introduction - oneonta content... · 2011-03-21 · introduction willard n. harman jeane bennett...

INTRODUCTION

Willard N. Harman

Jeane Bennett O'Dea, David Ramsey, Scott Stanton, Dave Warner, Lorrie Trotta, Mead McCoy and Paul Lord continued their graduate work with the vascular flora at Greenwoods, Otsego Lake algae, Delaware River salmonids and Otsego Lake alewives, wetland nutrient cycling, Moe Pond fish population dynamics and ecological modeling respectively. Paul was further involved in a number of supervisory activities related to BFS computer services and as the BFS dive-master. Two high school students were supported via F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation fellowships: Chris Ingraham from Oneonta, and Jennifer Lopez from Richfield Springs Central. Gary Dewey from Unatego Jr. Sr. High held the Cooperstown (upper Susquehanna) internship. David Donelly from Cooperstown, William Hahn from Worcester Central and Briana Wilson from Owen D. Young Central were supported by Basset Healthcare Science Research Training Program.

Tavis Austin from Cooperstown was awarded a Lake and Valley Garden Club internship. Jumal Flow from SUNY Cobleskill and Darcy Williams from Colgate University were sponsored by Robert C. MacWatters Internships in the Aquatic Sciences. Jill Poulette from Oneonta recieved a Rufus 1. Thayer Otsego Lake Research Assistantship. Mike Villanella from Oneonta, was sponsored by the Peterson Family Conservation Trust to work at Greenwoods Conservancy. Darcy King from Cornell University was supported by awards from the Madison and Oswego County Planning Departments. Abigail Ellsworth worked as a volunteer over the summer. Aaron Vanderlip and Mike Villanella completed capstone experiences in Oneonta State's Environmental Sciences major.

Drs. L. P. Sohacki, W. L. Butts, and B.R. Dayton continued long term studies in their areas of expertise. Dr. Lars Rudstam, 1997 BFS Visiting Researcher from the Cornell University Biological Field Station on Oneida Lake, continued to work with and advise Dave Warner regarding his alewife studies. Dr. Robert Johnson, 1998 BFS Visiting Researcher from the Cornell University, Section of Ecology and Systematics, has worked with us on Eurasian milfoil herbivory.

Students were enrolled in several SUNY Oneonta and SUNY Cobleskill on-campus courses and attended field exercises on site. Bio. 185, Introduction to Limnology and Bio. 385, Limnology, were taught to high school and college students, respectively, during the summer. More than 1,000 K-12 students visited the BFS and received hands-on experiences on Otsego Lake and BFS woodlands over the year. Sol Betancourt, from Cooperstown Central and Mike Kappesser from Oneonta, have volunteered to work in several areas of research. Several talented citizen volunteers again helped at the BFS during the year: They were Brian Bitteker, Kathy Ernst, Dan Rosen, Miriam Sharick and Earle Peterson.

We conducted the annual Otsego Lake Boat census on July 7th . Boats and personnel were

provided for Otsego Lake Cleanup and Water Chestnut Days.

2

Recent Otsego Lake Boat Censuses

Types of Boats

8/5/92 8/5/93 7/27/94 7/14/95 7/23/96 7/18/97 7/7/98

Sailboats 220 181 208 208 207 183 236

Rowboats 243 266 311 313 325 312 372

Canoes

Outboards 407 405 461 430 378 371 377

Inboards 22 27 16 13 36 13 20

Inboard-Outboards

219 215 227 267 260 275 261

Per. W. Craft 32 28

Misc. 47 51 62 84 66 40 57

TOTAL 1,158 1,145 1,285 1,315 1,272 1,235 1,351

Funding for BFS research and educational programs was procured in 1998 from many citizens and local funding organizations including The Clark Foundation, The Gronewaldt Foundation, the Lake and Valley Garden Club, the Peterson Family Conservation Trust, Otsego 2000, the OCCA and the Village of Cooperstown. SUNY Oneonta, the SUNY Graduate Research Initiative, the SUNY Oneonta Foundation, the Madison County Planning Department, the Oswego County Planning Department, NYS Department of Agriculture and the Mary Imogene Basset Hospital's Science Partnership Program provided additional resources.

-A ':]L.~~~'I- ......-----

Prof. and Director, B 2/14/99

3

ONGOING STUDIES:

OTSEGO LAKE WATERSHED MONITORING:

1998 Otsego Lake Water Levels

Willard N. Harman K. S. Ernst*

The following data were collected at the Biological Field Station and illustrated by K. S. Ernst.

Jan-98

4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31

'E l!? 70 III :t::0 60

:s;til

en 50 lIl..c:1il 'E 40 .0

<: E 30 2~ E.s 20 tJ 0 c: E 10

~.g 0 'iii :r -10 Iii m -20 ;:

-30

Feb-98

10 13 16 19 22 25 28

BFS volunteer: Graphics and design. * US Weather Service recorded ice on. BFS observers saw open water the entire season.

6

Jul-98

7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28

.-.-....._--4.~•.-........____ ---......1-<.-..............-....----11.1-<•..--..

Days

Oct-98

7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28

..................... .. -....

Days

31

11

Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1998

Matthew F. Albright l

ABSTRACT

Limnological analyses of several abiotic factors were performed during 1998 on Otsego Lake, Cooperstown, N.Y. The purpose was to monitor the chemical and physical parameters affecting lake water quality for comparison with past findings. This work is part of an ongoing study begun thirty years ago. Throughout the year, profiles of water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and conductivity were measured using a Hydrolab Scout 2 at the deepest spot in the Lake (TR4-C). Water samples were collected in profile for the analyses of total phosphorus, nitrite+nitrate, calcium, chloride, and alkalinity. Photic-zone composite samples were collected for chlorophyll (J determinations. Secchi disk transparency was measured. The data, after comparison with earlier information, indicate water quality varies in relation to the volume of cold water fish habitat in late summer. These changes are attributed to fluctuations in nutrient loading, weather conditions, and food web alterations due to the proliferation of the alewife.

INTRODUCTION

Otsego Lake is a glacially formed, dimictic lake supporting a cold water fishery. The Lake is generally classified as being chemically mesotrophic, although flora and fauna characteristically associated with oligotrophic lakes are present (Iannuzzi, 1991). Since the establishment in 1968 of the Biological Field Station, limnological investigations have been ongoing (Clikeman, 1979; Godfrey, 1980; Harman, 1974; Harman and Sohacki, 1976; Harman, 1978; Harman, 1979; Harman, 1980; Harman and Sohacki, 1980; Homburger and Buttigieg, 1991; Iannuzzi, 1988; Monostory, 1972; Sohacki, 1970; 1971; 1972; 1973; 1974; 1975; Starn and Wassmer, 1969).

This study is the continuation of year-round protocol which began in 1991. The data collected in this report runs for the calendar year and is comparable with contributions by Homburger and Buttigieg (1992), Groff, et. af. (1993), Harman (1994; 1995) Austin et at. (1996), and Albright (1997; 1998).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data collection began 3 April and continued until 16 December 1997. Readings were collected weekly or bi-weekly. Tenuous ice conditions prevented sampling during winter

1Staff assistant, SUNY Oneonta, BFS

12

months.

Data were collected near the deepest part of the Lake (TR4-C) (Figure I), which is considered representative as past studies have shown the Lake to be spatially homogenous with respect to the factors under study (Iannuzzi, 1988). Physical measurements were recorded at 2 m intervals between 0 and 20 m and 40 m to the bottom; 5 meter intervals were used between 20 and 40 m. Measurements of pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and conductivity were recorded on site with the use of a Hydrolab Scout 2 multiprobe digital microprocessor which had been calibrated according to manufacturer's instruction immediately prior to use (Hydrolab Corp., 1993). Samples were collected for chemical analyses at 4 m intervals between 0 and 20 m and 40 m and the bottom; 10m intervals were used between 20 and 40 m. A summary of methodologies employed for chemical analyses are given in Table I. Composite samples were collected through the photic zone (surface to the depth at which light equals I% ambient levels, determined with a Protomatic photometer) for chlorophyll (J determinations. When variable light conditions precluded accurate photometric readings, sampling depth was to the Secchi depth times 2.7, which has been used as an estimator of the photic zone (Wetzel and Likens, 1991). Chlorophyll (/ measurements were made using a Turner Designs TD-700 fluorometer following the methods of Welschmeyer (1994).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Temperature

Surface temperature reached a high of23.48 0 C on 23 July and lows ofOoC when under ice. The near-bottom temperatures reached 4.91 on 4 December. Winter profiles were not recorded due to thin ice.

According to the US Weather Service, the lake froze IS February, though some reported several acres of open water throughout the winter. Summer stratification was apparent by midMay. The thermocline was completely eliminated by December 16.

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen concentrations ranged from surface readings of 12.40 mg/l on 17 April to 8.36 mg/l on 8 October. Near-bottom readings ranged from 11.83 mg/l on 3 April to 0.81 mg/l on 19 November (Figure 2).

Areal hypolimnetic oxygen depletion rates were similar to those of the 1990's, which are significantly higher than were measured historically (Table 2). Current values greatly exceed the lower limit of eutrophy (0.05 mg/cm2/day) suggested by Hutchinson (1957).

13

CRIPPLE CREEK

CLARKE POND

BLACKBIRD BAY

WILLOW BROOK

SUSQUEHANNA RIVER

Figure 1. Bathymetric map of Otsego Lake showing sampling site (TR4-C).

Parameter Sample Vol. Preservation Method Reference

Total Phosphorus-P 40 ml H2S04 to pH<2 Persulfate digestion followed By single reagent ascorbic acid

EPA,1983

Nitrite+Nitrate 25 ml Filter and cool To <4°C

Cadmium reduction APHA,1989

Calcium 50 ml None EDTA titrimetric method EPA. 1983

Chloride

Alkalinity

100 ml

100 ml

None

Cool to <4°C, Measure ASAP

Mercuric nitrate

Titration to pH=4.6

APHA,1989

APHA.1989

Table 1. Summary oflaboratory methodologies, 1997.

....... ~

15

@) 10

10

I I I I May JUly September November

0

5

10

15 1

20 Depth

in Meters

25

30

35

40

45

50 I I January March

Figure 2. 1998 Otsego Lake dissolved oxygen profiles. Isopleths in mg/l.

16

Interval D.O. Deficit (mg/cm A 2/day) 05/16/69-09/27/69 0.080 05/30/72-10/14/72 0.076 05/12/88-10/06/88 0.042

05/18/92-09/29/92 0.091 05/10/93-09/27/93 0.096 05/17/94-09/20/94 0.096 05/19/95-10/10/95 0.102

05/14/96-09/17/96 0.090 05/08/97-09/25/97 0.101 05/15/98-09/17/98 0.095

Table 2. Areal hypo1imnetic oxygen deficits, Otsego Lake. Comuted over summer stratification in 1969, 1972 (Sohacki, Unpubl.), 1988 (Iannuzzi, 1991) and 1992-98.

10 *'

9 *'

8 *

7 ~

~

'OJ 6

5 ~ '*

OJ u.§

5

*' *"'* E 0

4 *"" '*

'* *'

'*

3 '*

'* '* *' *' 2 **'" 1 *'

*'*'*' *' ~

0 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Figure 3. Mean chloride concentrations at TR4-C, 1920-98. Points later thatn 1990 represent yearly averages (modified from Peters, 1974).

17

pH measurements in Otsego Lake ranged from 7.08 near the bottom on 6 August to 8.43 at the surface on 11 June.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity averaged 109 mg/I (as CaC03) throughout the year. The minimum value of 90 mg/l was observed at the surface on 31 August and 17 September; the maximum value (123 mg/I) occurred at 48 m on 19 November. These data are consistent with earlier findings (Harman et aI., 1997).

Calcium

Calcium dynamics paralleled those of alkalinity. The year-long average was 45.3 mg/1. A low of 37.7 mg/l was encountered at 4 m on 17 September; a high of 50.5 was observed at 44 and 48 m on 19 November.

Conductivity

Conductivity (an indirect measure of ions in solution) values in Otsego ranged from 233 mmhos/cm at the surface on 17 September to 285 mmhos/cm at 48 m on 8 October.

Chlorides

Chloride concentrations averaged 9.7 mg/I, exhibiting very little variation either temporally or spatially. The trend of increasing chloride levels, first recognized in the 1950s (Peters, 1987), presumably attributable to road salting, continues (Figure 3). Concentrations are approximately 0.7 mg/l higher than in 1997. Assuming sodium chloride is the source, this represents an addition of about 400,000 kg (440 tons) of salt to the lake in the past year. These increases are despite the Village of Cooperstown's continuing efforts to limit salt as an anti-icing compound. In the future it cannot be assumed that NaCI is the sole source of chlorides, as local municipalities have begun to use a deicer that contains significant levels of MgCl.

