introduction to low cost sanitation latrine construction · introduction to low cost sanitation...
TRANSCRIPT
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INTRODUCTION TO LOW COST SANITATION
LATRINE CONSTRUCTION
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A CAWST CONSTRUCTION MANUAL
FEBRUARY 2011 Edition
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12, 2916 – 5th Avenue
Calgary, Alberta, T2A 6K4, Canada Phone: + 1 (403) 243-3285, Fax: + 1 (403) 243-6199 E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.cawst.org
CAWST is a Canadian non-profit organization focused on the principle that clean water changes lives. Safe water and basic sanitation are fundamentals necessary to empower the world’s poorest people and break the cycle of poverty. CAWST believes that the place to start is to teach people the skills they need to have safe water in their homes. CAWST transfers knowledge and skills to organizations and individuals in developing countries through education, training and consulting services. This ever expanding network can motivate individual households to take action to meet their own water and sanitation needs. One of CAWST’s core strategies is to make knowledge about water common knowledge. This is achieved, in part, by developing and freely distributing education materials with the intent of increasing its availability to those who need it most. You should feel free to copy and distribute this document in any form, printed or electronic. If you wish to use any parts of this document in the creation of your own materials, please ensure that CAWST is properly acknowledged. Please include our website address: www.cawst.org. Feel free to include a link from your website to the CAWST website. Please do not host this document to download from your website as we will have updated versions from time to time. Please email us if you have any questions or feedback. This document is open content and licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Works 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 You are free to: Share – to copy, distribute and transmit this document Remix – to adapt this document
Under the following conditions: Attribution. You must give credit to CAWST as the original source of the document
CAWST and its directors, employees, contractors, and volunteers do not assume any responsibility for and make no warranty with respect to the results that may be obtained from the use of the information provided.
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Table of Contents
Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... iii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. iii Measurement Conversions ............................................................................................. iii Glossary ......................................................................................................................... iv 1 Before You Start - Construction Safety ...................................................................... 1 2 Latrine Instructions .................................................................................................... 5 Stage A - Obtain Tools and Materials .............................................................................. 7 Stage B – Mixing Concrete ............................................................................................ 11
B.1 Type of Sand and Gravel ................................................................................. 11 B.2 Where to Get Sand and Gravel ........................................................................ 11 B.3 How to Mix Concrete ........................................................................................ 12 B.4 How to Test the Concrete Mix .......................................................................... 13 B.5 How to Mix Mortar ............................................................................................ 13
Stage C – Construct Slab .............................................................................................. 15 C.1 About Slabs ..................................................................................................... 15 C.2 Reinforced Concrete Slab ................................................................................ 17 C.3 Dome Slab ....................................................................................................... 21 C.4 Sanplat Platform .............................................................................................. 26
Stage D - Pit Lining ....................................................................................................... 29 D.1 Poured Concrete Trench Partial Lining ............................................................ 30 D.2 Brick, Block or Stone Lining ............................................................................. 31 D.3 Ferrocement Lining .......................................................................................... 33 D.4 Pre-Cast Concrete or Fired Clay Rings Lining .................................................. 34
Stage E – Install Slab .................................................................................................... 35 Stage F – Construct Superstructure .............................................................................. 35 Stage G – Maintenance and Follow-Up ......................................................................... 35 References .................................................................................................................... 36 Appendix 1: Preparing Sand and Gravel Appendix 2: Sieve Set Construction Appendix 3: Slab Mold Design Appendix 4: Squat Hole Design Appendix 5: Footrest Design
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Acronyms
CAWST Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology
VIP ventilated improved pit
Abbreviations
cm centimetre
kg kilogram
L litre
m metre
mm millimetre
“ inch
Measurement Conversions
Length or Distance
1 foot = 0.30 metres 1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 mm = 0.1 cm
1 metre = 3.28 feet 1 cm = 0.39 inches 1 cm = 10 mm
Volume Area
1 gallon = 3.78 litres 1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
1 litre = 0.26 gallons 1 ft2 = 0.09 m2
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Glossary
Cement A powder (made of limestone and clay) that is mixed with water,
sand and gravel to make concrete. Concrete A strong construction material made of cement, sand and gravel. Corrode When something deteriorates due to being in contact with air,
water or acid. Corrosive The ability of a substance to chemically eat away or cause
damage to another material. Impermeable A material that does not allow the passage of liquids. Implementation The process of carrying out a plan. The implementation phase
happens after the plan has been created. Infiltrate The process of liquid slowly passing into a material such as soil. Permeable A material that does allow the passage of liquids. Rebar Steel reinforcement bar. Sanitation Maintaining clean, hygienic conditions that help prevent disease
through services such as garbage collection, wastewater disposal, and using latrines.
