introduction period of regional islamic states distinctive political and cultural identities still...
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IntroductionPeriod of regional Islamic states
Distinctive political and cultural identities
Still part of a larger civilizationGrowth of international Islamic communityUnited by shared norms of communal order
• Maintained by ulama
Influence of Sufism and Shi’ismPersian cultural renaissanceInvasions of Mongols and Turks
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Sunni Orthopraxy
Ulama were entrenched religious, social and political elitesMadrasa – college of higher learning
Natural growth as experts came together to study the Qur’an and Hadith (“tradition”)Endowed by various rulers in attempt to control ulamaSupport institution for individual teachers
• Gave student individual certification
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Orthopraxy (cont.)Popular “unofficial” piety
Local pilgrimages to saints’ tombsFolk celebrations of Muhammad’s birthdayVeneration of Muhammad in poetry
Most Muslims united by shared traditionsFasting in month of RamadanYearly Meccan pilgrimage
Muslims defined Islam in terms of practice rather than by beliefs
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Orthopraxy (cont.)Basic Sunni orthopraxy discouraged religious or social innovationsConservative theological orientationHanbalites – Ibn Hanbal Sunni legal schoolNarrowed scope for creative doctrinal changeLiteralist reading of Qur’an and HadithSocially conservativeUlama and leaders tied to status quo
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Sufi Piety and OrganizationSpiritual and mystical dimensions of Islam
Simplicity and humility
Emphasis on godly life over observance of Muslim duties
Some stressed ascetic avoidance of temptationOthers stressed loving devotion to God
Bridged abyss between human and DivineCreation of mystical poetryVery successful missionaries
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Shi’ite Traditions
Crystallized in the tenth to eleventh centuriesFatamids in Egypt create important empire
Populations in Iran, Iraq and the Sind
Two influential Shi’ite groups“Seveners” – “Isma’ilis”
• Isma’il – d. 760
“Twelvers”• Mahdi – “Guided One”• State religion of the Safavids of Iran sixteenth century
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Islamic SpainSplendor of Islamic (“Moorish”) culture in Spain
Chanson de Roland
Abd al-Rahman I – r. 756-788Founded Umayyad Spanish culture at Cordoba
CordobaCultural center for centuriesMedicine, science, literature, intellectual lifeMosque-university
Also growing religious exclusivism
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Islamic North AfricaAfrican reform movementsAlmoravids
Berber religious-warrior brotherhoodPushed into SpainPersecution of Arabized Christians and JewsBegan last phase of Spanish “Reconquista”
AlmohadsEnded Almoravid rule in MoroccoBrilliant revival of Moorish culture
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FatimidsShi’ite (Isma’ilis) empire centered in EgyptCapital at Cairo
Azhar mosque in Cairo
Two splinter groupsDruze
• Lebanon and Syria
Isma’ili Assassins
Fatimids fell to Salah al-Din in 1171Ayyubid dynasty
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MamluksEgyptian heirs to Fatimids and Saladin
Elite Turkish and Mongol slave officersVictory over Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260
Aybak – r. 1250-1257 – first Mamluk sultanBaybars – r. 1260-1277
Captured last Crusader fortressesExpansive conquests
Magnificent architecture in CairoIbn Khaldun – historian and philosopher
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Ghaznavids
Subuktigin – r. 976-997Established state in Afghanistan
Mahmud of Ghazna – r. 998-1030Patronage of Persian literature and culture
• al-Biruni – scientist and mathematician• Firdawsi – d. 1020• Shahnama – masterpiece of Persian literature
Conquests in northwestern India
Beginning of lasting Muslim presence in India
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Saljuqs
First major Turkish dynasty of IslamCaptured Baghdad in 1055
Tughril Beg – r. 1037-1063Took title of sultan
Extended Islamic control into Anatolian plateau
Captured Byzantine emperor in 1071
Captured Mecca and Medina from Fatamids
Saljuqs of Rum
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Nizam al-Mulk
Vizier from 1063-1092Built new roads and caravanserais
First great Sunni madrasas
Accurate calendar reform
Patronized Muhammad al-Ghazzali• Greatest Muslim religious thinker ever
Patronized Umar Khayyam – d. 1123• Astronomer, poet – Ruba’iyat