Nutrients

Total phosphorus-P ranged from 5.3 ug/l at 40 man 20 August to 23.9 ug/l at 8 m on 6 August and averaged 9.9 ug/1. Nitrite+nitrate-N ranged from 0.28 mg/l at the surface on 5 November to 0.92 mg/l at 30 m on 20 August and averaged 0.65 mg/l. There was no evidence of phosphorus release from the sediments prior to fall turnover, as had been suggested following 1995 monitoring (Harman et aI., 1997).

18

Chlorophyll a

Photic-zone mean chlorophyll a concentrations ranged from 3.3 ug/l(3 April) to 9.8 ug/I (4 December). The mean value over the collection period (3 April to 4 December) was 5.6 ug/l. While seasonal trends were quite different than in 1997, the range and mean was similar. 1998 data, as well as those concerning Secchi transparency, are presented in full in Figure 4.

Secchi disk transparency

Water transparency averaged 2.8 m (the lowest mean transparency on record) and ranged from 0.9 m on 2 July to a high of 4.2 m on 5 November. Secchi transparencies, coupled with chlorophyll (J photic zone means, are shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 summarizes annual mean Secchi transparencies at TR4-C in 1935, 1968-73, 1975-82, 1984-87, 1988, and 1992-98 (Harman et al., 1997).

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 1997. Otsego Lake lim no logical monitoring, 1996. In 29th Annual Report (1996). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Pp. 7-15.

Albright, M.F. 1998. Otsego Lake lim no logical monitoring, 1997. ill 30th Annual Report (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Pp. 10-20.

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17 th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.

CI ikeman, P. 1979. Prel il11 inary petrography and chemical analysis of Otsego Lake surface sediments. ill 11th Annual Report (1978). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 54-61.

EPA. 1983. Methods for the analysis of water and wastes. Environmental Monitoring and Support Lab. Office of Research and development. Cincinnati, OH.

Godfrey, P. 1. 1978. Otsego Lake Limnology: phosphorus loading, chemistry, algal standing crop, and historical changes. ill 9th Annual Report (] 976). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 275-310.

Groff, A., 1. Joseph Homburger and W. N. Harman. 1993. Otsego Lake limnologicaJ monitory, 1992. In 24th Annual Report (1991). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W. N. 1974. Bathymetric map of Otsego Lake. Otsego County Conservation Association, Cooperstown.

Harman, W. N. 1978. 1978 Otsego Lake Water Levels. ill 11th Annual Report (1978). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 3-5.

19

10,------------------------.

9

8

nj

>. .c 0.. o I.

o ..c o

• -.- Chlorophyll a····················································· ----.

)KSecchi Depth ..

7 - -

6

3 : : .

2

1 .

0+----,------,--------.-------.-------.------1 02/24 04/15 06/04 07/24 09/12 11/01 12/21

1998

Figure 4. Mean photic zone chlorophyll a concentrations (parts per billion) and Secchi depth transparency (meters), 1998.

--

--

-- - -- --- --

----

--

-8

u-

-1

-2- -----

-3

-4

~ -~

,.. ~

-7

~

-~ ~.

- - r------. E >. ()

C ~ f - r- Q.)

"CO Q.. (f)

C f--CO

I-"

.::s::. (f)

is ~

..c () () Q.)

(f)

- r- r

-f-- 1

- -

r- r- -

~ - -

-

I

-

- 1------

;-

~ '--

c-

35 68 '69 '70 '71 '72 '73 75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 84 '85 '86 '87 '88 92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98

Year

Figure 5.Annual means of Secchi depth transparency, collected at TR4-C, 1935-98 (modified from Harman et ai., 1997).

I\) o

21

Harman, W. N. 1994. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1994.ln 26th Annual Report (1993). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 18-14.

Harman, W. N. and L. P. Sohacki. 1976. A basic limnology of Otsego Lake (summary of research 196875). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Occasional Paper 3: 1-50.

Harman, W. N., L. P. Sohacki, and P. J. Godfrey. 1980. The limnology of Otsego Lake. In Bloomfield, J. A. (ed.) Lakes of New York State. Vol. III. Ecology of East-Central N.Y. Lakes. Academic Press, Inc., New York. pp.l-128.

Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake, 19361996. Occasional Paper #30, SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Homburger, 1. Joseph and Gavin Buttigieg. 1991. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring. In 24th Annual Report (1991). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 60-64.

Hutchinson, G. E. 1957. A treatise on limnology. Vol. 1. Geography, physics and chemistry. Wiley, New York.

Hydrolab Corporation, 1993. Scout 2 operating manual. Hydrolab Corp. Austin, TX.

Iannuzzi, T. 1. 1991. A model plan for the Otsego Lake watershed. Phase II: The chemical limnology and water quality of Otsego Lake, Occasional Paper #23, SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Monostory, L. (Edited L. P. Sohacki, W. N. Harman) 1972. Stream-lake productivity relations in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 4th Annual Report (1971). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 19-33.

Peters, T. 1987. Update on chemical characteristics of Otsego Lake water. In 19th Annual Report (1986). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 64-67.

Sohacki, L. P. 1970. Limnological research. In 3rd Annual Report (1969-70). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. p. 44.

Sohacki, L. P. 1971. Limnological aspects of Otsego Lake. In 3rd Annual Report (1970-71). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. p. 44.

Sohacki, L. P. 1972. Limnological investigations. In 4th Annual Report (1971). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp.16-18.

Sohacki, L. P. 1973. Limnological studies on Otsego Lake. In 5th Annual Report (1972). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 54-58.

Sohacki, L. P. 1974. Limnological studies. In 6th Annual Report (1974). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 33-35.

22

Sohacki, L. P. 1975. Limnological studies on Otsego Lake. In 7th Annual Report (1975). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 21-29.

Starn, J. and D. Wassmer. 1969. A limnological study of Otsego Lake and Moe Pond. In 1st Annual Report (1969). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 12 and 21.

Welschmeyer, N.A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorophyll b and pheopigments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39:1985-1992.

23

Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 1998

Jill Poulette I

INTRODUCTION

Otsego Lake is an important and valuable resource. Not only is it home to many species of wildlife, but it is also the source of drinking water for the Village of Cooperstown, New York. An important component of protecting this valuable resource is to deter eutrophication. Eutrophic conditions cause undesirable tastes, odors and colors, and resulting dissolved organics react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking water to form carcinogens (Harman et al., 1997). Water flowing into the lake is largely responsible for the character of the lake; the quality of inflowing water is dependent upon land forms and land uses within the watershed (Albright, 1996). It is the purpose of this study to continue ongoing monitoring of the northern watershed of Otsego Lake. This part of the watershed contributes a large majority of the water flowing into the lake.

Otsego Lake has a U-shaped basin with a north-south orientation. It lies in the glacially over-deepened Susquehanna Ri ver valley. The northern watershed consists of five drainage basins: those drained by White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook and a small tributary on Mount Wellington. Problems exist in this part of the watershed due to cultural development, nutrient-rich soils, and associated agriculture (Harman et al., 1997). Nutrients from agricultural nonpoint sources have been identified as the main cause of cultural eutrophication in freshwater inland lakes of the U.S. (Daniel, 1994).

Through the 1996 Farm Bill, the Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) was established to assist crop and livestock producers in dealing with environmental and conservation improvements on the farm (USDA, 1996). In addition to other incentive programs, EQIP Best Management Practices (BMP) have been instituted on ten sites throughout the northern watershed utilizing matching funds provided by the Otsego County Conservation Association. Land treatment using BMPs is believed to be the most effective approach to the control of agricultural pollution sources (Meals, 1993). A variety of practices exist, which when implemented, can maintain high surface water quality (Daniel, 1994). Examples of such practices include crop rotation, nutrient management, and the construction of barnyard water management systems and manure storage facilities. A goal of this study is to develop a crude measurement of the effectiveness of the effectiveness of these practices and to note any unanticipated phenomena contributing to nutrient loading. The most effective ways of determining changes as a result ofBMP implementation are precipitation-based studies to determine nutrient loading, much more expensive than this monitoring protocol. Modifying human activities throughout the watershed should reduce the damaging effects on Otsego Lake (Miller, 1997).

I Rufus J. Thayer Otsego Lake Research Assistant, summer 1998. Utica, NY 13502

24

o SCALE III KILOMETERS

4

I

Figure 1. Map of five major tributaries of Otsego Lake and the 23 sites routinely sampled. Star symbols represent properties undergoing farmyard improvement projects (Adapted from Harman et at., 1997).

25

METHODS

Weekly water samples were taken at 23 sites on five major tributaries of Otsego Lake. These tributaries, shown in Figure I, include White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook and the stream on Mount Wellington. Barnyard improvement projects completed by the commencement of 1998 monitoring are indicated. Detailed site descriptions are given in Table I. The same sites have been monitored aImually since 1995. The water samples were analyzed weekly for total phosphorus using the ascorbic acid method following persulfate digestion (APHA, 1992) and analyzed bi-weekly for nitrite+nitrate using the cadmium reduction method (APHA, 1992).

In addition, physical properties of the streams were also monitored. Conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH, and temperature were measured using a Hydrolab Reporter. The Reporter was calibrated prior to each collection following manufacturer's protocol (Hydrolab Corporation, 1995).

Table 1. Physical descriptions of sites sampled throughout the summer of 1998. Sites coincide with Miller (1997) and are seen in Figure I.

White Creek I: N 42° 49.646' W 74° 56.986' South side of Allen Lake on County Route 26 near outlet to White Creek. This lake is the water supply for the town of Richfield Springs.

White Creek 2: N 42° 48.931' W 74° 55.303' North side of culvert on County Route 27 (Allen Lake Road) where there is a large dip in the road.

White Creek 3: N 42° 48.355' W 74° 54.210' East side of large stone culvert on Route 80.

Cripple Creek 1: N 42° 48.919' W 74° 55.666' Weaver Lake accessed from the north side of Route 20. Water here is slow moving and there is an abundance of organic matter.

Cripple Creek 2: N 42° 50.597' W 74° 54.933' Young Lake accessed from the west side of Hoke Road. The water at this si te is shallow; some distance from shore is required for sampling.

Cripple Creek 3: N 42° 49.437' W 74° 53.991' North side of culvert on Bartlett Road. The water at this location is cold and swift. This site is immediately downstream of an active dairy farm.

Cripple Creek 4: N 42° 48.836' W 74° 54.037' Large culvert on the west side of Route 80. The stream widens and slows at this point; this is the inlet to the Clarke Pond.

26

Cripple Creek 5: N 42° 48.822' W 74° 53.779' Dam just south of Clarke Pond accessed from the Otsego Golf Club.

Hayden Creek 1: N 42° 51.658' W 74° 51.010' Summit Lake accessed from the east side of Route 80, north of the Route 20 and Route 80 intersection.

Hayden Creek 2: N 42° 51.324' W 74° 51.294' North side of culvert on Dominion Road.

Hayden Creek 3: N 42° 50.890' W 74° 51.796' Culvert on the east side of Route 80 north of the intersection of Route 80 and Route 20.

Hayden Creek 4: N 42° 50.258' W 74° 52.144' North side of large culvert at the intersection of Route 20 and Route 80. This site is adjacent to an active dairy farm.

Hayden Creek 5: N 42° 49.997' W 74° 52.533' Immediately below the Shipman Pond spillway on Route 80.

Hayden Creek 6: N 42° 49.669' W 74° 52.760' East side of the culveli on Route 80 in the village of Springfield Center.·

Hayden Creek 7: N 42° 49.258' W 74° 53.010' Large culvert on the south side of County Route 53.

Hayden Creek 8: N 42° 48.874' W 74° 53.255' Otsego Golf Club, above the white bridge adjacent to the clubhouse. The water here is stagnant and murky.

Shadow Brook I: N42°51.831' W74°47.731' Small culvert on County Route 30 south of Swamp Road. Although flow was recorded throughout the summer of 1998, this site has a history of drying up by mid-summer.

Shadow Brook 2: N 42° 49.882' W 74° 49.058' Large culvert on the north side of Route 20, west of County Route 31. There is heavy agricultural activity upstream ofthis site.

Shadow Brook 3: N 42° 48.788' W 74° 49.852' Private driveway (Box 652) leading to a small wooden bridge on a dairy farm.

Shadow Brook 4: N 42° 48.333' W 74° 50.605' One lane bridge on Rathbun Road near active dairy farm. This site is located on an active dairy farm where the animals have been observed wading in the stream on several occasions. The stream bed consists of exposed limestone bedrock.

27

Shadow Brook 5: N 42° 47.436' W 74° 51.506' North side of large culvert on Mill Road behind Glimmerglass State Park.

Mount Wellington I: N 42° 48.864' W 74° 52.594' Stone bridge on Public Landing Road adjacent to an active dairy farm.

