introduction iris detection
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Biometrics
History of identification of humans is as old as human beings. With the development in
science and technology in the today’s modern world, human activities and transactions
have been growing tremendously. Authenticity of users has become an inseparable part
of all transactions involving human computer interaction. Most conventional modes of
authentication are based on knowledge based systems i.e. “what we know” (e.g.
passwords, PIN code etc) and / or token based systems i.e. “what we have” (e.g. ID cards,
passports, driving license etc.)[1]. Biometrics bring in stronger authentication capabilities
by adding a third factor, “who we are” based on our inherent physiological or behavioral
characteristics. The term "biometrics" is derived from the Greek words bio (life) and
metric (to measure). In other words, bio means living creature and metrics means the
ability to measure an object quantitatively [2]. The use of biometrics has been traced back
as far as the Egyptians, who measured people to identify them. Biometric technologies
are hence becoming the foundation of an extensive array of highly protected
identification and personal verification systems.
Biometrics is the branch of science which deals in automated methods of recognizing a
person based on a physiological or behavioral characteristic. This technology involves in
capturing and processing an image of a unique feature of an individual and comparing it
with a processed image captured previously from the database. The behavioral
characteristics are voice, odor, signature, gait, and voice whereas physiological
characteristics are face, fingerprint, hand geometry, ear, retina, palm prints and iris. All
biometric identification systems rely on forms of random variation among persons based
on these characteristics. More complex is the randomness, the more unique features for
identification; because more dimensions of independent variation produce code having
greater uniqueness.
Every biometric system has the following layout. First, it captures a sample of the
feature, such as recording a digital sound signal for voice recognition, or taking a digital
color image for face recognition or iris recognition, or retina scan for retina recognition.
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The sample is then transformed using some sort of mathematical function into a
biometric template. The biometric template will provide a normalized, efficient and
highly discriminating representation of the features, which then can be compared with
other templates in order to determine identity.
Most biometric systems allow two modes of operation. An enrolment mode for adding
templates to a database, and matching mode, where a template is created for an individual
and then a match is searched for in the database of pre-enrolled templates in two ways.
One is called “verification” in which one-to-one comparison is carried out and other is
“identification” in which one template is compared throughout the database.
If any physiological part has the following properties then it would be considered as a
biometric [3].
1.1.1 Properties for a Biometric
• Universality
Each person should have the characteristic.
• Distinctiveness
Any two persons should be sufficiently different in terms of the characteristic.
• Permanence
The characteristic should be sufficiently invariant (with respect to the matchingcriterion) over a period of time.
• Collect-ability
The characteristic can be measured quantitatively.
• User-friendliness
People must be willing to accept the system, the scanning procedure does not
have to be intrusive and the whole system should be easy to use.
• Accuracy
Accuracy of the system must be high enough, there must be a balance between
FAR (False Accept Rate) and FRR (False Reject Rate) depending upon the use of
the system.
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However, in a biometric system these should be practically implemented [4]. In addition
to that, there are number of other issues that should be considered, such as:
• Performance: It refers to the achievable recognition accuracy and speed, the
resources required to achieve the desired recognition accuracy and speed, as well
as the operational and environmental factors that affect the accuracy and speed.
• Acceptability: It indicates the extent to which people are willing to accept the use
of a particular biometric identifier (characteristic) in their daily lives.
• Circumvention: It reflects how easily the system can be fooled using fraudulent
methods.
• Cost: It is always a concern. In this case, the life-cycle cost of system
maintenance must also be taken into account.
1.2 Some Biometrics
Based on some basic definitions of biometrics as illustrated above, this section will give a
brief description of different biometric systems [5] as elaborated below.
1.2.1 Face Recognition
Face recognition is one of the most active research areas in computer
vision and pattern recognition [6-14]. A wide range of applicationsthat includes forensic identification, access control, face-based video
indexing and browsing engines, biometric identity authentication,
human-computer interaction and multimedia monitoring/surveillance.
The task of a face recognition system is to compare an input face image against a
database containing a set of face samples with known identity [15-22]. Facial recognition
has had some shortcomings, especially when trying to identify individuals in different
environmental settings (such as changes in lighting, changes in the physical, facial
features of people, such as new scars, beard etc.).
1.2.2 Fingerprint
Fingerprint imaging technology has been in existence for centuries. The use of
fingerprints as a unique human identifier starts back in second century B.C. in China,
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where the identity of the sender of an important document could be verified by his
fingerprint impression in the wax seal.
Fingerprint imaging technology looks to capture or read the
unique pattern of lines on the tip of one's finger. These unique
patterns of lines can either be in a loop, whorl or arch pattern.
The most common method involves recording and comparing
the fingerprint's “minutiae points”. Minutiae points can be
considered the uniqueness of an individual's fingerprint [23]. In
a typical fingerprint [24] that has been scanned by a fingerprint
identification system, there are generally between 30 and 40 minutiae. The research in
fingerprint identification technology has improved the identification rate to greater than
98 percent and a false positive (false reject) rate to smaller than one percent within the
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) criminal justice program.
