Introduction to Qualitative MethodsMcNair Scholars Workshop

Dr. Dorothy Valcarcel CraigDepartment of Educational Leadership

June 2006

Qualitative MethodsA man and woman sit in an upper level of a packed athletic stadium watching a big game. Although it is difficult to distinguish them from other fans, they are researchers engaged in a study of the home team—socialization and education of male college athletes.

In another part of the country, a researcher regularly visits a multicultural public elementary school where she spends long periods of time observing, listening, and recording notes. She follows the students to the lunchroom, the playground, and the gym. This researcher is studying how gender is experienced within the school environment.

Another researcher emerges himself in the culture of an urban housing project. He moves in to an apartment, engages in conversation with other residents, and—with permission—photographs them. He is studying the effects of drugs and poverty on children growing up in an environment without hope.

Qualitative ResearchDefinition and Purpose

• Qualitative research is:– The collection, analysis, and interpretation of

comprehensive narrative and visual data in order to gain insights into a particular phenomenon.

• Purpose:– Broad in scope – Center around promoting a deep, rich, holistic and

complex understanding.

Other Terms

• Because data and research is conducted within the natural setting, qualitative research is also known as:– Naturalistic Research– Naturalistic Inquiry– Field-Oriented Research.

Key Characteristics

• Researcher-as-Instrument– Researchers spend a great deal of time

immersed in the setting – Focus on the individual, person-to-

person interactions– Researchers avoid making premature

decisions or assumptions and look for emerging patterns (inductive analysis)

– Findings reported in a thick, rich, descriptive manner.

Differences in ProcessQuantitative Qualitative

Description and explanation oriented. Exploratory and understanding-oriented

Role of the literature review is to justify research problem and specify need for the study.

Role of the literature review is to justify the research problem and to find related themes.

Participant selection is narrow and specific. Numbers are large.

Participant selection is general and broad. Numbers may be small.

Data and instruments are predetermined. Data are numeric.

Data may emerge and may consist of text, image, and numbers.

Statistical analysis with description of trends. Comparison of results with predictions to past studies.

Text analysis with description and thematic development. Larger meaning of findings.

Findings are reported in a fixed and standard manner.

Findings are reported in terms of emerging themes and patterns.

Five Features of Qualitative ResearchNaturalistic Research conducted in actual settings as the direct

source of data. Research is the “key instrument.”

Descriptive Data Data collected take the form of words, pictures, and artifacts rather than numbers.

Concern with Process

Research is concerned with process rather than outcomes or products. Questions drive the study.

Inductive Researchers tend to analyze the data inductively. Theory is developed from findings.

Meaning Meaning is essential and researchers are interested in how different subjects make sense of their lives and situations.

The Qualitative Process

• Identifying a topic or problem

• Reviewing the literature • Selecting participants• Collecting multiple forms

of data• Analyzing and interpreting

data—looking for emerging themes, categories, and patterns

• Reporting and evaluating research.

Qualitative Approaches – Methods and Key Questions

Case Study What are the characteristics of this particular entity, phenomenon, or person?

Ethnography What are the cultural patterns and perspectives of a particular situation or group?

Ethology How do origins, characteristics, and cultures differ?

Ethnomethodology How do people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in a socially-acceptable manner?

Grounded Theory How is an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon grounded in data in a particular setting?

Phenomenology What is the experience of an activity or concept from these particular participants’ perspectives?

Symbolic Interaction

How do people construct meanings and shared perspectives by interacting with others?

Historical Research How does one systematically collect and evaluate data to understand and interpret past events?

Validity in Qualitative ResearchValidity – The degree to which data accurately and clearly assists in

providing insight and answering questions.

• Descriptive Validity– The factual accuracy

of the situation or environment.

• Interpretative Validity– The meaning

attributed to behaviors or words of the participants being studied.

• Theoretical Validity– The ability of the

research report to explain the phenomenon being studied in relation to a theory.

• Evaluative Validity– The ability of the

researcher to report findings in a bias-free manner.

Trustworthiness and Generalizability

• Trustiworthiness– Taking into

account all of the complexities of the situational milieu (credibility)

– Including descriptive, context-relevant statements (transferability)

• Generalizability– Internal –

Generalizability within the situation being studied.

– External –Generalizability to settings that were not studied by the researcher but that may be relevant and related.

Qualitative v. Quantitative

Qualitative Quantitative

Involves the simultaneous collection of a wealth of narrative and visual data over an extended period of time.

Data is collected in the natural setting—where the activities are naturally occurring.

Subject and data controlled.

Does not necessarily include multiple forms of data.Can be conducted in a shorter length of time.

Data does not have to be collected in the natural environment.

Researcher controlled.