Mount Wellington 2: N 42° 48.875' W 74° 52.987' Small stone bridge is accessible from a private road off Public Landing Road; at the end of the private road near a white house there is a mowed path which leads to the bridge. Water here is stagnant and murky.


CONDUCTIVITY

Conductivity is an indirect measure of the dissolved ions in solution. It is an estimate of the inorganic constituents in water. Average conductivity for White Creek (WC), Cripple Creek (CC), Hayden Creek (HC), Shadow Brook (SB), and the stream on Mount Wellington (MW) are seen in Figure 2.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN

Dissolved oxygen is an important factor in determining the health of an aquatic ecosystem. Decreased levels of dissolved oxygen are indicative of increased organic matter or excessive temperatures. When there is an abundance of organic material, a large amount of dissolved oxygen is consumed during microbial decomposition. The minimum concentration to support warm water biota is 3 mg/L (Novotny & Olem, 1994). Concentrations should be above 6 mg/L to support a diversity of aquatic biota (Harman el aI., 1997). Average dissolved oxygen for White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook and the stream on Mount Wellington are seen in Figure 3. It was observed that CC I had unusually low dissolved oxygen with the lowest average of 4.62 mg/L. CC 1 also had the lowest single reading of 1.15 mg/L, which was recorded on 18 August 98. This is expected, as CC I is a shallow area with high organic content. Shadow Brook had the highest dissolved oxygen on all the streams with the highest average of 9.64 mg/L occurring at SB4 and the single highest measurement of 12.34 occurring at SB2.

pH

Many organisms are sensitive to changes in pH. Most aquatic biota prefer a pH of 7 (neutral), but can tolerate a range of 6 to 8.5 (Novotny & Olem, 1994). pH ranged from 6.85 to 8.75 in the streams for the summer of 1998, which is to be expected given that the bedrock in these areas is dominated by limestone. Average pH for White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook and the stream on Mount Wellington are seenin Figure 4.

I 1 -----~. 500 I

MW2

1 11 I I

I

1 ...... SB4i--l ~- -I---T----l-:~~ .

~IH~~ I I I I

! II cr;C5 I ! SB5 I

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I I ::::l

I I "C

I ~ I 81- 1 --- --I we:;' I - WC3, 300

I

250T--QC'

---i----111

1 wc' Il

,

I------f___ I -----l200------~-_.-__L 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 o

Distance from Otsego Lake (KM)

I_White Creek ---e-- Cripple Creek -+-Hayden Creek ~ Shadow Brook -0-Mount Wellingto~. I I

Figure 2. Average conductivity of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1998.

1'0 OJ

-I ~---~. -, --~ 10.00

I I[I ~ : SB3 I I

1 I

!

- T SB~\~C11 t -~~--~ gOO----------T--'--=--=-- 1 I .

HC? "I

HC3 I

S~_3 ~C8 .~ ,18.00

::JWC2 I 1 OJ g

W2 ; OJ >>< o

"C (1)

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C 6.00 -- ~ l·- 1----1

1----+---1---- A I L I '~ 500

I CC1 1r I I I . I

I L -J LI I I -1400

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0


I ----White Creek -+-Cripple Creek -+-- Hayden Creek --.- Shadow Brook --0- Mount Wellington I

Figure 3. Average dissolved oxygen of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1998.

/"\) <0

2

Co

I

o468

CC1

10

I

~-I

12

I-~

I I

I

f------- ----\·1'----r-I

1----1- r- i

I ~_ I

I

!

___ II

I -I

14


~White Creek ___ Cripple Creek --+- Hayden Creek --.- Shadow Brook --0-- Mount Wellington

Figure 4. Average pH of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1998.

<.u o

MW2

CC4

~y~.......... --"!! 8.00

• .. I 7.80 J:

r 7.60

I

i'40 I

.-----r-- -----+ 7.20

_ I·HC3- 1--I I_+ I I

I I

I HC1 i i 1 - r 840

1----+ . I I II CC2 ~. -~ ~I-- - I

I ,

I I-·1 I

31

TEMPERATURE

Temperature affects aquatic organisms both directly and indirectly. Stenothermal species of aquatic biota can only tolerate a narrow range of temperatures and are negatively impacted if temperatures occur outside that range. The biota may also be indirectly affected, because dissolved oxygen concentrations are inversely related to temperature. Temperatures ranged from a low of 10.52 °C on 2 June 98 at CC3 to a high of26.39 °C on 21 July 98 at HC I. Average temperature for White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook, and the stream on Mount Wellington are seen in Figure 5. Shadow Brook was consistently cooler than the other streams. Shadow Brook is a swift stream with cold springs entering at various points. The highest average temperature of 22.3 7 °C occurred at HC 1, which is located on Summit Lake.

PHOSPHORUS

The United States consumes 25% of the world's phosphorus and we use 76% of that in agricultural fertilizers (Kramer, 1972). The productivity of Otsego Lake is limited by phosphorus (Harman et al., 1980). As increases in the concentration of this nutrient have been documented (Harman et aI., 1997), it follows that its rate of loading by the watershed has also increased. Phosphorus is the single most important nutrient to manage for controlling accelerated eutrophication in freshwater lakes (Daniel, 1994). The goal of this study is to characterize streamwater with respect to phosphorus content. Average total phosphorus for White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook, and the stream on Mount Wellington are seen in Figure 6. The highest average total phosphorus of214 ug/L and highest single total phosphorus of735 ug/L on 21 July 98 occurred at MW2. MW2 is immediately downstream of a large dairy farm. High levels of total phosphorus were observed in all streams on 16 June 98, 30 June 98, and 11 August98. On both 16 June 98 and 30 June 98 it was raining during sampling. This may account for the high phosphorus observed on those days, since runoff increases with increasing precipitation.

NITROGEN

Nitrogen is a nutrient that often contributes to eutrophication. In addition, forms of nitrogen such as nitrites can adversely affect human health if present in drinking water. Average nitrite+nitrate for White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook and the stream on Mount Wellington are seen in Figure 7. Nitrite+nitrate levels ranged from a low ofO.004mg/L at CC2 on 14 July 98 to a high of3.676mg/L at SB2 on16 June 98. High levels of nitrite+nitrate were observed in all streams on 16 June 98. On that date it was raining during sampling.

CONCLUSION

The results for most streams indicate an improvement in water quality since 1991 with some exceptions. The amounts of phosphorus and nitrite+nitrate in White Creek have

i I --r 'I I 23.00

1 _ I I HC1 I III 1- -1----t--------11-----+ 22.00I

---------i_ I CC2 I I ! I1I t------;- --- HC2 ---1 i ~II 21.00

I I I '!t 1

1-f-- ! CC1 I I MW2

I ISBU. I ---~7 ~::OO ~

~ . 115.00I

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 o Distance from Otsego Lake (KM)

17.00

CC4

MW1

~ \ ~ " h S""'S--4---~ 19.00 E

~-_-+-'-f-~-:' HC8 8E Q)

I

---r\:---'~---,4--~=-------lL--l18.00

~- + I SS2 I

I f l' \,1 / I 16.00

I I L I ,iCC3

__Wtiite Creek Cripple Creek --+-- Hayden Creek --.- Shadow Brook -0-Mount Wellingt~

Figure 5. Average temperature of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1998. w f\)

------------------

-I ----------,-- 250.000

T ! I i

I II \ I nMW2

I .-- 1 I 1 -I II 200.000

I II I

I +-__+------1--I 150.000 g'I ~ I 1-; I I I I i

I · I I I I ~

I--= ~ eel ~ ~~" +-----LU'''-~---+-1---------~-I SB1 I

I - I

14 12 10


I ........White Creek --+-Cripple Creek --+- Hayden Creek ---.- Shadow Brook -D- Mount wellin~

468

SB21 . -~ ~J\'f"'oi SB3

J I

Figure 6. Average total phosphorus of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1998. w w

-----------------

I -----, . 2.000 -- ",- I--~--~:, ! I

I

---,---- I I : ~ _ -+ 1.800SB2 i , _ _ -;-1

_-~I --~--- ~I· II

HC8I-- 1 -------1- I ~ _ T. 1.600

-- 1.200t

I ----+ -I--SB3 'MW2I - +-- --'I ! ~I SB4 1.400r-.. I I

1 -

_! .._. I

L --+1- ······1· 11HC3 _IHC4

I I ---J1 I Q)

I - -- I ! [. CC3 1.000 ~ ~ I

I

I

I

C5~I __t'[ - I - I - -I -r- CC4 MW1 f ~

- I II _ z - II : --- 0.800 _ 1

L--~ i /

1HC2 -+- 0.600II

I, II- ~i L

i • 1 ~--- I I 0.400 I

/f--- 1-- --l- - - .! --I1 -I WC3

1-------WC2 I I 0.200SB1 ---r- cC1.1 CC2~-I ~ 1- I ~~:-- 4 -

I J0

0.0006 14 12 10 8 2


--------------1I - White Creek ---.-. Cripple Creek --+- Hayden Creek -.-Shadow Brook -0- Mount Wellington j

Figure 7. Average nitrite+nitrate of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1998.

<.oJ .t>.

35

increased slightly since 1997. There are currently no BMP sites in the White Creek basin. Mount Wellington shows a decrease in phosphorus since 1997 at MW I, but an increase in phosphorus at MW2. BMP projects have been funded for this basin though none have been constructed to date. Nutrient levels in Hayden Creek have remained relatively constant since 1997. There are currently four BMP sites in the Hayden Creek basin. Phosphorus levels have decreased in Cripple Creek since 1997, but levels ofnitrite+nitratehave increased in the downstream reaches of the stream this year. The high levels of nitrites+nitrates could be due to the great amount of precipitation seen early in the summer of 1998. As flow increases, nutrient concentrations from non-point sources increase and those from point sources will decrease due to dilution. Further monitoring will be necessary to determine if nitrogen levels are indeed rising due to changes in land use or climactic conditions. Currently there are two BMP sites in the Cripple Creek basin. Shadow Brook shows a decrease in phosphorus and nitrite+nitrate since 1997. There are four BMP sites in the Shadow Brook basin.

Figure 8 shows total phosphorus at the stream outlets for the years 1991, 1992 and 1995- 98. Shadow Brook was the only stream monitored in 1992. White Creek and the stream on Mount Wellington were not monitored in 1995. The general trend seems to be that phosphorus is declining throughout the watershed with the exception of Mount Wellington. While this stream tends to have the highest concentration of phosphorus, its small drainage basin and ephemeral nature mean the overall loading by this stream is relatively slight. It isn't yet known if the BMP sites on Hayden Creek, Cripple Creek, and Shadow Brook are the cause of decreased phosphorus levels. Shadow Brook is perhaps the best indicator to date, since some BMPs located in that basin have been there the longest. Most Shadow Brook BMPs were implemented before 1995. As shown in Figure 8, the total phosphorus at the Shadow Brook outlet has decreased steadily over the period since implementation ofBMPs. Although these results are encouraging, continued monitoring is necessary before any solid conclusions can be made about the effectiveness of the BMP projects in the northern watershed. There appears to be a direct relationship between watershed size and the timeframe required to observe water quality improvements (Maas, 1988). Similar programs have shown that for a lake, the total time between implementation of BMPs and documented improvements in the lake is from 6 to 14 years (Maas, 1988). This depends on the size of the lake.

It should be noted that on collection dates when high levels of phosphorus and nitrite+nitrate were observed, samples were taken during rainstorm events. For streams lacking point sources, there is an increase in the range of observed phosphorus and sediment concentrations with increasing stream discharge (Brown et al., Undated). Currently, there is no available information regarding stream discharges. This valuable information could be used to determine nutrient loading, which better evaluates how changes in land use effect a lake. Surveys conducted 1991-93 are intended to provide baseline nutrient concentration data; those years constant flow data were collected on Shadow Brook. More BMPs are currently under construction. It is the intent of the BFS to implement a precipitation-based monitoring protocol on Shadow Brook beginning in 1999 thanks to funding by OCCA.

250

200 ~

-...J-0) ~

150 l/) ~ 'o

J:: C. l/) o

J:: a.. 100 . ns

....-o

50

I_IIo

Il~

WC3 CC5 HC8 SB5 MW2

Stream Outlets

01991 81992 01995 rJ 1996 .1997 ill 1998

Figure 8. Average total phosphorus of the outlets of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1991, 1992, and 1995 - 1998.

w (j)

37

REFERENCES

Albright. M. F., L. P. Sohacki, and W. N. Harman. 1996. Hydrological and Nutrient Budgets for Otsego Lake, N.Y. and Relationships Between Land Form/Use and ExpOli Rates of its Subbasins. Occasional Paper # 29. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta. SUNY Oneonta.

American Public Health Association. 1992. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 18th Edition. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

Brown, M. P. M. R. Rafferty, and P. Longabucco. Undated. Nonpoint Source Control of Phosphorus - A Watershed Evaluation. Vol.3 Phosphorus Transport in the West Branch of the Delaware River Watershed. Bureau of Water Resources. NYSDEC.

