introduction to navigation - smartcockpit · introduction to navigation • methods and equipment...
TRANSCRIPT
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IN, Page 1
FLIGHTOPERATIONS
ENGINEERING
Introduction to Navigation
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IN, Page 2
Introduction To Navigation
• Methods and Equipment
• Procedures
• Navigation and the FMC
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IN, Page 3
Navigation
• Knowing:– Where you are– Where you want to go– About how much fuel and time it will
take to get there
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IN, Page 4
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IN, Page 5
Pilotage
Identification of present position and direction of flight by visual contact with terrain
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IN, Page 6
Latitude and Longitude
• Measured in degrees, minutes, seconds
• Latitude refers to “parallels”, and is measured north or south of the equator (90° south to 90° north)
• Longitude refers to “meridians”, and is measured east or west of the Prime Meridian passing through Greenwich, England (180° west to 180° east)
One minute of latitude, measured on the earth’s surface, is equal to one nautical mile.
• 60 minutes equals 1º• 60 seconds equals
1 minute
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IN, Page 7
Latitude and Longitude
N47°27.45
W122°14.01
continued
Right now, you are here
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IN, Page 8
Dead Reckoning
• Application of laws of physics to estimate position
• Calculation of basic flight parameters necessary to safely get from point A to point B
• Basis for air navigation
TRACK and GRND SPD
HEADING + TAS
WIN
D
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IN, Page 9
HEADING Versus TRACK
• Heading - direction airplane is pointed
• Track - direction airplane is moving
HEADING
TRACK
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IN, Page 10
MAGNETIC VARIATION
• There is a difference between true and magnetic north
• True North + Magnetic Variation = Magnetic North
• “East is least and west is best”
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IN, Page 11
Who am I?
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IN, Page 12
NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON
• Sends the same signal in all directions
• Limited operating range
• Strongly affected by weather
• Used by automatic direction finding (ADF) equipment
• Limited usage in US
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IN, Page 13
VOR
• Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range
• Uses two phased signals to generateradial-specific information
• Behaves like 360 different signals
• 3 letter identifier
• Limited to line-of-sight
• Sensitive to terrain interference
0
180
270
090
31545
135225
Magnetic North
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IN, Page 14
Web-based VOR Tutorial
Tim’s Air Navigation Simulator:http://www.visi.com/~mim/nav/
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IN, Page 15
777 Nav Display - Full VOR Mode
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IN, Page 16
777 Nav Display - Expanded VOR Mode
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IN, Page 17
DME
• Distance Measuring Equipment
• Required for operation above FL240
• Ultra-high frequency
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 1010 1111 1212 1313 1414 1515 1616 1717 1818 1919 2020 2121
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IN, Page 18
DME Operation
• VOR is passive, no input required from plane
• DME is active, requires transmitter and receiver at each end (plane and DME)
• Plane must send a signal to DME to activate it
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IN, Page 19
VOR/DME, TACAN, and VORTAC
• All have both a VOR and DME
• VOR/DME is for civilian use only
• TACAN uses same civilian DME but has a different VOR for military use
• VORTAC is a combines VOR/DME and TACAN facility, the two systems are physically located next to each other
• DME and VOR frequencies are “paired”
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IN, Page 20
DME Accuracy
• Varies with each DME
• Most are accurate to within 0.2 NM at all distances
• Some are accurate to within 0.1 NM at all distances
• Least accurate are within 3% of total distance
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IN, Page 21
Slant Range Error
• DME measures distance between plane and the DME, not distance along ground
• The closer the plane is to the DME the greater the “error” is
0 NM 5 NM 10 NM 15 NM
4 N
M 6.4 NM 10.8 NM 15.5 NM
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IN, Page 22
Inertial Navigation Systems
• Self contained
• Very accurate
• Start from a known point
• Use accelerometers and gyros to track changes in acceleration and direction
• Position updates from VOR/DME, GPS ...