1.2.3 Hand Geometry
Hand geometry is essentially based on the fact that virtually
every individual's hand is shaped differently than another
individual's hand and with the passage of time the shape of the
person's hand does not significantly change [25]. The basic
principle of operation behind the use of hand geometry is to
measure or record the physical geometric characteristics of an individual's hand. From
these measurements, a profile is constructed that can be used to compare against
subsequent hand readings by the user [26].
There are many benefits to use hand geometry as a solution to general security issues
including speed of operation, reliability, accuracy, small template size, ease of integration
into an existing system, and user-friendliness. Now, there are thousands of locations all
over the world that use hand geometry devices for access control and security purposes.
1.2.4 Retina
Retinal biometric involves analyzing the layer of blood vessels situated at the back of the
eye. Retinal scans involve a low-intensity infrared light that is projected through the back
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of the eye and onto the retina. Infrared light is used based on the fact that the blood
vessels on the retina absorb the infrared light faster than surrounding eye tissues. The
infrared light with the retinal pattern is reflected back to a video camera.
The video camera captures the retinal pattern and converts it into
data that is 35 elements in size [27]. This is not particularly
convenient if you are wearing glasses or concerned about having
close contact with the reading device. For these reasons, retinal
scanning is not warmly accepted by all users, although the
technology itself can work well. The current hurdle for retinal identification is the
acceptance by the users. Retinal identification has several disadvantages including
susceptible to disease damage (i.e. cataracts), viewed as intrusive and not very user
friendly, high amount of both user and operator skill required.
1.2.5 Signature Verification
Signatures are analyzed in the way a user signs his / her name.
Signing features include speed, velocity and pressure on writing
material. These features are as important as the finished
signature's static shape [28-31]. Signature verification enjoys a
synergy with existing processes that other biometrics do not. People are used to
signatures as a means of transaction-related identity verification and most would see
nothing unusual in extending this to encompass biometrics. Surprisingly, relatively few
significant signature applications have emerged compared with other biometric
methodologies.
1.2.6 Voice Authentication
Despite the inherent technological challenges, voice
recognition technology’s most popular applications will likely
provide access to secure data over telephone lines. Voice
biometrics has potential for growth because it requires no new
hardware. However, poor quality and surrounding noise can affect verification process. In
addition, the enrollment procedure is more complicated than other biometrics being not
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user-friendly. Speaker recognition systems [32] fall into two basic types: text-dependent
and text-independent. In text-dependent recognition, the speaker says a predetermined
phrase. This technique inherently enhances recognition performance, but requires a
cooperative user. In text independent recognition, the speaker neither says a
predetermined phrase nor cooperates or even not to be aware of the recognition system.
Speaker recognition suffers from several limitations. Different people can have similar
voices [33-35], and anybody’s voice can vary over time because of changes in health,
emotional state and age. Furthermore, variation in handsets or in the quality of a
telephone connection complicates the recognition process.
1.2.7 Gait Recognition
Gait recognition is relatively a new field in biometrics. A unique
advantage of gait as a biometric is that it offers potential for
recognition at a distance or at low resolution when other biometrics
might not be perceivable [36-41]. Recognition can be based on the
(static) human shape as well as walking, suggesting a richer recognition cue. Further, gait
can be used when other biometrics are obscured. It is difficult to conceal and/or disguise
motion as this generally impedes movement.
1.2.8 Ear Recognition
Ear recognition is carried out by three different methods: (i) taking a
photo of an ear, (ii) taking “earmarks” by pushing ear against a flat
glass and (iii) taking thermogram pictures of the ear [42-45]. The most
interesting parts of the ear are the outer ear and ear lope, but the whole
ear structure and shape is used [46]. Taking photo of the ear is the most commonly used
method in research. The photo is taken and it is combined with previous taken photos for
identifying a person. Ear database is publicly available via internet [47].
1.2.9 Iris Recognition
Iris recognition is a method of biometric authentication that uses pattern recognition
techniques based on images of the irises of an individual's eyes [1, 48-64]. Iris
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recognition uses camera technology and subtle IR illumination to reduce specular
reflection from the convex cornea to create images of the detail-rich
intricate structures of the iris. These unique structures are converted
into digital templates. They provide mathematical representations of
the iris that yield unambiguous positive identification of an
individual.
Iris recognition efficacy is rarely impeded by glasses or contact lenses. Iris technology
has the smallest outlier (those who cannot use/enroll) group of all biometric technologies.
The only biometric authentication technology has been designed for use in a one-to-many
search environment. A key advantage of iris recognition is its stability or template
longevity as barring trauma and a single enrollment can last a lifetime [65].