Guba’s Criteria for ValidityCRITERIA DEFINITION STRATEGY

Credibility The researchers’ ability to take into account the complexities involved in a particular situation. Addressing the patterns that emerge.

Prolonged EngagementPersistent ObservationTriangulation

Transferability Belief that everything is context-bound.

Multiple Forms of Data (video tapes, audio, artifacts, field notes, etc.)Detailed Descriptions

Dependability Stability of the data collected and depth of the data analysis.

Overlap MethodsMatch Data Sets to Questions

Confirmability Neutrality or objectivity of the data collected.

Triangulation of DataFull, rich, descriptive reports of findings

Role of Ethics in Qualitative Research• Informed consent of participants• Identify broader social principles• Morally bound to conduct research in a manner that

minimizes potential harm• Actions must conform to ethical standards (honesty and

justice)• Researcher must remain attentive to relationship between

participants and researcher—(relationship determined by roles, status, language, and cultural norms.)

Narrative Research• A form of qualitative

research, narrative research involves: – The study of how

different humans experience the world

– Methodology that allows people to tell stories of their “storied lives”

– Collaboratively constructing written narratives about experiences and meanings.

Characteristics of Narrative Research• Focus on experiences

of individuals• Concerned with the

chronology of experiences

• Focus on the construction of life stories based on data

• Involves responding to the question, “And then what happened?”

• Uses “restorying” as a technique for constructing the narrative

• Incorporates context and place in the story

• Integrates a collaborative approach involving the researcher and participant

The Narrative Research ProcessIdentify the purpose of the study and identify a phenomenon to explore.

Select an individual to learn about the phenomenon (the subject).

Identify the purpose of the study and identify a phenomenon to explore.

Pose initial narrative research questions.

Describe the researcher’s role—entry to the site, ethics, etc.

Describe data collection methods, paying particular attention to the interview process and technique.

Describe appropriate strategies for the analysis and interpretation of data.

Collaborate with the research participant to construct narrative and to validate the accuracy of the story.

Complete the writing of the narrative account.

Narrative Techniques• Restorying

– Process in which the researcher gathers stories, analyzes them for key elements and then rewrites the story to place it in a chronological sequence

• Steps– Researcher conducts interviews and

transcribes in order to obtain “raw data”

– The researcher retranscribes the raw data based on key elements identified in the story (themes and patterns)

– The researcher organizes the story into a chronological sequence with attention to setting, characters, actions, problems, and resolutions

– Researcher and participant collaborate for accuracy

– The narrative account is written and shared

Tools and Data Sources for Narrative Research

• Field Texts– Creating field texts by recording oral histories gleaned from

interviews with predetermined questions and agendas

• Artifacts– Using photographs, memory boxes, or artifacts to elicit details

about a person’s life and how it relates to a specific phenomenon under investigation

• Engaging participants in storytelling.• Written Letters

– Examining letters written over a period of time

• Utilizing autobiographical and biographical writing

Ethnographic Research

• The Process– Identify the purpose of the study– Frame the study as a larger theoretical or practical

problem– Pose initial ethnographic (overarching) questions– Describe the overall approach, rationale, site, and

sample selection– Describe the role of the researcher– Describe the data, collection, and analysis– Write the ethnographic account

Ethnography: The study of cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting.

Key Characteristics

• Carried out in a natural setting• Involves intimate, face-to-face

interaction• Presents accurate reflection of

perspectives and behaviors• Uses inductive, interactive, and

repetitious collection of “unstructured” data

• Data collected through fieldwork

• Multiple forms of data and multiple methods of collection

– Interviews– Observations– Documents– Artifacts

• Frames human behavior within a sociopolitical and historical context

• Uses concept of culture as a lens for interpretation

• Emphasis on exploration of social phenomena rather than testing hypotheses

• Small number of subjects and/or cases

• Analysis procedures involve explicit interpretation of meanings and human actions

• Requires researchers to engage in reflective analysis of site and group

• Offers interpretations of actions and behaviors

FieldworkThe Heart of Qualitative Inquiry

• What is fieldwork?– …going where people are (subjects)– …observing what they are doing (participant

observer)– …spending time with them in the natural

setting (getting to know them and getting them to trust you as the researcher)

The Data: Field Notes• Information gathered and recorded onsite.• Provide a record of the researcher’s understandings of the

situation, subjects, and phenomenon taking place• Important:

– What is observed and treated as “data” is inseparable from the observational process

– The researcher should give special attention to meanings and concerns

– Written fieldnotes are an essential grounding and resource for writing

– Fieldnotes should detail the social and interactional processes that make up the everyday lives of the subjects.