• Use this information to track position
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IN, Page 23
• Some airplanes have 3 Inertial Reference Units (IRUs)
• When 3 IRUs are installed, they “vote” to determine airplane position
• 2 closest “win”
Multiple Iru Installations
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IN, Page 24
Global Positioning System
• Global Positioning System
• 24 satellites, 3 spares
• 4 required to determine position, usually 8 - 10 used
• Passive system, unlimited number of users
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IN, Page 25
Web-based GPS Tutorial
Trimble GPS Tutorial:http://www.trimble.com/gps
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IN, Page 26
GPS Error Sources
Per Satellite Accuracy Standard GPS Differential GPSSatellite Clocks 1.5 0Orbit Errors 2.5 0Ionosphere 5.0 0.4Troposphere 0.5 0.2Receiver Noise 0.3 0.3Multipath (Reflections) 0.6 0.6Selective Availability (SA) 30.0 0
Typical Position AccuracyHorizontal 50 1.3Vertical 78 2.03-D 93 2.8
Typical Error Budget (in Meters)
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IN, Page 27
Instrument Landing System
• ILS 3 to 6°
3°
IN, Page 27
Outer Marker
Middle Marker
Inner Marker
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IN, Page 28
777 Primary Flight Display (PFD)
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IN, Page 29
BOARDING PASS
Passenger Names:Fundamentals Course Students
Seats:
Destination:San Francisco
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IN, Page 30
How do we get from Seattle to San Francisco?
How do we get from Seattle to San Francisco?
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IN, Page 31
Route Planning
• Can I fly direct?
• Is there an airway?
• Are there special considerations for departing and arriving at those airports
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IN, Page 32
Great Circle
• Shortest distance between 2 points
• Plane between the 2 points and center of the Earth
• Dist = 60 x cos-1[sin(lat1) x sin(lat2) + cos(lat1) xcos(lat2) x cos(long2-long1)]
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IN, Page 33
Departure
• SID’s or DP’s
• Standard Instrument Departure or Departure Procedures
• Set by governing authority
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IN, Page 34
JET and VICTOR Airways
• Network of airway routes based on the VOR/DME system
• Victor airways below FL180 (low altitude)
• Jet airways from FL180 to FL450 (high altitude)
J 501
J 73
V 199
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IN, Page 35
Approach
• STAR’s
• Standard Terminal Arrival Routes
• Set by governing authorities
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IN, Page 36
Preferred Routes
• Published by flight planning services
• High and low altitude
• For Seattle to San Francisco: “J70 Elmaa J589 RBG J143 PYE”???
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IN, Page 37
ELMAASIX Departure (SID)
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IN, Page 38
ELMAA SIX SID (Text)
This SID requires a minimum climb gradient of 550' per NM to 3000'.
“Rwys 16 L/R: Intercept and proceed via SEA R-158, cross D5 SEA at or above 3000', then turn right to a 250° heading to intercept and proceed via SEA R-227 to ELMAA Int.”
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IN, Page 39
ELMAA SIX SID (Chart)
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IN, Page 40
How Does the SID Relate to the Preferred Route
• “...proceed via SEA R-227 to ELMAA Int.” “J70 ELMAA J589 RBG J143 PYE”
• SEA R-227 is J70
• J70 intersects J589 at Elmaa
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IN, Page 41
Getting To KSFO
• Follow the recommended route: “J70 ELMAA J589 RBG J143 PYE”
• ELMAA Six SID got us to J589
• J589 ends at Roseburg (RBG)
• J143 starts at Roseburg (RBG)
• J143 takes us to Point Reyes (PYE)
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IN, Page 42
KSFO Arrival (STAR)
Golden Gate Four Arrival(For use by turbojet aircraft only)
Arrival:From over ENI VOR via ENI R-146 and PYE R-325 to PYE VOR thence via SFO R-303 to SFO VOR. Expect vectors to final approach course.
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IN, Page 43
Welcome to San Francisco
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IN, Page 44
Other Airways
• North Atlantic Organized Track System
• Pacific Organized Track System
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IN, Page 45
Area Navigation (RNAV)
• IRS• VOR/DME• ILS/Localizer• GPS
+
= RNAV
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IN, Page 46
Area Navigation (RNAV)
Origin
Destination
RNAV
Origin
Destination
continued
Ground-basedNavigation aids
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IN, Page 47
Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
“A statement of the navigation performance accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace.”