Daniel, T. c., A. N. Sharpley, D. R. Edwards, R. Wedepohl, and J. L. Lemunyon. 1994. Minimizing Surface Water Eutrophication from Agriculture by Phosphorus Management. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 49(2):30-38.

Harman, W. N., L. P. Sohacki, and P. J. Godfrey. 1980. The Limnology of Otsego Lake. In Bloomfield, J. A. (ed.) Lakes of New York State. Vol. III. Ecology of East-Celltral N. Y. Lakes. Academic Press, Inc. New York. Pp. 1 - 128.

Harman, W. N., L. P. Sohacki, M. F. Albright and, D. L. Rosen. 1997. The State of Otsego Lake, 1936 - 1996. Occasional Paper # 30. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hydrolab Corporation. 1995. Reporter Operating Manual. Hydrolab Corporation. Austin, Texas.

Kramer, J. R. , S. E. Herbes, and H. E. Allen. 1972. Phosphorus: Analysis of Water, Biomass, and Sediment. 1/1 Nutrients in Natural Waters. John Wiley & Sons. New York. Pp. 51 - 100.

Maas, R. P., S. L. Brichford, M. P. Smolen, and J. Spooner. 1988. Agricultural Nonpoint Source Control: Experiences from the Rural Clean Water Program. Lake and Reservoir Management. 4( I):51-56.

Meals, D. W. 1993. Assessing Nonpoint Phosphorus Control in the LaP/atte River Watershed. Lake and Reservoir Management. 7(2): 191-207.

Miller, C. 1996. Water Quality monitoring of Otsego Lake's Five Major Tributaries. 1/1 30lh Annual Report. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Novotny, Vladimir and Harvey Olem. 1994. Water Quality: Prevention, Identification, and Management of Diffuse Pollution. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York.

United States Department of Agriculture. 1996. The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996. Updated August 21, 1996. http://www.usda.gov/farmbillltitleO.htm. Accessed July 24, 1998.

38

Macrobenthic study of the northern tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 1998

Aaron Vanderlipl

INTRODUCTION

During the summer of 1998, macrobenthic collections were taken from four main tributaries that empty into the northern end of Otsego Lake: Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook, and White Creek. Twenty-one samples were taken at various locations along these waterways. A similar study was executed three years ago (Fahey, 1995). The 1998 collections were both qualitative and quantitative, giving a list of the invertebrates that inhabit the tributaries along with numerical data to show diversity, dominance, and abundance within these streams. Some conclusions regarding the health of these waters can be expressed by looking at their population profiles, and using the various taxa as indicators of water quality. For example, the orders Trichoptera (caddisflies), Plecoptera (stonetlies), and Ephemeroptera (mayflies) (EPTs) are generally considered good indicators of a high level of oxygen in the water; therefore, their presence and abundance serves as a good indication of a stream's health. The final results of this study, in conj unction with the results of geological/geochemical analysis (Fetterman, 1998), chemical analysis (Poulette, 1998), and fecal bacterial monitoring studies (Ingraham, 1998), will give us a better understanding of the water quality of these tributaries, and ultimately, Otsego Lake.

MATERIALS and METHODS

Samples of macrobenthic organisms were collected 2-4 June 98 at 21 different locations on 4 different tributaries. These included five sites on Cripple Creek, eight on Hayden Creek, five on Shadow Brook, and three on White Creek (Figure 1). Triangle nets, hand sieves, seines, and soft forceps were used to obtain invertebrates for the qualitative samples. They were actively collected dragging a hand sieve or a triangle net through the substrate, along the bank, or through the vegetation of the stream. Also rocks, dead logs and stems, and any larger items found in the stream were searched for invertebrates by using soft forceps. Organisms were also passively collected by stirring up the bottom of the stream and letting the current wash the organisms into the various nets, sieves, and seines, where they could be picked out. These types of samples were done in as many of the microhabitats at each sampling site as possible, so as to give the best representation of the number of different taxa. The quantitative samples were generally done in the riffles of the streams, where available.

Qualitative samples were generally collected using a Hess Sampler. The Hess has a sample space of 0.085 meters2

• It is placed in the riffle so that the collection cup faces down cunent. The area that the sampler encompasses was stirred up by hand, so that the invertebrates were washed down into the collection cup by the current. Larger rocks and debris inside the

1 Capstone experience, SUNY Oneonta, Environmental Sciences program, summer 1998

39

SCAL< IN klLOMETUJ

o I J 4

I

Figure 1. Map of the 21 sampling sites on five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed (Adapted from Paulette, 1998).

40

sample area were examined and picked of all the organisms that were still clinging to them. At each site two of these Hess samples were taken.

In both the qualitative and quantitative samples, the organisms were preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol in labeled jars and taken back to SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station. Once back at the field station, the qualitative samples were classified to their respective orders, and within the orders classified down as specifically as possible using taxonomic keys (Harman & Berg, 1971; Merritt & Cummings, 1996; Peckarsky et al., 1990; Pennak, 1953; Harman, 1998). The quantitative samples were dealt with in a different fashion. Once at the field station, a Rose Bengal solution was added to all of the sample jars to stain the organisms, making the removal of organisms and the subsequent removal of detritus easier. After this, the samples were examined under an illuminated magnifier', so that the stained organisms could be picked out of the sediment more efficiently. Once this process was complete, the organisms were keyed to order using the same taxonomic keys.

RESULTS

The results of the qualitative samplings are shown in Tables 1-4. The results of the quantitative samplings are shown in Tables 5-8.

DISCUSSION

When comparing the results of the qualitative samples that were collected on 3 June 98 with those taken on 30 June 95 (White Creek was not in the 1995 study), there was a noticeable increase in the number of sample sites inhabited by Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, and various orders of Crustacea. There were no Plecoptera at any of the Shadow Brook sites in 1995; they are now located at all five sites, which leads to the belief that the overall health of the stream is improving. There also seems to be a greater diversity of genera per site and stream in 1998 than in 1995. This seems to be the case at every stream and across most sampling sites. Any decrease in the amount of genera was slight and almost unnoticeable. The reason for this could be an increase in the quality of the stream. However, the temporal differences in sampling dates between 1995 and 1998 is over three weeks. This could also explain some differences; in 1995, some of the aquatic insects may have had a chance to complete their life cycles and leave the stream. No conclusions can be drawn from the quantitative data at this time.

41

Table 1. Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Cripple Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION CCI 6/3/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

Corbiculidae Corbicula fluminea

Gastropoda Basommatrophora

Lymnaeidae Lymnaea humilis

Physidae Physella gyrina

Viviparidae Viviparus georgianus

Arthropoda Crustacea

Isopoda Asellidae

Lirceus Amphipoda

Talitridae Hyalella

Decapoda Cambaridae

Insecta Ephemeroptera

Caenidae Caenis

Odonata (Anisoptera) Aeshnidae

_________________-"C"-"o<=-r'''_du""l'-"e~ga"'s""tr'-"i"'-da=e

Odonata (Zygoptera) Lestidae

Lestes Coenagrionidae

Enallagmq Anomalagrion/Ischnura

Hemiptera Gerridae

Gerris Limnogonus

Coleoptera Dytiscidae

Celina Haliplidae

Peltodytes Hydrophilidae

Hydrobius Elmidae

Microcylloepus Orconectes rusticus

Diptera

42

Table 1 (cont.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Cripple Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Tipulidae Stratiomyidae

HedriodiscuslOdontomyia Chironomidae

CC2 6/3/98 Mollusca Gastropoda

Basommatrophora Physidae

____~Phvsella~

Lymnaeidae ___________________~LVJJ111aea humilis

Viviparidae Vivivarus geQrgianus

Mesogastropda Hydrobiidae

Amnicola limosa Armelida

Hirudinea Arhynchobdellida

Erpobdellidae Erpobdella


Cladocera Isopoda

Asellidae Lirceus

Amphipoda Talitridae

Hvalella Decapoda

Cambaridae Orconectes rusticus


Caenidae Caenis

Odonata (Zygoptera) Coenagrionidae

Enallagma Hemiptera

Corixidae Cymatia

Trichoptera Leptoceridae

Setodes Coleoptera

Dytiscidae Celina

Haliplidae Peltodytes

43


SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Diptera

Ceratopogonidae BezziaiPalpormyia

Chironornidae CC3 6/3/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

Sphaeriidae Pisidium




Isopoda Asellidae


Ephemerellidae Ephemerella Serratella Drunella Attenella

Baetidae Cloeon

Heptageniidae Macdunnoa Epeorus

Odonata (Anisoptera) Petaluridae

Tachopteryx Aeshnidae

Aeshna Odonata (Zygoptera)

Calopterygidae Hetaerina

Plecoptera Pteronarcyidae

Pteronarcvs Leuctridae

Leuctra Nemouridae

Amphinemura Perlidae

Perlesta Acroneuria

Perlodidae Diura

Trichoptera Helicopsychidae

44


SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Helicopsyche

Hydropsychidae Macrostemum

Coleoptera Psephenidae

Psephenus Ectopria

Elmidae Stenelmis

Megaloptera Corydalidae

Nigronia Diptera

Empididae Hemerodromia

Chironomidae CC4 6/3/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea



Lynmaeidae Lymnaea humilis


Vi viparidae Viviparus geogianus

Arthropoda Cmstacea

Isopoda Asellidae

___________________ Lirceus Decapoda

Cambaridae Orconectes limosus


Siphlonuridae Siphlonurus

Caenidae Caenis

Ephemerellidae Dannella


Boyeria Odonata (Zygoptera)

Lestidae Lestes

45

Table 1 (coot.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Cripple Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Calopterygidae

Hetaerina Hemiptera

Corixidae Palmacorixa Trichocorixa

Trichoptera Limnephilidae

pycllopsvche Coleoptera

Psephenidae Ectopria

Dytiscidae Matus Celina

Diptera Chironomidae

CC5 6/3/98 Annelida Hirudinea

Rhynchobdellida Glossiphoniidae

Placobdella Mollusca





Copepoda Calanoida

Epischura Isopoda

Asellidae Lirceus

Arnphipoda Crangonyctidae

Crangonyx Talitridae

Hvalella Insecta

Ephemeroptera Ephemerellidae

Dannella Attenella Ephemerella

Heptageniidae Leucrocuta Epeorus

46


SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Caenidae

Caenis Odonata (Zygoptera)

Coenagrionidae Enallagma Anomalagrion/lsehnura

Plecoptera Nemouridae

Amphinemura Leuctridae

Leuetra Perlidae

Perlesta Perlodidae

lsoperla Hemiptera

Mesoveliidae Mesovelia

Ochteridae Oehterus

Coleoptera Hydrophilidae

Hvdrobius Elmidae

Stenelmis Diptera

Chironomidae

47

Table 2. Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Hayden Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION HCI 6/3/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

Sphaeriidae Musculium Pisidium


Isopoda Asellidae

Lirceus Insecta


Eurylophella Caenidae

Caenis Odonata (Anisoptera)

Gomphidae Hagenius

Odonata (Zygoptera) Coenagri onidae

Enallagma Plecoptera

Nemouridae Amphinemura

Hemiptera Gerridae

Genis Coleoptera

Elmidae Stenelmis

Diptera Ceratopogonidae

Culicoides Tabanidae

Ch,ysops Chironomidae

HC2 6/3/98 Annelida Oligochaeta

Lwnbricina Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

Sphaeriidae Musculium


Isopoda Asellidae

Lirceus

48

Table 2 (cont.). Sununary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Hayden Creek, sununer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Amphipoda

Talitridae Hyalella

Decapoda Cambaridae

Orconectes rusticus Insecta

Ephemeroptera Ephemerell idae

Eurylophella Heptageniidae

Stenonema Caenidae

________----'C~a.enis


Argia ____________________--'E~nallagma

Plecoptera Perlidae

Perlesta Hemiptera

Corixidae Palmacorixa

Gerridae Ge'Tis

Veliidae Paravelia

Trichoptera Uenoidae

Neophvlax Limnephilidae

Pycnopsyche Hydropsychidae

Macrostemum Coleoptera

Elmidae Stenelmis

Diptera Empididae

Hem erodromia Chironornidae

HC3 6/3/98 Mollusca Bivalvia

Sphaeracea Sphaeriidae

Sphaerium Gastropoda

Basommatrophora Lyrnnaeidae

Lymnaea humilis

49

Table 2 (cont.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Hayden Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Planorbidae