Among the physiological characteristics, iris is the best biometric. It has all the
capabilities of a good biometric.
1.3 Location of Iris in Human Eye
Iris is the colored part of eye which is visible when eye is open. If we observe an eye
image then blackish round shaped part is pupil. Iris is the only internal organ which can
be seen externally. Iris can be seen around the pupil and inside sclera, as shown in Figure
1.1.
Figure 1.1: Location of Iris
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1.3.1 Color of the eye
The iris gives color to the eye which depends on the amount of pigment present. If the
pigment is dense, the iris is brown. If there is a little pigment, the iris is blue. In some
cases, there is no pigment at all. So, the eye is light. Different pigments color eyes invarious ways to create the eye colors such as gray, green, etc. In bright light, the iris
muscles constrict the pupil thereby reducing the amount of light entering the eye.
Conversely, the pupil enlarges in dim light in order to allow greater amount of light to
enter in retina. Some irises with different colors are shown in Figure 1.2 [66].
Figure 1.2: Different colors of Iris
1.3.2 Working of the Eye
Light passes through the front structures of the eye (i.e. the cornea, lens and so forth).
These structures focus the light on the retina, a layer of light receptors at the back of the
eye. These receptors translate the image into a neural message which travels to the brain
via the optic nerve [67].
Light passes through a layer of transparent tissues at the front of the eye called the
cornea. The cornea bends the light and it is the first element in the eye's focusing system.
The light then passes through the anterior chamber, a fluid-filled space just behind the
cornea. This fluid is called the aqueous humor and it is produced by a gland called the
ciliary body. The light then passes through the pupil. The iris is a ring of pigmented
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muscular tissue that controls the size of the pupil. It regulates how much light enters the
eye - the pupil grows larger in dim light and shrinks to a smaller hole in bright light. The
light passes through the lens that helps focus the light from the pupil onto the retina.
Light from the lens passes through the vitreous body which is a clear jelly-like substance
that fills the back part of the eyeball. It is focused onto the retina that is a layer of light-
sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. The retina contains light-sensitive cells called
photoreceptors. It translates the light energy into electrical signals. These electrical
signals travel to the brain via the optic nerve. The retina is nourished by the choroids (a
highly vascularized membrane that exists just behind the retina). Aside from the
transparent cornea at the front of the eye, the eyeball is encased by a tough, white and
opaque membrane called the sclera [68].
Figure 1.3: Structure of the eye
1.3.2 Anatomy and Structure of Iris
The iris is a circular and adjustable diaphragm with the pupil. It is located in the chamber
behind the cornea. The iris is the extension of a large and smooth muscle which alsoconnects to the lens via a number of suspensor ligaments. These muscles expand and
contract to change the shape of the lens and to adjust the focus of images onto the retina
[26]. A thin membrane beyond the lens provides a light-tight environment inside the eye.
Thus, preventing stray light from confusing or interfering with visual images on the
retina. This is extremely important for clear high-contrast vision with good resolution or
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definition. The most frontal chamber of the eye, immediately behind the cornea and in
front of the iris, contains a clear watery fluid that facilitates good vision. It helps to
maintain eye shape, regulates the intra-ocular pressure, provides support for the internal
structures, supplies nutrients to the lens and cornea and disposes off the eye's metabolic
waste. The rear chamber of the front cavity lies behind the iris and in front of the lens. It
helps provide optical correction for the image on the retina. Some recent optical designs
also use coupling fluids for increased efficiency and better correction.
1.4 Research on Iris Recognit ion
Apparently, the first use of iris recognition as a basis for personal identification goes back
to efforts to distinguish inmates in the Parisian Penal System by visually inspecting their
irises, especially the patterning of color. In 1936, ophthalmologist Frank Burch proposed
the concept of using iris patterns as a method to recognize an individual [69]. By the
1980s, the idea had appeared in James Bond films but it still remained in science fiction
and conjecture [70]. In 1985, Leonard Flom and Aran Safir, ophthalmologists, proposed
the concept that no two irises are alike and were awarded a patent for the iris
identification concept in 1987 [63]. Flom approached John Daugman to develop an
algorithm to automate identification of the human iris. In 1993, the Defense Nuclear
Agency began work to test and deliver a prototype unit which was successfullycompleted by 1995 with their combined efforts. In 1994 [64], Daugman was awarded a
patent for his automated iris recognition algorithms.
1.5 Iris Recognit ion System
The iris recognition system consists of an automatic segmentation system that is based on
the edge detector and is able to localize the circular iris and pupil region, occluding
eyelids, eyelashes and reflections. The extracted iris region is then normalized into a
rectangular block with constant dimensions to account for imaging inconsistencies.
Features are extracted with different feature extraction methods to encode the unique
pattern of the iris into biometric template. The Hamming distance was employed for
classification of iris templates and two templates were found to match if hamming
distance is grater than a specific threshold.