Saljuqs later fell to Khwarizm dynasty
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Mongols
Mongols conquered more territory than anyone else in history
Khwarizm massacre of Mongol ambassadors
Brought revenge from Genghis Khan
Destroyed entire cities 1219-1222
Transoxiana and Khorasan to the Indus
Hulagu Khan – r. 1256-1265Grandson of Genghis
Killed 80,000 in Baghdad
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IlkhanidsEstablished by Hulagu’s conquest of Persia
Ruled old Persian empire from AzerbaijanRuled viceroys (Il-Khans) of Great Khan
Hulagu had conflict with kinsman BerkeBerke ruled Golden HordeFormal alliance and split of Mongol khanates
Initial religious toleranceEventually converted to Islam
Collapsed after 75 years
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Timurids and Turkomans
Timur’s sons ruled Transoxiana, Iran 1405-1494
Shahrukh – r. 1405-1447Most successful Timurid ruler
United all of Iran for a while
Herat – was Shahrukh’s capital• Center of Persian culture and Sunni piety
Timurids shared Iran with TurkomansBoth eventually fell to Safavids
New Shi’ite era in Iran
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TamerlaneTimur-i Lang – r. 1336-1405
Savage raids fueled by sheer conquestLeft behind ruin, disease, chaos
CapturedIran, Armenia, CaucasusMesopotamia, Syria, Central AsiaNorthern India, Anatolia
Samarkand – magnificent capitalLast great steppe invasion
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Spread of Islam
Spread of Islam to new areas – 1000-1500Greece, Balkans, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, inland West Africa, coastal East Africa
Three foundations of spread and conversionSufi ordersMerchantsConquest
• In many conquered areas the native religious traditions survived
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Spread of Islam to India
Early Islamic inroads into IndiaMuslim merchants settled in port cities
Converts to Islam attracted by business opportunitiesAlso Islam’s straightforward ideologyOfficially egalitarian, “classless” ethic
Sufi orders influential in IndiaMuslim refugees from Mongol attacks
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Muslim-Hindu EncountersVery different cultural traditions
First Arab conquerors in Sind in 711 treated Hindus as “protected peoples”Just like Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians in other areas of Islamic expansion
Still – religious tensionsRajputs – (Kshatriyas) Hindu warrior caste
Chief obstacle to Islamic expansion
Failure to unify led to Muslim domination in the sixteenth century
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Islamic States and Dynasties“Slave Sultans of Delhi” – 1206-1290
Series of Turkish-Afghan rulers in northDelhi sultanate continued until fifteenth century
• Khaljis, Tughluqs, Sayyids, Lodis
Dwindling central authorityBahmanids – 1347-1527
Important independent Islamic state
Vijayanagar – 1336-1565Independent Hindu state in south
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Culture and Language
Islam became influential element of Indian cultureDelhi sultans fended off Mongol invasions
Provided basic political and social framework
Ruling class – Muslim minority of Persianized Turks and Afghans
Urdu-Hindi – emergence of new languageNeed for a shared language
Hindi – associated with Indian culture
Urdu – name for Muslim version
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Reciprocal Influences
Muslims susceptible to Hindu influencesBut Muslims never swallowed up by Hindu culture like earlier invaders
Sufi devotion similar to bhakti movementsTheistic mystics in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
Strove to transcend mutual antagonism
Devotion to a God who saves his worshipers without regards to Hinduism or Islam
Poets and reformers – Ramananda and Kabir
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Hindu and Other TraditionsRemarkably complex traditions – 1000-1500Jain tradition flourishedMuslim conquests did end Indian BuddhismBhakti creativity
Vaishnava Brahman Ramanuja – d. 1137Reconciled bhakti ideas with Upanishads
JayadevaGita GovindaMasterpiece of Hindu mystical love poetry
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Southern Indian TraditionsSouth continued to be center of Hindu cultural, political, and religious activityCholas – 900-1300
Tanjore – capitalFamous school of bronze sculpture
Kingdom of Vijayanagar – 1336-1565Resisted Muslims longer than anyoneVijayanagar – lavishly developed cityCenter of cult of Shiva
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