that will verify their ideas about the world.world.

B. Scientists develop theories, argue B. Scientists develop theories, argue that existing data supports their that existing data supports their theories, and conduct research to theories, and conduct research to further support their theories. further support their theories.

The Scientific Method and the The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach Cont.Empirical Approach Cont.

3. Open exchange and competition 3. Open exchange and competition among ideas:among ideas:

A. Research flourishes when there is A. Research flourishes when there is an open exchange of ideas.an open exchange of ideas.

B. Others should report findings not B. Others should report findings not supporting an ideas.supporting an ideas.

C. Even good ideas are not supported C. Even good ideas are not supported by research. However, this leads to by research. However, this leads to new and more innovative ideas.new and more innovative ideas.

The Scientific Method and the The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach Cont.Empirical Approach Cont.

4. Peer Review of Research:4. Peer Review of Research:

A. Ensures that only the best A. Ensures that only the best research is published.research is published.

B. Ensures that research with major B. Ensures that research with major flaws is not integrated into the flaws is not integrated into the scientific community.scientific community.

C. Allows others to build upon and C. Allows others to build upon and advance research.advance research.

Incorporating Intuition, Authority, Incorporating Intuition, Authority, and Skepticism and Skepticism

Acceptable use of beliefs or Acceptable use of beliefs or opinions from a scientific opinions from a scientific perspective:perspective:

1.1. They are presented as only opinions They are presented as only opinions or beliefs and not as factor beliefs and not as fact

2.2. They are scientifically testableThey are scientifically testable

3.3. There is scientific evidence that There is scientific evidence that supports the opinion or belief supports the opinion or belief

Goals of Scientific ResearchGoals of Scientific Research

1.1. To Describe BehaviorTo Describe Behavior

2.2. To Predict BehaviorTo Predict Behavior

3.3. To Determine the Causes of To Determine the Causes of BehaviorBehavior

4.4. To Understand or Explain BehaviorTo Understand or Explain Behavior

Describing BehaviorDescribing Behavior

Researchers must first make careful Researchers must first make careful observations before they can observations before they can accurately describe behavioraccurately describe behavior

Examples of Describing BehaviorExamples of Describing Behavior

1.1. Client can lift up to 10 pounds, Client can lift up to 10 pounds, repeatedly, for one hour. repeatedly, for one hour.

2.2. Mr. Smith becomes irritable when Mr. Smith becomes irritable when discussing his previous employer.discussing his previous employer.

Predicting BehaviorPredicting Behavior

Once it has been observed (in a Once it has been observed (in a scientific manner) that two events scientific manner) that two events are related to one another, are related to one another, predictions can be generated.predictions can be generated.

Examples of predicting behavior:Examples of predicting behavior:1.1. The more attractive interviewee will The more attractive interviewee will

get the job.get the job.2.2. Cats who eat Fancy Feast will Cats who eat Fancy Feast will

become extremely fat!become extremely fat!

Determining the Causes of Determining the Causes of BehaviorBehavior

Predicting behavior does not mean Predicting behavior does not mean that a cause can be determined.that a cause can be determined.

In order to determine how to In order to determine how to changechange behavior, we must first determine behavior, we must first determine the the causecause of the behavior. of the behavior.

Identification of the cause of Identification of the cause of behavior requires three types of behavior requires three types of evidence:evidence:

Determining the Causes of Determining the Causes of Behavior Cont.Behavior Cont.

1.1. Temporal Precedence: Temporal order of Temporal Precedence: Temporal order of events where the cause precedes the events where the cause precedes the effect effect

2.2. Covariation of the Cause and effect: Covariation of the Cause and effect: When the cause is present, the effect When the cause is present, the effect occurs, when the cause is not present, occurs, when the cause is not present, the effect does not occurthe effect does not occur

3.3. Alternative Explanations: There should Alternative Explanations: There should be no other plausible alternative be no other plausible alternative explanation for the relationship explanation for the relationship

Explanation of BehaviorExplanation of Behavior

Researchers seek to understand and Researchers seek to understand and explain why behavior occurs explain why behavior occurs (Caregivers of people with stroke (Caregivers of people with stroke may become depressed due to the may become depressed due to the “burden of caregiving”).“burden of caregiving”).

Causes and Explanations are closely Causes and Explanations are closely related but as new causes are related but as new causes are determined, new explanations are determined, new explanations are necessary. necessary.

Basic and Applied ResearchBasic and Applied Research

Basic Research:Basic Research:1.1. Answers fundamental questions about Answers fundamental questions about

the nature of behaviorthe nature of behavior2.2. Studies are often designed to address Studies are often designed to address

theoretical issues such as cognition, theoretical issues such as cognition, emotion, social behavior, and learningemotion, social behavior, and learning

3.3. Does not focus on immediate or practical Does not focus on immediate or practical concerns as it seeks to gain knowledge concerns as it seeks to gain knowledge that may be of some value at a later timethat may be of some value at a later time

Basic and Applied Research Cont.Basic and Applied Research Cont.

Applied Research:Applied Research:1.1. Main focus is to address practical Main focus is to address practical

problems and to find potential solutions problems and to find potential solutions to such problems.to such problems.

2.2. A major area of applied research is called A major area of applied research is called Program EvaluationProgram Evaluation where research is where research is used to evaluate social reforms, used to evaluate social reforms, government, the criminal justice system, government, the criminal justice system, industry, schools, and health care (FITE industry, schools, and health care (FITE Program evaluation example).Program evaluation example).

Basic vs. Applied ResearchBasic vs. Applied Research

Neither one is superior to the otherNeither one is superior to the other The progress of science depends on The progress of science depends on

the synergy between the two the synergy between the two Both may cause the other to be Both may cause the other to be

modifiedmodified Both use the scientific method of Both use the scientific method of

research research