Tips on Recording Fieldnotes• Be descriptive!• Gather a variety of

information from different perspectives

• Cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different data sets

• Use quotations

• Select “key informants”• Be aware of and sensitive

to different stages of fieldwork

• Be disciplined• Be as involved as possible• Separate description from

interpretation and judgment

FieldnotesInappropriate Appropriate

June 19, 2006I observed two

students talking together. It looked to me like they were gossiping about the teacher. I can’t believe how stupid these kids are! And, the teacher had no clue!

June 19, 2006Today students were asked to work in groups. Two in particular (Student #7 and Student #8) worked together the entire time. I overheard the following conversation:S#7 - “I found a way to design a diagram that would work!”S#8 - “I think that will work, too!” Let’s also add another diagram with labels.

How to Start…• Gaining Access

– Get permission– Gain trust– Provide as much

information as possible– Be flexible– Be creative– Provide an information

packet upfront– Be sure to follow

guidelines for conducting research

• Questions the Subjects and/or Site Personnel will have:– What will you actually

do?– Will you be disruptive?– What will be done with

findings?– What will the

participants get out of the study?

First Days in the Field• Do not take what

happens personally• Set up the first visit so

someone is there to introduce you

• Don’t try to accomplish too much the first few days

• Remain relatively passive

• Show interest and enthusiasm

• Be friendly• Try to gain trust• Be polite and discreet• Try not to stay on site

too long for the first few days – Limit sessions to one-

two hours

Action Research• Not as in-depth as a

full qualitative study• Disciplined inquiry• Conducted

specifically to improve practice

• Focused on:– Changes within a

specific setting– Solutions and

improvements

Action Research is…

• Practical – data leads to practical improvements

• Participative – coworkers working together

• Empowering – all participants can affect change

• Interpretive – social reality is determined collaboratively

• Tentative – inquires do not result in “right” answers

• Critical – participants search together for practical improvements

Why Inquiry-Based Action Research?

• Data for accountability

• Conducted by “practitioners” in many fields

• Promotes reflective practice

• Assists in improving practice

Inquiry-Based Research Requires the Practitioner to:

• Take part in prolonged engagement,

• Recognize “researcher as instrument”

• Collect and analyze multiple forms of data

• Utilize and describe situations in order to improve practice

Main Features

• Natural settings

• Researcher-as-Instrument

• Multiple forms of data

• Rich in description

• Process over product

• Inductive analysis

• Meaning

The Role of the Researcher changes as…

the study evolves, the situation becomes clear,

the patterns emerge,the researcher becomes a participant

observer.

Continuous Improvement

PROBLEM SOLVING

CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT

ACTION RESEARCH

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

• Determining Overarching Themes or Questions

– What do you want to find out?

• Subjects– Who will be involved?

• Fieldwork– How will you gain access?

• Structure– What is the best structure

to engage and observe?• Historical case study• Observational case study• Narrative inquiry• Multiple sites• Multi-case

• Data– What types of data will

enable understanding?

Designing a Study

1. Set up a Data Collection Schedule

2. Collect Data in a Systematic Manner

• Before • Ongoing• After

3. Organize the Data4. Analyze Throughout

the Study5. Look for Emerging

Patterns

Collecting Qualitative Data

Primary SourcesNaturally Occurring Events

Secondary Sources Artifacts

Audio Tapes and TranscriptsVideotapes and TranscriptsResearcher Field Notes and JournalsParticipant Field NotesPhotosResponses to Open-Ended Interviews Responses to Seminar DiscussionsNaturally Occurring Conversations

and Interactions Between Participants

Personal Documents (family records)Cued Responses to InterviewsSurvey ResponsesProjects and ProductsCued Response JournalsElectronic Responses to Focus QuestionsNotesMemosArtifacts (Graphics, Diagrams, etc.)Test scores and any other quantitative data

Multiple Forms and Sources of Data

1) Should current trendy music with subjective connotations be allowed in school functions such as pep rallies, ball games, classrooms, cafeteria, and any other extra-curricula activities?

2) What is the adverse affect of denying our youth music?

3) Can music alter your mood and manipulate your decision-making abilities?

Example Set of Overarching Questions and Themes

Forms of DataQuestion #1 Question #2 Question #3

1. Faculty Interviews

2. Observations3. Student

Interviews4. Article

Reviews

1. Music Choice Survey

2. Teacher Interviews

3. Article Reviews

1. Survey Response

2. Informal Discussion

3. Observations

Analysis and Triangulation

• Organizing Data• Examining Emerging

Patterns• Analyzing Each Piece• Breaking Apart Data

Sets• Coding• Putting Data Back

Together• Grounded Theory

FIELD NOTES

SURVEY RESPONSE

OPEN INTERVIEWS

PATTERNS EMERGE

Tips for Beginners

• Field Journals• Ongoing Literature

Reviews• Data Collection• Documentations via

Technology• Interview Techniques• Survey Instruments• Analysis and

Patterning