Slurry A mixture of water, cement and sand.
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1 Before You Start - Construction Safety
It is important to work safely and avoid the potential for injury during latrine construction. You will be using sharp tools, lifting heavy objects, working in pits with the risk of collapse, and handling potentially dangerous materials. When properly managed, the risks involved in these tasks can be reduced to avoid injuries. A first aid kit should be available at all times during construction. At a minimum it should have bandages, gauze and disinfectants. Medical assistance contact numbers should be posted in a visible location.
1.1 Risk in Unstable Ground
It is dangerous to excavate pits in loose unstable soil. The risk of collapse is great and the worker can be severely injured or even suffocate.
Safety Precautions for Unstable Ground 1. Attach a rope to the digger so that they can be pulled out if the pit collapses.
2. Never dig alone, always have someone at the top of the excavation to help you get out of the pit.
3. Shore (put up a temporary support structure) the sides of the excavation. This is especially important if you are hand digging beyond 1.2 metres. Shoring can be made of timber or steel to support the sides of the pit during excavation and can be used until the pit lining is constructed. This adds complexity, time and cost.
4. Use caissoning technique (see the following illustration).
Dig the pit as deep as safety will allow (no deeper than 1.2 metres without shoring) place a precast concrete ring fitted with a cutting edge in the hole.
Place more rings on top until ground level is reached.
Begin excavating inside the rings. As the ground is dug away from under the cutting edge, the rings start to sink under their own weight (Franceys et al, 1992).
The rings will become the pit lining, therefore the bottom section should be permeable to allow liquids to infiltrate into the ground.
The caisson can also be built with bricks. Continue to build more layers of bricks as the caisson wall sinks.
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Ground level
Concrete rings
Cutting shoe
Cross section of Concrete Rings Used as Caissons in Unstable Ground
1.2 Risk Using Cement
Cement can hurt you if it comes into contact with your skin, eyes, or is inhaled. Cement dust reacts with body sweat or damp clothing to form a corrosive solution.
Cement dust can get in your eyes, causing redness, burns, or blindness.
Inhaling cement dust irritates your nose and throat. It can also cause choking and troubles with breathing.
Cement is hazardous when it’s wet - in mortar or concrete. If it gets inside your boots or gloves, or soaks through your clothes, it can cause burns and skin ulcers. The burns caused by cement may be slow and you may not feel anything until several hours later. That’s why it is important to wash cement off your skin right away.
Safety Precautions for Working with Cement 1. What to wear:
Eye protection for mixing, pouring, and other work with dry cement
A face mask to prevent cement dust inhalation
Work or rubber gloves
Long sleeve shirt and full-length pants
Pull sleeves over gloves
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2. What to do:
Work upwind from cement dust
Remove rings and watches because cement dust can collect underneath and burn your skin
Remove any clothing contaminated by cement
When your skin comes in contact with cement, wash with cold running water as soon as possible. Flush out any open sores or cuts. Get medical attention if your skin still feels like it’s burning.
After working with cement, always wash your hands before eating, smoking, or using the toilet
If your eyes are exposed to cement, rinse with cold clean water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention if necessary.
1.3 Risk Using Tools
Safely storing and using the tools correctly is the best way to prevent injuries. Use caution with sharp tools (e.g. saws) to prevent cuts. Avoid getting hit by a long handled shovel by keeping a far distance from shovel users, especially when standing behind them.
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2 Latrine Instructions
The following chart is an overview of the stages that are required to build a latrine.
Stage A - Obtain Tools and Materials
Stage B - Prepare Concrete
Stage C - Construct the Slab
Stage D – Excavate and Line the Pit
Stage E- Install Slab
Stage F – Construct Superstructure
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Stage G - Operation, Maintenance & Follow Up
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A – Materials B - Concrete
Stage A - Obtain Tools and Materials
A good set of tools is needed to easily and properly excavate and line a pit, build a mold, and pour a slab. All you need are hand tools, which will provide you with many years of useful life if they are properly maintained, handled and stored. You will also need to find a proper workspace that provides adequate shelter and storage for your tools, cement, sand and gravel, and slabs. To prevent theft, you may want to store your tools and materials in a locked area.