Gvraulus parvus Arthropoda

Crustacea Isopoda

Asellidae Lirceus

Decapoda Cambaridae


Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae

Stenonema Plecoptera

Perlidae Agnetina

Hemiptera Gerridae

Gerris Corixidae

Palmacorixa Trichoptera

Uenoidae Neophylax

Lirnnephilidae Pycnopsyche

Coleoptera Dytiscidae

Deronectes Laccornis

Elmidae Stenelmis

Diptera Syrphidae

Heliophilus Chironomidae

HC4 6/3/98 Armelida Oligochaeta

Lumbricina Arthropoda

Crustacea Decapoda

Cambaridae Orconectes rllsticlls


Heptageniidae Stenonema Heptagenia

Siphlonuridae

50


SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Amele/us

Ephemerellidae Serra/ella

LeptopWebiidae Paralep/ophlebia

Baetidae Bae/is Cen/rop/ilum


Amphinemura Perlidae

Agne/ina Paragne/ina

Hemiptera Saldidae GelTidae

Gerris Veliidae

Paravelia Trichoptera

Limnephilidae Pycnopsvche

Hydropsychidae Macros/emum

Uenoidae Neophylax

Coleoptera Psephenidae

Psephenus Elmidae

Promoresia S/enelmis

Diptera Tipulidae

Dicrano/a Tipula


Chironomidae HC5 6/4/98 Arthropoda

Crustacea Decapoda

Canbaridae Orconec/ers ru/sicus


Baetidae Bae/is

Ephemerellidae Serra/ella

51

Table 2 (coot.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Hayden Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION LeptopWebiidae

Paraleptophlebia Habrophlebiodes

Heptageniidae Epeorus Leucrocuta Stenonema

Plecoptera Nemomidae

Amphinemura Perlodidae

Isoperla Hemiptera

Veliidae Paravelia

Trichoptera Hyclropsychidae

Macrostemulll Coleoptera

Psephenidae Psephenus

Diptera Tipulidae

Dicranota Chironomidae

HC6 6/4/98 Arthropoda Crustacea

Decapoda Cambaridae



Ephemerella SipWonmidae

Siphlonurus Heptageniidae

Epeorus Leucrocuta Stenonema

LeptopWebiidae Habrophlebiodes Paraleptophlebia

Plecoptera Perlidae

Neoperla Paragnetina

Perlodidae Isoperla

Hemiptera Gerridae

52


SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Gerris


Neophylax Hydropsychidae

Macrostemum Limnephilidae

PycnopsFche Polycentropodidae

Cernotina Philopotamidae

Wormaldia Coleoptera


Elmidae Stenelmis

Halipidae Megaloptera

Corydalidae Nigronia

Diptera Tipulidae

Dicranota Chironomidae


Lumbricina Mollusca




Decapoda Cambaridae


Ephemeroptera Leptophlebiidae

Habrophlebiodes Paraleptophlebia

Oligoneuriidae Isonychia

Baetidae Centroptilum

Heptageniidae Leucrocuta Stenonema Epeorus

53


SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Plecoptera

Perlidae Agnetina

Nemouridae Amphinemura

Hemiptera Gerridae

Gerris Trichoptera

Lepidostomatidae Lepidostoma


Helicopsychidae Helicopsvche

Limnephilidae Chvranda

Uenoidae Neophylax

Coleoptera Elmidae

Promoresia Stenelmis Microcylloepus


Limnichidae Lutrochus

Diptera Simuliidae

Simulium Tipulidae Chironomidae

HC8 6/4/98 Mollusca Bivalvia


Pisidium Arthropoda

Crustacea Isopoda

Asellidae Lirceus


Hyalella Insecta


Enallagma Hemiptera

54


SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Corixidae

Palmacorixa Gerridae

Gerris Limnogonus


Bezzia/Palpomyia

55

Table 3. Summary ofthe macrobenthos samples taken from Shadow Brook, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION SBI 6/4/98 Annelida

Hirudinea Oligochaeta

Lumbricina Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea






Isopoda Asellidae

Lirceus Insecta

Ephemeroptera Baetidae

Baetis LeptopWebiidae

Paraleptophlebia Habrophlebiodes

Plecoptera Perlodidae

lsoperla Nememidae

Amphinemura Hemiptera



Neophvlax Diptera

Tabanidae Hybomitra

Chironomidae SB2 6/4/98 Annelida

Oligochaeta Lumbricina

Mollusca Gastropoda

Basommatrophora Physidae

Physella gyrina Arthropoda

56

Table 3 (cont.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Shadow Brook, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Crustacea

Decapoda Cambaridae


LeptopWebiidae Habrophlebiodes Leptophlebia

Heptageniidae Stenonema


Anomalagrion/Ischnura Enallagma


Isoperla Hemiptera


Gerridae Neogerris

Trichoptera Linmephilidae

Apatania Pycnopsyche

Coleoptera Haliplidae

Peltodvtes Curculionidae Dytiscidae

Matus Elmidae

Stenelmis Diptera

Tabanidae Chrysops

Chironornidae SB3 6/4/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

Sphaeriidae Sphaerium Pisidium


Ancylidae Ferrissia tarda


Alihropoda

57

Table 3 (coot.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Shadow Brook, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Hydrachnidia

Acarifonnes Limnesiidae

Limnesia Crustacea


Hyalella Decapoda

Cambaridae Orconectes obscurus


Heptageniidae Stenonema

LeptopWebiidae Habrophlebiodes

Ephemeridae Ephemera

Caenidae Caenis

Baetidae Baetis

Odonata (Zygoptera) Calopterygidae

Calopteryx Coenagrionidae

AnomalagrionJIschnura Coenagrion


Clioperla Trichoptera

Uenoidae Neophylax

Hydroptilidae Ochrotrichia


Limnephilidae Pycnopsyche

Polycentropodidae Cernotina

Coleoptera Elmidae

Stenelmis Diptera


Chironomidae SB4 6/4/98 Annelida

58

Table 3 (cont.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from Shadow Brook, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Oligochaeta

Tubificida Tubificidae

Tasserkidrilus tubifex Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea




Artlu"opoda Insecta


Serratella Baetidae

Baetis Odonata (Zygoptera)

Calopterygidae Calopteryx


Clioperla Hemiptera


Trichoptera Hydropsychidae

Alacrostemum Coleoptera

Hydrophilidae Berosus

Elmidae Stenelmis

Dytiscidae Matus


Dasyhelea Culicoides

Simuliidae Simulium

Chironomidae SB5 6/4/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

Sphaeriidae Sphaerium

59

Table 3 (cout.). Summary ofthe macrobenthos samples taken from Shadow Brook, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Gastropoda

Basomrnatrophora Physidae


Crustacea Decapoda



Ephemerellidae Dannella

Caenidae Caenis

Baetidae Baetis

SipWonuridae Ameletus Siphlonurus

Heptageniidae Stenacron Stenonema

LeptopWebiidae Habrophlebiodes


Clioperla Hemiptera



Neaphylax Hydropsychidae

Macrostemum Limnephilidae

Pycnopsyche Coleoptera

Elmidae Stenelmis


Nigronia Diptera


Chironomidae

60

Table 4. Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from White Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION WCI 6/2/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea




Hvalella Decapoda

Cambaridae Insecta


Enallagma Trichoptera

Limnephilidae Hydatophyla.>;

Leptoceridae Ceraclea Triaenodes

Coleoptera Noteridae

Hydrocanthus Dytiscidae

Graphoderus Agabus

Megaloptera Sialidae

Sialis Diptera

Simuliidae Simulium

Tipulidae Tipula

WC2 6/2/98 Mollusca Bivalvia


Pisidium Gastropoda

Basommatrophora Planorbidae

Gvraulus parvus Lymnaeidae

Lymnaea humiIis Physidae


Crustacea Decapoda

61

Table 4 (cont.). Summary ofthe macrobenthos samples taken from White Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION Cambaridae


Ephemeroptera LeptopWebiidae

Habcophlebiodes Paraleptophlebia

Baetidae Baetia

Ephemerellidae Ephemerella

Heptageniidae Leucrocuta Stenonema Stenacron Heptagenia


Aeshna Odonata (Zygoptera)

Calopterygidae Caloptervx

Coenagrionidae Anomalagrion/Ischnura


Amphinemura Perlodidae

Isoperla Perlidae

Agnetina Hemiptera

Gerridae Gerris

Trichoptera Lepidostomatidae

Lepdiostoma Odontorceridae

Psilotreta Polycentropodidae

Cernotina Limnephilidae

Goera Pseudostenophvlax Pycnopsvche Hydatophylax


Coleoptera Curculionidae Psephenidae

62

Table 4 (cont.). Summary of the macrobenthos samples taken from White Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICAnON Psephenus

Dytiscidae Celina


Nigronia Diptera

Chironomidae WC3 6/2/98 Arthropoda

Crustacea Decapoda



Caenidae Caenis

Baetidae Baetis

Heptageniidae Leucrocutia Stenonema Heptagenia Stenacron

Leptophlebiidae Paraleptophlebia

Ephemerelliidae Ephemerella


Diura Diploperla

Perlidae Paragnetina

Hemiptera Gerridae

Gerris Trichoptera

Philopotamidae Dolophilodes

Limnephilidae Helicopsychidae

Helicopsvche Hydroptilidae

Ochrotrichia Hydropsychidae

Homoplectra Sericostomatidae

Agarodes Coleoptera

Psephenidae

63

Table 4 (coot.). Summary ofthe macrobenthos samples taken from White Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICAnON Psephenus


Nigronia Diptera

Athericidae Atherix

Tipulidae Tipula

Chironomidae

64

Table 5. Quantitative analysis of the macobenthos samples taken from Cripple Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSlFICAnON #/SAMPLE CCI 6/3/98 Annelida

Oligochaeta 26 Hirudinea 1

Mollusca Bivalvia 3 Gastropoda 7


Decapoda 1 Podacopa 6 Amphipoda 19 Isopoda 115

Insecta Ephemeroptera 9 Odonata 4 Trichoptera 9 Coleoptera 29 Diptera 116

CC2 6/3/98 Annelida Hirudinea



Isopoda 1 Amphipoda 2

Insecta Ephemeroptera 1 Trichoptera 3 Diptera 43

CC3 6/3/98 Annelida Oligochaeta 8

Mollusca Gastropoda 3

Arthropoda Hydrachnidia Crustacea

Isopoda 1 Amphipoda 24 Decapoda 3

Insecta Ephemeroptera 78 Plecoptera 25 Trichoptera 8 Coleoptera 23 Megaloptera 2 Diptera 216

CC4 6/3/98 Arthropoda Insecta

Ephemeroptera 77

65

Table 5 (cont.). Quantitative analysis of the macobenthos samples taken from Cripple Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICAnON #/SAMPLE Plecoptera 46 Trichoptera 218 Coleoptera 208 Megaloptera 5 Diptera 273

CCS 6/3/98 Platyhelminthes 9 Annelida

Hirudinea Oligochaeta 227

Mollusca Gastropoda 2

AJihropoda Arachnoida Crustacea

Isopoda 94 Amphipoda 54 Decapoda 21

Insecta Ephemeroptera 39 Odonata I Plecoptera 9 Trichoptera 2 Coleoptera 13 Diptera 281

66

Table 6. Quantitative analysis of the macobenthos samples taken from Hayden Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICAnON #/SAMPLE HCI 6/3/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia 3 Arthropoda

Insecta Ephemeroptera 8 Coleoptera 1 Diptera 55



Amphipoda 19 Copepoda 7 Isopoda 6 Decapoda 17

Insecta Ephemeroptera 70 Plecoptera 1 Coleoptera 4 Diptera 250

HC3 6/3/98 Annelida Oligochaeta 2



Amphipoda 4 Isopoda 7 Decapoda 28

Insecta Ephemeroptera 28 Plecoptera 8 Hemiptera 1 Coleoptera 35 Trichoptera 134 Diptera 123


Isopoda Decapoda

Insecta Ephemeroptera 107 Plecoptera 6 Trichoptera 40 Coleoptera 38 Diptera 32


HC5 6/4/98 Arthropoda Hydrachnidia

67

Table 6 (coot.). Quantitative analysis of the macobenthos samples taken from Hayden Creek, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICAnON #/SAMPLE Insecta

Ephemeroptera 18 Plecoptera 3 Hemiptera 8 Coleoptera 60 Trichoptera 104 Diptera 68 Lepidoptera 1


Arthropoda Hydrachnidia Crustacea

Isopoda Insecta

Ephemeroptera 50 Plecoptera 7 Hemiptera 1 Coleoptera 53 Trichoptera 26 Diptera 26


Decapoda 4 Insecta

Ephemeroptera 109 Plecoptera 4 Hemiptera 1 Trichoptera 37 Coleoptera 81 Megaloptera 1 Diptera 583



Amphipoda 3 Isopoda 1

Insecta Ephemeroptera 2 Plecoptera 2 Coleoptera 2 Diptera 26

68

Table 7. Quantitative analysis of the macobenthos samples taken from Shadow Brook, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION #/SAMPLE SBI 6/4/98 Annelida

Oligochaeta 19 Hirudinea 6

Mollusca Bivalvia Gastropoda


Decapoda 5 Isopoda 11

Insecta Ephemeroptera 18 Odonata 1 Plecoptera 6 Hemiptera 116 Coleoptera 23 Diptera 430

SB2 6/4/98 Annelida o Ii gochaeta 9

Mollusca Bivalvia Gastropoda


Amphipoda Isopoda Decapoda

Insecta Ephemeroptera 27 Plecoptera 10 Hemiptera 1 Trichoptera 323 Coleoptera 33 Diptera 129

SB3 6/4/98 Arthropoda Crustacea

Decapoda 24 Insecta

Ephemeroptera 73 Plecoptera 2 Trichoptera 6 Coleoptera 31 Diptera 252

SB4 6/4/98 Annelida Oligochaeta 8


Decapoda Insecta

Ephemeroptera 9 Plecoptera 1

69

Table 7 (cont.). Quantitative analysis of the macobenthos samples taken from Shadow Brook, summer 1998.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICAnON #/SAMPLE Hemiptera 2 Trichoptera 23 Coleoptera 7 Diptera 902

SB5 6/4/98 Arthropoda Crustacea

Decapoda Mollusca

Bivalvia Arthropoda

Insecta Ephemeroptera 13 Trichoptera 26 Coleoptera 14 Megaloptera 1 Diptera 21 Lepidoptera 1

70

Table 8. Quantitative analysis ofthe macobenthos samples taken from White Creek, summer 1998.