(International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO)
Consists of a distance, in nautical miles, accompanied by a probability, in %
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IN, Page 48
Example: RNP 10
Actual airplane location within 10 nmi of navigation system position at least 95% of the time
Desired Path
10 nm
10 nm
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IN, Page 49
Example: RNP 10
Actual airplane location within 10 nmi of navigation system position at least 95% of the time
Desired Path 10 nm10 nm 95% probability
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IN, Page 50
Containment limit 2 X RNP(99.999%)
Containment limit 2 X RNP(99.999%)
RNP (95%)
RNP (95%)
Route Centerline
RNP Containment Region
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IN, Page 51
Reduced Separation
Optimized buffers for airspace separation
Defined PathRNP 95% ThresholdContainment Limit
Legend
60 - 100 NMMitigates Navigation errors,Navigation Performance, Route, Traffic Density, Surveillance,Communication, ATC
PLMN
4.0 NM
PWVG
RNP 4 RNAVPOPP
PLWX
4 x RNP(16 NM)
PerformanceAssuranceRegion
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IN, Page 52
RNP Operations
RNP, Takeoff to Landing:
Low Visibility Takeoff
Cat II or III Landing
DepartureEnroute
ApproachCat I and II
RNP.3
RNP.5
RNP1
RNP4 – RNP12…
RNP2RNP2
RNP1
RNP.3
RNP.5 RNP.1
RNP Profile Plan View
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IN, Page 53
Actual Navigation Performance (ANP)
A real-time calculation of the airplane’s estimated position error (95% probability), based on current and past navigation inputs, according to a statistical model in the Flight Management Computer
RADIO NAVAIDS
IRS POSITION
Sure could use a GPS position update
about now…
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IN, Page 54
Demonstrated ANP
Examples of Minimum Demonstrated ANP’s*:
LNAV with Autopilot engaged
LNAV with Flight Director
Manual Control with Map Display
* Airplanes equipped with GPS
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9
1
737 747 757/767 777
Demonstrated ANP (NM)
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IN, Page 55
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IN, Page 56
Position Initialization(POS INIT) page:
• GPS
• Ref Airport
• Gate
• Last Position
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IN, Page 57
Route page 1 of 2(RTE 1/2) :
• Manual
• Company Route
• Data Link
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IN, Page 58
FMC
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IN, Page 59
Datalink (ACARS)
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IN, Page 60
Route page 2 of 2 (RTE 2/2) :
• End Points
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IN, Page 61
Departures Page
• SID’s
• Runways
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IN, Page 62
Legs Page:
• Current leg shown in magenta
• Name of waypoint
• Distance to waypoint
• Speed and altitude restrictions
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IN, Page 63
Arrivals Page
• STAR’s
• Approaches
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IN, Page 64
Progress Page 1 of 2:
• Distance to go
• Est. time of arrival
• Est. fuel remaining
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IN, Page 65
Progress Page 1 of 2 (continued):• Can check distance to and
ETA for other enroutewaypoints
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IN, Page 66
Progress Page 2 of 2:• Wind, head and cross
wind components• Lateral and vertical
track error• TAS, static outside air
temperature• Fuel Quantity from Fuel
Quantity Indicating System (FQIS) and as calculated by FMC
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IN, Page 67
Position Report:
• Actual time of arrival and altitude at last waypoint
• ETA for upcoming waypoint
• Temperature and wind
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IN, Page 68
Reference Navigation Data Page:
• Gives information aboutnavaids
• Frequency
• Location
• Magnetic variation
• Elevation
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IN, Page 69
Reference Navigation Data Page (continued):• Can also give information
on runways
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IN, Page 70
Position Reference Page (2 of 3):• Page 1 is POS INIT
page• Shows calculated
airplane position
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IN, Page 71
FMC Display of RNP/ANP
• FMC displays both RNP and ANP
• ANP must remain less than RNP for continued operation
• RNP-based procedures include required crew actions if ANP exceeds RNP
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IN, Page 72
Mission Planning Issues
• Winds and temperatures
• Fuel requirements
• Redispatch
• Alternate planning
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IN, Page 73
Wind and Temperature Statistical Data
• PCWINDTEMP
Provides statistical enroute wind and temperature information for specific great circle or waypoint routes, as a function of:
Season/month (e.g. Summer)Reliability (e.g. 85%)Cruise airspeed and altitude
Also calculates Equivalent Still Air Distance (ESAD)
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IN, Page 74
Wind and Temperature Documents
• Winds on World Air Routes*
• Winds on US Domestic Routes*
• Temperatures on World Air Routes*
• Temperatures on US Domestic Air Routes*
• Airport Temperatures (CD-ROM, 2002)
* These documents not been updated since 1991, because of the release of PCWINDTEMP
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IN, Page 75
Statistical Wind/temp Represents
• Single average head/tailwind or temperature that produces the same effect on flight planning as the expected variation of winds/temps during the trip
• Tailwind is defined as positive
• Probability X means wind/temp will be as predicted or better X% of the time…
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IN, Page 76
Seasonal Winds/Temps
• Data can be calculated for the four seasons, individual months, or annual
• Season represents three month period (e.g. “Winter” = Dec, Jan, Feb)
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IN, Page 77
Annual Winds/Temps
• Winds based on average of all four seasonal winds
• Can be calculated for any reliability
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IN, Page 78
PCWINDTEMP Demo
• Seattle (KSEA) to London Heathrow (EGLL)– Cruise altitude FL350 (35,000 ft)– Mach 0.84 (= 484 KTAS)
• Calculate wind and ESAD for:– Great circle routing– All four seasons– 50%, 75%, and 85% reliability
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IN, Page 79
PCWINDTEMP Results
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IN, Page 80
Airport Temperatures
• Similar data available for temperatures
• Average daily minimum, maximum, and average
• Monthly, quarterly, half-yearly, and yearly
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IN, Page 81
Fuel Requirements
• Is it a domestic flight?