The tools and materials will depend on the type of pit lining and slab you choose to build. The following pages show a list of all the tools and materials that are referred to in this manual and appendices.
Note on Cement: Be specific about the type of cement you use. It is not recommended to use pre-mixed cement with sand and gravel, it is unlikely to be in the proportions that you need. Depending on the country, the following are different names of cement which are all the same product: Portland Cement, White Ordinary Portland Cement, General Use Cement, General Use Hydraulic Cement, Type 1 Cement, Type 10 Cement. Make sure you are using a reputable cement company and suppliers, if you are unsure ask locals. The cement should be fresh and not exposed to moisture. If there are lumps in the cement, it has probably been wet and should not be used. You can NOT break up the
lumps and reuse the cement.
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A – Materials B - Concrete
TOOLS
Gloves - Leather
Facemask
Float
Hack saw and blades
Level
1 litre measured container
Buckets
Paintbrushes
Paper
Plastic Sheets or Tarps
Rags
Rope
Shovels
Tape Measure
Trowel
Wheelbarrow
Wire Cutters
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Introduction to Low Cost Sanitation
9
A – Materials B - Concrete
MATERIALS
Bricks
Cement
Gravel
Wood/Timber
Sand
½ Inch Screen/Mesh
Mosquito Screen
Steel Reinforcement
Vegetable Oil
Wire
Chicken Wire
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Introduction to Low Cost Sanitation
10
A – Materials B - Concrete
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Introduction to Low Cost Sanitation
11
A – Materials
B - Concrete
C – Make Slab
Stage B – Mixing Concrete
Proper selection and preparation of the sand and gravel is important for the strength and long life of the concrete. The process is not complicated but close attention to following the process is necessary. Poor preparation of concrete could lead to weak slabs with short lifetimes.
B.1 Type of Sand and Gravel
Use sand and gravel that is clean, hard and sharp. Make sure that there is no dirt or organic materials (leaves, grass, etc.) in it – these materials will weaken the concrete. If you are mixing concrete on the ground avoid getting dirt into the mix.
B.2 Where to Get Sand and Gravel
You may be able to buy a premade gravel and sand concrete mix if cost and availability allow. This mix may not have the right proportions of sand to gravel nor the right sizes. It is recommended to sieve these mixtures to check that you have the right proportions and sizes. Instructions for sieving sand can be found in Appendix 1 – Preparing Sand and Gravel. Instructions for building sieves can be found in Appendix 2 – Sieve Set Construction.
Gravel and Sand Sizes and Proportions
Gravel size should be 12 mm (½”) and smaller.
Sand should be 1 mm (0.03”) and smaller.
The proportion of gravel to sand depends on the type of slab you are building. Ratios can be found under the slab construction instructions in Stage C.
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Introduction to Low Cost Sanitation
12
A - Materials B - Concrete C – Make Slab
B.3 How to Mix Concrete
1. Measure cement, sand and gravel according to the ratio for the slab you are building.
The amounts of material will depend on the size of your slab but the ratio will always remain the same. Careful measuring ensures correct proportions.
2. Place the concrete materials in layers on top of each other on a clean, flat surface, beginning with the gravel, then the sand, and finally the cement.
3. Mix dry ingredients together using a shovel. Make a shallow hole in the centre of the dry mix using your shovel. Pour about 4 litres (1 gallon) of water into the hole and mix it thoroughly with the dry ingredients. Mix by pulling dry material from the edges into the water.
4. When you have finished mixing the first amount of water into the material, continue to add water in small amounts between mixing and do this until the concrete reaches the proper consistency - fairly stiff and dry.
Note: The following concrete mix ratio has been tested and proven to work. Reinforced Concrete Slab 1 part cement : 2 parts sand : 4 parts gravel Dome Slab 1 part cement : 2 parts sand : 3 parts gravel
For any batch size, the most important thing is to keep the proportions of the
ingredients the same. You can double or triple the batch size simply by doubling or tripling the number of containers of each ingredient you add to the mix.
Tip: You can always add more water to the concrete mix, but you cannot take it away. The less water used, the stronger the dried concrete will be. The slab might
crack