REFERENCES

Fahey, J. 1995. Benthic Survey of Otsego Lake Tributaries. In 28th Annual Report, SUNY Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W. N. 1998. Handout on Leeches. Aquatic Biology 384. SUNY Oneonta. 1998.

Hewett, B. L. 1996. Water quality monitoring and benthic community in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 29h Annual Report, SUNY Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Merritt, R. W. and K. W. Cummings. 1996. Aquatic Insects of North America. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque,lA.

Peckarsky, B. L., P. R. Fraissinet, M. A. Penton, and D. 1. Conklin, Jr. 1990. Freshwater Macroinvertebrates of Northeastern North America. Cornell University Press. Ithaca, NY.

Pennak, R. W. 1989. Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States, 3rd Ed. John Wilet and Sons, Inc. New York.

71

Analysis of fecal coliform concentrations in Otsego Lake's northern tributaries, summer 1998

Chris Ingraham 1

INTRODUCTION

Fecal coliform bacteria normally live in the digestive tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals. As such, they are excreted in solid wastes, and are thus present in septic tanks and manure piles. This can pose a problem in areas near bodies of water, since leaky septic tanks and manure run-off can cause the bacteria to enter the water supply. Although these bacteria are not necessarily harmful, and are normally present in most bodies of water, the presence of these organisms in large amounts is indicative of fecal pollution and the likely presence of pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Also, since fecal bacteria are found in nutrient rich environments, their presence is indicative of nonpoint source loading.

The northern watershed of Otsego Lake is largely agricultural, so farm run-off can contribute a great deal of coliform bacteria to the lake's water supply. In order to alleviate this problem, the federal government, via the 1996 Farm Bill, instituted a program called the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP).This program provides farmers with funds for taking steps to reduce agricultural pollution from their farms. Locations of farms currently taking part in these programs are shown as star symbols in Figure 1. One goal of this study, now three years old, is to determine the impact of these programs on the watershed. Miller (1997) and Pasquale (1998) studied fecal coliform bacteria in the northern watershed during the past two summers.

METHODS

Water samples were taken at 23 different sites (Figure 1) located on White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook, and the stream draining Mt. Wellington. Samples were put on ice and brought back to the Field Station, where they were processed using the membrane filter technique (APHA, 1989).

Water samples were collected 28 July, 12 August, and 18 August 98. For the first sampling, water volumes of 0.1, 1, and 10 ml were filtered from each site. After finding little or no bacteria in the first measurement, volumes of 1, 10, and 50 ml were used for the later two samplings. This was done to ensure that the number of bacterial colonies in at least one dilution was in the optimal range of twenty to eighty.

I F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation Fellow, summer 1998. Present affiliation: Comell University, Ithaca, NY

72

o SCALE IN KILOMETERS

1

I 4

I

Figure 1. Map of the five major tributaries of Otsego Lake showing the sites routinely sampled. Star symbols represent properties undergoing farmyard improvement projects. (From Poulette, in prep.)

73

Each volume of water was processed in triplicate for each site. Where applicable, dilution water was added to ensure that the volume of water being filtered was at least twenty ml. A control blank sample, consisting solely of dilution water, was also processed between each site to ensure the absence of contamination.

After processing the water, each filter was placed in a petri dish containing a filter pad and 2 ml of growth medium. The petri dishes were incubated at 44.5°C for 24 hours, plus or minus two hours. After incubation, the number of colonies having a dark blue color (which is indicative of fecal coliforms) were counted. The numbers were then averaged and reported as numbers of coloniesll 00 m!. All equipment used during the filtering process was sterilized prior to use with alcohol or by autoclave.

RESULTS

Data from each sampling date for each stream are shown in Tables' 1-5, along with averages for each site and overall averages for each stream. These averages are compared graphically with data from 1996 and 1997 in Figures 2-5. Since there are only two sites on Mount Wellington, one of which dried up in 1997, no graph is provided for this stream. Overall, the bacteria concentrations in Hayden Creek, White Creek, and Cripple Creek increased over the past two summers while those in Shadow Brook and the stream on Mount Wellington decreased.

DISCUSSION

Fecal coliform concentrations in the tributaries of Otsego Lake showed a high variability between sampling dates for the summer of 1998. It was noted that samples taken on 12 August had much greater concentrations of fecal bacteria than the samples from 28 July and 18 August. This is most likely due to the fact that the samples on 12 August were taken after a period of precipitation.

Samples marked with an asterisk in Tables 4 and 5 produced filtrations with colonies being difficult to distinguish and not appearing as those of classic fecal coliforms; these data were not used. Samples marked with a pound sign in Tables 1, 3, and 4 were unusable after an incubator malfunctioned and kept the samples at a temperature higher than that prescribed for this technique. For sites missing data from a particular date, averages were made using the remaining information.

All of the sites on Hayden Creek showed higher coliform concentrations than that observed over the past two summers. With the exception of WC 1, the sites on White Creek and Cripple Creek also showed higher overall concentrations.

Every site on Shadow Brook, with the exception of SB5, showed a decrease from last year. Although Shadow Brook's concentrations are not quite as low as they were two summers ago, this is a great improvement over the extremely high levels of last year. Both of the sites on Mount Wellington also showed an overall decrease.

74

Table 1. Fecal coliform concentrations in White Creek, 1998.

Site

WC1 WC2 WC3

Distance from source Colonies per 100 Colonies per 100 Colonies per 100 (km) ml ml ml

7/28/98 8/12/98 8/18/98 1.1 0 61 #

4.22 697 1900 # 6.4 0 2800 8

Stream average: 607 colonies per 100 ml

Averages

20 866 936

Table 2. Fecal coliform concentrations in Cripple Creek, 1998.

Site

CC1 CC2 CC3 CC4 CC5


7/28/98 8/12/98 8/18/98 6.75 1133 1600 67 8.2 47 260 120

13.27 213 1833 197 14.51 907 4800 420 14.85 27 3500 163


Averages

933 142 748 2042 1230

Table 3. Fecal Coliform concentrations in Hayden Creek, 1998.

Site

HC1 HC2 HC3 HC4 HC5 HC6 HC7 HC8


7/28/98 8/12/98 8/18/98 2.2 323 120 #

2.87 337 6733 53 3.46 2233 3867 # 5.44 0 4700 1633 6.22 677 4200 # 6.96 0 3100 340 8.08 260 4667 # 9.2 493 8433 1700


Averages

222 2374 3050 2111 2439 1147 2464 3542

# indicates that data was lost due to equipment failure. See discussion for details. * indicates insufficient data. See discussion for details.

75

Table 4. Fecal coliform concentrations in Shadow Brook, 1998.

Site Distance from source Colonies per 100 Colonies per 100 Colonies per 100 Averages (km) ml ml ml

7/28/98 8/12/98 8/18/98 SB1 2.05 617 1567 437 874 SB2 SB3 SB4 SB5

7.09 9.99 11.71 14.07

1967 1867 717 3467

4067 * 367 4067


247 447 #

867

1360 1544 4067 1767

Table 5. Fecal Coliform concentrations in Mount Wellington, 1998.

Site Distance from source (km)

Colonies per 100 ml

Colonies per 100 ml

Colonies per 100 ml

Averages

7/28/98 8/12/98 8/18/98 MW1 0.8 0 * 48 24 MW2 1.18 1033 * 63 548


# indicates that data was lost due to equipment failure. See discussion for details. * indicates insufficient data. See discussion for details.

4000 .

76

3500

3000

2500 - IE I0

0 ~.. Co '" 2000 III

'c'"0 "0 U 1500

1000

500

0

0 2 4 5 6 7

Distance from source (km)

1 ........ 11996 _1997 ......... 1998

Figure 2. Mean fecal coliform concentrations along White Creek, summers of 1996-1998

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Distance from source(km)

,. - .~----- .----~----J

l-:--~9.9.6_=---19~7 -:*": 1~9..S.

Figure 3. Mean fecal coliform concentrations along Cripple Creek, summers of 1996-1998

4000

3500

3000

2500 E 0 0 ~.. '" Co 2000.. '"'c 0 "0 U 1500

1000

500

0

4000

77

3500 - - - ,

3000

E Q

~

8~

~

'2 0 '0 u

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0


Figure 4. Mean fecal coliform concentrations along Hayden Creek, summers of 1996-1998

35000

30000

25000

Q

~

8 20000 ~

'2 ~

0

5 u

15000

10000

5000 l0 10 12 14


[~i 996-~j9gT~~_j 9gB

Figure 5. Mean fecal coliform concentrations along Shadow Brook, summers of 1996-1998 (Note that the y-axis values are different for this graph, due to higher bacteria counts)

78

Shadow Brook's decrease in bacteria concentrations may be due in part to the number of farms along the stream undergoing improvement projects. The high bacteria numbers in Cripple Creek, White Creek, and Hayden Creek are disturbing. It is difficult to ascribe the influence of precipitation on bacteria levels. On one hand, one would expect runnoff to wash bacteria into a stream; on the other, greater discharge would lead to higher dilutions. For these reasons, fecal coliform concentrations in tributaries should be considered merely as an indicator of environmental stress and attempts to relate their levels to human activity should be done only after a considerable database has been established.

REFERENCES

APHA, A WWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 1i h ed. American Public Health Association, N.Y.

Miller, C. 1997. Analysis of fecal coliform concentrations of Otsego Lake's tributaries and the upper Susquehanna River, 1996. In 29th Ann. Rept. (1996). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Pasquale, C. 1998. Analysis of fecal coliform concentrations in Otsego Lake's tributaries, summer 1997. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Poulette, 1. 1999. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N. Y.

79

SUSQlTEHANNA RIVER MONITORING:

Monitoring the water quality of the upper Susquehanna River, summer 1998

Gary Dewey'

INTRODUCTION

The quality of the upper Susquehanna River was monitored between its origin at Otsego Lake and its junction with Oaks Creek during the summer of 1998. As part of an ongoing study, this module of work helps to locate possible sources of pollution so that water quality problems can be evaluated and possibly mitigated. It is also important to ensure that the assimilative capacity of the river below the Village Sewage Treatment Plant discharge point not be exceeded.

METHODS

Water samples were collected weekly and analyzed from nine different sites (Figure I: SR 1,3,6,8,12,16,16A, 17,18) for a six week period, from July 13 to August 17, 1998. These water samples were then tested for total phosphorus, , and chlorides. Total phosphorus was tested using the persulfate digestion followed by the single reagent ascorbic acid method (APHA, 1992), nitrite+nitrate using the cadmium reduction method (APHA, 1992), and chloride using the mercuric nitrate method (APHA, 1992). Data was also obtained at the sites using aHydrolab Reporter water quality microprobe, which was calibrated weekly following manufacturer's protocol (Hydrolab Corp., 1993). The Hydrolab measured temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen and conductivity. Concurrent with this study, testing for fecal coliform bacteria was done on a biweekly basis from these same sites (Dewey, 1999.).


Temperature

This summer the temperature of the upper Susquehanna River ranged from 19.54°C at SR 17 on July 31 to 23 .55°C at SR 18 on August 10. The average was 21. 73°C. This summer's river temperatures were consistently higher than last summer's (Willies, 1997) (Figure 2), probably a reflection of lower average water levels (Albright, 1998).

F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation Fellow, summer 1998. Present affiliation: Unatego High School I

80 .' : I' .. j J

U! SEriO LAKf.'