• Is it an international flight?
• FAA?
• ICAO?
• Other?
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IN, Page 82
FAA Domestic
(A) Fly to the airport to which it is dispatched
(B) Thereafter, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport (where required) for the airport to which dispatched; and
(C) Thereafter, to fly for 45 minutes at normal cruising fuel consumption
FAR 121.639
A B C
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IN, Page 83
FAA International
(A) To fly to and land at the airport to which it is released(B) After that, to fly for a period of 10 percent of the total time required
to fly from the airport of departure to, and land at, the airport to which it was released
(C) After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight release, if an alternate is required; and
(D) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 ft above the alternate airport (or the destination airport if no alternate is required) under standard temperature conditions
FAR 121.645
AB
CD
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IN, Page 84
FAA “Island Reserves”
• No alternate specified in release
• Must have enough fuel to fly to airport and thereafter to fly for 2 hrs at normal cruising fuel consumption
FAR 121.645, continued
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IN, Page 85
ICAO InternationalICAO Annex 6 - 4.3.6.3
(A) To fly to the alternate aerodrome specified in the flight plan; and then
(B) To fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 450m (1,500 ft) above the alternate aerodrome under standard temperature conditions, and approach and land; and
(C) To have an additional amount of fuel sufficient to provide for the increased consumption on the occurrence of any of the potential contingencies specified by the operator to the satisfaction of the state of the operator.(Typically a percentage of the trip fuel - 3% to 6%).
4.3.6.3 Aeroplanes equipped with turbojet engines.4.3.6.3.2 A) When an alternate aerodrome is required:to fly to and execute an approach, and a missed approach, at the aerodrome to which the flight is planned, and thereafter:
B
C
A
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IN, Page 86
Basis for Redispatch
• Reserve/contingency fuel is a function of trip length or trip fuel burn
• Originally designed to cover errors in navigation, weather prediction, etc...
• Navigation and weather forecasting techniques have improved, decreasing the chance that contingency fuel will actually be used
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IN, Page 87
Benefits of Redispatch
• Reduce required fuel load
• Increase payload
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IN, Page 88
How Redispatch Works
Climb
Cruise
Descent
Redispatchpoint
InitialDestination
FinalDestination
Origin
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IN, Page 89
Fuel Savings
Distance
Fuel required
FuelSaved
Redispatchpoint
Fuel saved
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IN, Page 90
Off Track Initial Destination
RedispatchPoint
InitialDestination
FinalDestination
Origin
RedispatchPoint
InitialDestination
FinalDestination
Origin
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IN, Page 91
Alternate Airports
Items to consider when choosing an alternate airport:• Size and surface of runway• Weather• Hours of operation, lighting• Facilities• Fire fighting, rescue equipment
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IN, Page 92
When Do You Need an Alternate?
• “No person may dispatch an airplane... Unless there is at least one alternate airport for each destination airport in the dispatch release, unless -
• The flight is less than 6 hours old and for at least 1 hour before and 1 hour after ETA, weather reports and/or forecasts indicate the ceiling will be:
FAR 121.621(Flag Air Carriers)
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IN, Page 93
Ceiling Will Be... Far 121.621
• At least 1500 ft above lowest circling minimum descent altitude (MDA) if circling approach is required
• at least 1500 ft above the lowest ILS approach minimum OR 2000 ft above airport elevation which ever is greater
• visibility at airport will be at least 3 miles OR 2 miles more than the lowest visibility minimums for ILS
Flag Air Carriers
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IN, Page 94
When Do You Need an Alternate?
If no alternate is available, relief is in “island reserves” (FAR 121.645)
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IN, Page 95
Please don’t get lost!