20.5

81 22.5 ~--------------------------------------~

SR18

22

SR 12

ii·i 21.5 +--JllllpllL"-------------

a; o ! a l! 8~ 21 +-----"""~'--------------------------

....

SR18

SR 16SR 12

20 +--------,------~-----~----__r-----_,_-----,__----_j

o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

Dislance(Feet)

- _._.~.---_._-- - - -----_.__._.. -- ----_.----, -'-1998 Temperature ___ 1997 Temperature

Figure 2. Temperature of Susquehanna River sites, 1997 and 1998.

8.2

8.1

8

7.9

7.8

i 7.7

7.6

7.5

7.4

7.3

7.2 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

SR18

SR 17

SR16

----__----I....~'-"------------------- ,L..---·----I SR 16 SR 16A

SR 1

Dlslance(Feet)

r+ 19s8pi-i ~'1997PHl

Figure 3. pH of Susquehanna River sites, 1997 and 1998.

82

pH

The pH varied from site to site, ranging from 7.45 at SR 16A on July 31 to 8.22 at SR 1 on August 10. The average was 7.86. The pH values for this summer were also consistently higher than last summer's (D. Willies, 1997) (Figure 3).

Dissolved Oxygen

The dissolved oxygen concentrations for this summer varied from site to site but mostly decreased as distance from Otsego Lake increased. This could be due to organic pollution, which depletes oxygen levels. Some possible sources of this pollution could be the Village Sewage Treatment Plant (located at SR 12) or agricultural runoff from farms. However, the dissolved oxygen concentration remained at an acceptable level of greater than 5 mg/L. It is also noted that the val ues for the first three si tes are lower than last summer's and the rest are higher (Willies, 1997) (Figure 4).

Conductivity

Conducti vity can be defined as an indirect measurement of ions in solution. The conductivity of the Susquehanna River varied greatly from site to site. The highest reading was 313 mmho/cm at SR 17 31 on July. The lowest reading was 242 mmho/cm at SR 1 on 10 August. Compared to last summer, conductivity followed no particular pattern or trend (Willies, 1997). However, there were some complications with the Hydrolab probe (it would not calibrate conductivity), so no conclusions can be drawn (Figure 5).

Nitrate + Nitrite

Total nitrate + nitrite concentrations this summer seemed to follow a trend similar to that of last summer, which shows rapid increase downstream (Willies, 1997). However, last summer the concentrations were only tested once and this summer they were tested three times. The highest reading was 1.54 mg/L at SR 16 on 10 August. The lowest reading was 0.14 mg/L at SR 12 on 31 July (Figure 6).

Total Phosphorus

The phosphorus levels varied from site to site with a range from 7.67 ug/L at site SR 1 on 13 July to 210.48 ug/L at SR 16 on 3 August. SR 16 is located in a cow pasture, so it is normal to expect a high phosphorus level. On 31 July there was an unexpected increase in phosphorus levels between SR 8 and SR 12. This increase has also been documented in past years giving evidence of an unidentified nutrient source (Lopez and Bridger, 1996; Willies, 1997). Although concentrations were lower, the phosphorus levels seemed to follow last summer's trend. The

83 10

9

SR 1 SR 18

8

SR 16 SR 18

SR 16

SR12 SR17

------/--------------"

.s ~

5 "---" ""--"------"-- ---"--""----------------------SR-16A------------------ ci ci

4

\-SR3--

,1---"-6 L------~----"------------='-----~~c__-

- "-------"----------------------"----------"--------

3[--------------- -" I I

i 2 i--------------------------------------------

!

1 !----------"---I

o L-------~-----~-o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

Dlstance(Feet)

,-------------1 I -.-1998 D"O_ -'-19970"0_ I

Figure 4. Dissolved Oxygen of Susquehanna River sites, 1997 and 1998.

330 1 I

"C " l:

U o

210 1--190 1-------"----

I 170 T------------

I 150 +

o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

Dlstance(Feet)

,-~ 1998 Conductivity -'-1997 C~ndUctii1tiJ

Figure 5. Conductivity of Susquehanna River sites, 1997 and 1998.

310 L-----------I

290 1---------------270 1----"----

I IE 250 I

E

~ -~ ti 230 -

__-=sRj] _

84 1.2,----------------------------------------,

SR 18

-------------------~~.-/'------------------------1

_ 08 .l---------------------1'------/---"~-.-"..L~=====.S~RU!18'_ __l ..J 0, E i ~ ·f 0.6 S:s ·c S o

I 0.4 ~F~~~5~~~~:::::;j~~SR'"

0.2

0+------.,------,------..,....------.,--------.-----..,....--------1 o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

Dletance(Feet)

___ 1998 Nifrile+Nilrale -'-1997 Nitrite+Nitrale ! _________________.__ .. ", J

Figure 6. Nitrite+Nitrate of Susquehanna River sites, 1997 and 1998.

o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

D1etance(Feet)

r-_::"!-19.9~ Phosphor~s 1~97 PhoSPhoru-;"]

300 -,---------------------------------------------,

SR18

SR 17 ..-A....----. SR 18

SR 16A

-------- -----/---------------------_.---- 100

50 t------cl------',.-------------h'------------------------------j

250 +---

200 -j----------------------- F

::i 0,

".. ~ 150 +----------- .t: Cl... o .t: Q.

0+----=.:..:....::--_------,------.,------.------,.-------,-------1

Figure 7. Total Phosphorus of Susquehanna River sites, 1997 and 1998.

85

reason for the lower concentrations may be due to decreased precipitation, which would reduce runoff from farms and other sources of nutrients (Figure 7).

Chlorides

The chloride levels varied from site to site, with a range from 9 mg/L at SR 3 on 10 August to 17.5 mg/L at SR 16A and SR 17 on 31 July. The chloride levels also remained lower than last summer's (D. Willies, 1997) (Figure 8). This may be due to decreased runoff It was also noted that the levels consistently increased from SR 8 to SR 12. This may be due to the fact that the Village stores salt for winter road maintenance near SR 12 and some of it may be running off into the river. Also, SR 12 is located near the Village Sewage Treatment Plant, which may be contributing some chlorides. More study is required before any conclusions can be drawn.

SUMMARY

Most of the data collected this year seemed to follow trends set in earlier years (Willies, 1997; Lopez and Bridger, 1996; Austin, 1995). However, most concentrations seemed consistently lower than those documented last summer. This can be due to the increased air temperatures, lower water levels, and less precipitation. It seems that the river's ability to assimilate pollution at current levels has not been exceeded.

REFERENCES

Albright, M. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SU1\JY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

APHA. 1992. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 171h ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

Austin, T. 1995. Water Quality of the Upper Susquehanna River, 1995. In 281h Annual Report, 1995. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Dewey, G. 1999. Monitoring and analyzing fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Lopez,1. and E. Bridger. 1996. Water Quality of the Upper Susquehanna River, 1996. In 29111 Ann. Rept. (1996). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Willies, Deidre. 1997. Water Quality of the Upper Susquehanna River, 1997. In 30lh

Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

86

SR 17 SR 16A

20 +------------------------:r------------,.S""R''-1'"6coA------------------j

SR 3

:J 15t----0, E.. CD.., -g SR 1 :c o 10 ~~==::::::jr-",.c-»n-"-----------------------

SR 1

25 -,-------------------------------------------,

SR16 SR 17 ,.-.- -.-11-----. SR 18

5 +----------------

O+-------,-------r-----....------...-----.,--------....,-------I o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

Dlstance(Feet}

------ ---------1 , Chlorides 1997 -A-Chlorides 1998

Figure 8. Chlorides of Susquehanna River sites, 1997 and 1998.

87

Macrobenthic Study of the Upper Susquehanna River

Abigail Ellsworth I

INTRODUCTION

In the summer of 1998, the upper Susquehanna River was surveyed for macrobenthic populations. In recent years the river has been monitored for water quality (Moriarty et aI., 1994; Lopez and Bridger, 1996; Willies, 1997) and fecal coliform bacteria (Miller, 1995, 1996; Salo, 1997), yet it is impOliant to survey macrobenthos populations as well because they indicate longer term trends. Chemical and biological water samples are only an instantaneous representation of what is in the water at a particular moment, which provides some uncertainty regarding the long-term environmental conditions. Some benthos (e.g. Unionid clams) reside at these sites for a relatively long period of time, reflecting impacts from the changing water quality. Evaluating the biota concurrent with the classic water quality parameters allows for a more holistic interpretation about the ecological integrity of the upper Susquehanna River.

According to Fehey (1995), there are three orders of macrobenthos that are sensitive to low levels of oxygen; they are the Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Trichoptera (caddisflies), and Plecoptera (stoneflies) (EPTs). Low oxygen levels can be an indicator of pollution. Therefore changes in these specific populations can represent pollution in the river. It is important to monitor both the presence (or absence) of a species as well as its abundance. Large quantities of these oxygen-sensitive organisms imply unpolluted waters; their absence or diminished numbers suggests environmental stress. Studying these elements of the benthic community provides a more accurate representation of water quality over time.

METHODS

Macrobenthic samples were collected on 22 and 23 June 98 from nine sites on the Upper Susquehanna River (Figure 1, Table 1). These sites are between the mouth of the river and the Town ofIndex (at the river's confluence with Oaks Creek). Two different types of samples were taken at each site: a qualitative sample taken at the different microhabitats within each particular site and a quantitative sample to determine relative populations of various taxa. Specimens were collected using a number of different techniques. For the quantitative samples, a Hess Sieve or an Ekman Dredge was used, depending on the depth of the water. Triangle nets, hand sieves, and removing invertebrates with soft forceps were all used for the qualitative samples. Collections were placed into pre-labeled jars containing 70% ethyl alcohol and returned for processing. All invertebrates of both sample types were taxonomically identified to the level of order. The qualitative samples were then keyed down to the most specific level possible using Peckarsky et al. (1990), Harman (1974), and Merritt and Cummins (1996) and stored in vials of ethyl alcohol. For the quantitative samples, of organisms of each order were counted and recorded. Future work will involve identifying these organisms to more specific taxonomic levels and quantifying the number and biomass of each taxon per square meter.

I BFS Volunteer, SUNY Oneonta

89

Table 1. Susquehanna River site locations sampled on 22 and 23 June 98. GPS readings were acquired using a Garmin II plus unit.

Site 1 Mouth of Susquehanna River GPS readings: N 42 0 42.056' W 0740 55.209'

Site 3 Under Bridge on Lower Main Street GPS readings: N 420 42.102' W 0740 55.039'

Site 6 Behind the Hospital Clinic Building GPS readings: N 420 41.732' W 0740 55.230'

Site 8 Bridge on Susquehanna Avenue GPS readings: N 420 41.564' W 0740 55.617'

Site 12 Behind Sewer Plant GPS readings: N 420 41.117' W 0740 55.975'

Site 16 Cow Pasture on County Route 33 GPS readings: N 420 40.737' W 0740 56.283'

Site 16A Field by Pollock's house on County Route 33 GPS readings: N 420 40.631' W 074° 56.370'

Site 17 Phoenix Mills Bridge GPS readings: N 42° 40.029' W 0740 56.691'

Site 18 Railroad Tressel GPS readings: N 42° 39.700' W 0740 56.987'


The different types of benthos call ected and identified are indicated in Tables 2 (qualitative samples) and 3 (quantitative samples). Sites 1,6, and 16A showed little or no signs of the three indicator orders (EPTs), but many Diptera and other pollutant tolerant organisms were collected at these locations. The remaining sites had at least two or more EPT taxa collected. Due to difficulties encountered while collecting, the qualitative samples collected are believed not to represent all of the different habitats found within the nine different sites. Future studies should try to correct this sampling inadequacy.

90

3

6

Table 2. Summary of the qualitative macrobenthos samples from the Susquehanna River.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICATION 1 6/22/98 Annelida

Hirudinea Rhynchobdellida

Glossiphoniidae Helobdella

Arhynchobdellida Erpobdell idae

Erpobdella punetata Arthropoda

Crustacea Decapoda

Cambaridae Oreoneetus rustieus


Heptageniidae Maedul1l1oa

Coleoptera Psephen idae

Psephel1us 6/22/98 Platyhelminthes

Turberllaria Tricladida

Planariidae Phagoeata


Decapoda Insecta

Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae

Maedunnoa Odonata (Zygoptera)

Coenagrionidae Argia

6/22/98 Annelida Hirudinea

RhynchobdelJida Glossiphoniidae

Helobdella Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

Sphaeridae Museulium


Lymnaeidae Pseudosueeinea columella

Planorbidae Menetus dilatatus

91

8

Table 2(cont.). Summary of the qualitative macrobenthos samples from the Susquehanna River.

Physidae Physa sp.

Arthropoda Arachnida

Hydrachn id ia Oxidae

Frontipoda Crustacea

Isopoda Asellidae

Lirceus Podocopa Decapoda

Insecta Odonata (Zygoptera)

Coenagrionidae AnomalaRrion, !schnura

Coenagrion Hemiptera

Corixidae Corisella

Hebridae Merragata

Diptera Blepharicera Ch ironom idae

6/23/98 Arthropoda Crustacea

Isopoda Asellidae

Caecidotea Decapoda

Cambaridae Orconectus rusticus


Neoephemeridae Neoephemera

Odonata (Zygoptera) Coenagrion idae

Anoma/dgrion, !schnura Hemiptera

Gerridae Genis

Diptera Chironomidae


Decapoda Cambaridae

Orconectus rusticus

12

92

16



Ephemerellidae Litobrancha

Odontata (Anisoptera) Aeshnidae

Gomphaeschna Odonata (Zygoptera)

Coenagrionidae Anoma/agrion, Ischnura

Hem iptera Corixidae

Corisella Diptera

Ch ironom idae Pelecorhynchidae

G/utops 6/23/98 Arthropoda

Arachnida Hydrachnidia

Oxidae Frontipoda


Neoephell1eridae Neoephemera

Heptagen iidae Macdunnoa

Hem iptera Corixidae

Coriselia Coleoptera

Curculionidae Ptilodactylidae

Anchytarsus Noteridae

Pronoterus Diptera

Chaoboridae Chaoborus

Moch/onyx Tipulidae

Pedicia Chironoll1idae

16A 6/23/98 Arthropoda Crustacea (Copepoda)

Cyclopodida Decapoda

Insecta CoJlembola

Isotomidae Isotomurus

93

17


Ephemeroptera Neoephemeridae

Neaephemera Ephemeridae

Ephemera Hemiptera

Hebridae Merragata


Macrastemum Uenoidae

Neaphy/ax Diptera

Simuliidae Sciomyzidae

Antichaeta Chironom idae


Decapoda Insecta


Ephemerel/a Heptageniidae

Epearus Baetidae

Centrapti/urn Leptophlebiidae

Para/eDtaph/ebia Plecoptera

Ch loroperl idae Utaper/a


Macrostemum Ph ilopotam idae

D%phi/odes Coleoptera

Hydrophilidae Hvdrochus

Elimidae Stene1m is


Diptera Chironomidae Simuliidae Nematocera

B/epharicera

94


18 6/23/98 Arthropoda Insecta


Macrostemum Coleoptera

Elimidae Ancyronyx

Diptera Ch ironom idae

95

Table 3. Summary of the quantitative macrobenthos samples from the Susquehanna River.

SITE DATE CLASSIFICAnON #/SAMPLE I 6/22/98 Platyhelminthes

Turbellaria 2 6/22/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea 3

6/22/98 Arthropoda Insecta

Diptera Diptera (Chironomidae)

3 6/22/98 Platyhe 1m inthes 6/22/98 Annelida

01 igochaeta Lumbricina 10

6/22/98 Mollusca Bivalvia

Sphaeracea 6/22/98 Arthropoda

Crustacea Isopoda 62 Decapoda 24

Insecta Ephemeroptera 30 Hemiptera I Diptera 41 Diptera (Chironomidae) II

6 6/22/98 Mollusca Gastropoda


Isopoda Insecta

Ephemeroptera I Odonata (Zygoptera) 1 Trichoptera 1 Coleoptera 5 Diptera 17 Diptera (Chironomidae) 39

8 6/22/98 Annelida

Oligochaeta Lumbricilla 3

6/22/98 Mollusca Bivalvia

Sphaeracea 2 Gastropoda 1


Isopoda 2 Insecta

Ephemeroptera

96

Table 3(cont.). Summary of the quantitative macrobenthos samples from the Susquehanna River.

Trichoptera 1 Diptera 16 Diptera (Chironomidae) 3

12 6/23/98 Annelida 01 igochaeta

Lumbricina 7 6/23/98 Arthropoda

Crustacea Isopoda

Insecta Ephemeroptera 2 Odonata 1 Diptera (Chironomidae) 29

16 6/23/98 Annelida 01 igochaeta

Lumbricina 3 6/23/98 Mollusca

Bivalvia Sphaeracea

6/23/98 Arthropoda Insecta

Coleoptera 2 Diptera 29 Diptera (Chironomidae) i8

17 6/23/98 Arthropoda Insecta

Ephemeroptera 3 Trichoptera I

Coleoptera 3 Diptera 16 Diptera (Chironomidae) 10

18 6/23/98 Platyhelminthes Turbe llaria 2


Isopoda 2 Insecta

Trichoptera 8 Coleoptera 5 Diptera 12 Diptera (Chironomidae) 56

97

REFERENCES

Fehey,1. 1995. Benthic Survey of Otsego Lake Tributaries. In 28 th Ann. Rept. (1995), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Harman, W. N. 1974. Snails (Molluska: Gastropoda). In Pollution Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates. Academic Press, Inc.

Lopez, J. and E. Bridger. 1996. Monitoring the Water Quality of the Upper Susquehanna River. In 29th Ann. Rept. (1996), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY.

Merritt, R. W. and K. W. Cummins. 1996. Aquatic Insects ofNorthern America. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Miller, C. 1995. Fecal coliform bacteria in major Otsego Lake tributaries and the Susquehanna River. In 28th Ann. Rept. (1995), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Miller, C. 1996. Analysis of fecal coliform concentrations of Otsego Lake's tributaries and the upper Susquehanna River, 1996. In 29th Ann. Rept. (1996), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Moriarty, c., M. Goldberg, J. Nash, M. Albright, L. Sohacki, and W. N. Harman. 1994. Water quality of the upper Susquehanna River, summer 1994. In 2ih Ann. Rept. (1994), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Peckarsky, B. L., P. R. Fraissinet, M. A. Penton, and D. J. Conklin, Jr. 1990. Freshwater Macroinvertebrates of Northeastern North America. Comstock Publishing Associates. Cornell University Press.

Salo, J. 1997. Analysis of fecal coliform bacteria concentrations of the upper Susquehanna River, summer 1997. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Willies, D. 1997. Monitoring the Water Quality of the Upper Susquehanna River. In 30th

Ann. Rept. (1997), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

98

Analysis of fecal coliform bacteria concentrations of the upper Susquehanna River

Gary Dewey' .

INTRODUCTION

During the summer of 1998, fecal coliform bacteria concentrations were monitored and analyzed on the upper Susquehanna River. Elevated levels of these bacteria, which inhabit the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals, indicate possible fecal pollution. This study helps to locate faulty septic systems and other pollution sources such as agricultural run off. Also, it ensures that the Village of Cooperstown's sewage treatment plant is adequately disinfecting it effluent prior to discharge to the river.

METHODS

Nine different sites on the Susquehanna River (Figure 1) were tested biweekly for fecal coliform bacteria. All the equipment was sterilized before filtering. The following was sterilized using the autoclave at 121°C and 15 PSI for 20 minutes: Graduated cylinders, dilution water, and water collection bottles. Forceps were sterilized in a 95% ethyl alcohol solution that was burned off using a Bunsen burner. The filters, absorbent pads, and petri dishes were pre-sterilized. The filter funnels were sterilized in a 70% ethanol alcohol wash, then rinsed with hot water and dilution water. To ensure that no outside contamination had taken place, a blank was run between sample sites by filtering sterile dilution water and processing as usual.

Samples were filtered and the filters were aseptically transferred into the petri dishes. The petri dishes contained an absorbent filter pad with 2.2 ml of bacteria media. The samples were filtered at rates of 1, 10, and 50 ml per site to ensure an appropriate number of colonies in at least one of the dilutions. The optimum range is 20 to 80 colonies per dish. Dilution water was used to raise the volume needed to filter properly (at least 20 ml). The petri dishes were then incubated for 24-26 hours at a temperature of 44.5°C plus or minus 0.2 degrees.

After incubation, the colonies with a distinguishable blue color (Miller, 1995) were counted, averaged, and recorded. The numbers were then recorded as colonies per 100 ml.


The fecal coliform bacteria concentrations for the summer of 1998 in the Upper Susquehanna River are located in Figure 2. The comparison between last summer's (Salo, 1998) and this summer's concentrations is located in Figure 3.

1 F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation Fellow, summer 1998. Present affiliation: Unadilla High School

99

OTSEC;O I.:\KI:

, ! ' . 'I I~. /'

,'}~

, )<

.' .' ... ' Jf' ,/,.,

.',

" , r

"t.;~' ',,-,>

//

----

-----

- -----

100

7000

-~ ~6000

5000

E 0 0 4000 ~

~

.. '" c.

"c'" 30000 "0 u

2000

1000

15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

Distance(Feet)

___ 8/5/98-+-- 7/21/98 --.- 8/19/98

Figure 2. Fecal coliform bacteria in the Susquehanna River, summer 1998.

E o ~

.. '" "" c'"o o U

2500

2000

1500

1000 -~~~

35000o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000

Dlstant·IF •• !)

___ Bacteria 1998--.-Blcferia 1997

Figure 3. Fecal coliform bacteria in the Susquehanna River, summer 1997 and 1998.

101

The average fecal coliform bacteria concentrations for the summer of 1998 followed last summer's trend, though in higher concentrations. However, if the excessively high readings observed 19 August are excluded, concentrations are considerably lower than those of 1997. On 18 August 0.40 rain fell on the area, likely increasing agricultural runnoff and causing a brief spike in bacteria levels. SR 16 had the highest concentration this year, which is located in a cow pasture, suggesting agricultural runoff. However, SR 18 has a considerably lower concentration value than SR 16 confirming the river's ability to assimilate this sort of pollution. Perhaps in the future agricultural best management practices may be implemented to address pollution concerns. Also, future studies on the ri ver should record val ues of water level so discharge could be estimated, improving our understanding of this situation.

REFERENCES

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater. 17th Ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

Miller, C. 1996. Fecal Coliform Bacteria in major Otsego Lake Tributaries and the Susquehanna River. In 29th Ann. Rept. (1996), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, N.Y.

Salo, J. 1997. Analysis of fecal coliform bacteria concentrations of the upper Susquehanna River. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, N.Y.

102 VERTEBRATE MONITORING:

Bird List - Greenwoods Conservancy as of 12/31/98 W. L. Butts, M.F. Albright

I) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) J I) 12) 13 ) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21 ) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26) 27) 28) 29) 30) 31) 32) 33) 34) 35) 36) 37) 38) 39) 40) 41 ) 42) 43) 44) 45) 46) 47) 48) 49) 50) 51) 52) 53)

Great Blue Heron Green-backed Heron Canada Goose Snow Goose Black Duck Mallard Blue-winged Teal Wood Duck Ring-necked Duck Hooded Merganser Turkey Vullure Sharp-shinned Hawk Broad-winged Hawk Red-tailed Hawk American Kestrel Peregrine Falcon Osprey Northern Harrier Ruffed Grouse Wild Turkey Killdeer Yellowlegs sp. Spotted Sandpiper Least Sandpiper White-rumped Sandpiper Rock Dove Mourning Dove Barred Owl Black-billed Cuckoo Chimney Swift Ruby-throated Hummingbird Belted Kingfisher Yellow-billed Sapsucker Downy Woodpecker Hairy Woodpecker Northern Flicker Pileated Woodpecker Eastern Wood Peewee Least Flycatcher Eastern Phoebe Great Crested Flycatcher Eastern Kingbird Tree Swallow Barn Swallow Blue Jay American Crow Black-capped Chickadee Tufted Titmouse Red-breasted Nuthatch White-breasted Nuthatch Brown Creeper House Wren Winter Wren

Ardea herodias Blitorides striatlls Branla canadensis Chen caerulescens Anas rubripes Anas platyrhynchos Anas discors Aix sponsa Aylhya collal'is Lophod)'tes cuclillatus Calharles aura Accipiler slrialus Buteo plal)'plel'lls Blileo jamaicensis Falco sparverills Falco peregl'inus Pam/ion haliaellis Circlls cyanells Bonasa umbel/us Meleagris gal/opavo Charadrills voci/erus Tringa sp. AClilis maClilaria Calidris minulil/a Calidris jilscicol/is Columba livia Zenaida macrollra Sll'ix varia CoccyZlls erylhropthalmlls Chaelura pelagica Archi/ochus colubris Cel)'le alcyon Sphyrapiclls varius Picoides pubescens Picoides vil/osus Colaptes auratus Dryocopus pi/eatus Contopus virens Empidonax minimus Sayornis phoebe Myiarchus crinitlls Tyrannus Iyrannus Tachycinela bicolor Hirllndo ruslica Cyanocilla erislala Corvus brachyrhynchos Parus atricapillus Parus bicolor Silla canadensis Silla carolinensis Certhia americana Troglodytes aedon Troglodytes troglodyles

S,T,B B T,B A H; W&H S,T,B B S,T Pe S A B S S,T,B,A Pc B l' S T,A S,T,A S,T,A S S l' S S T,£3,A Sh,A T S T,B £3 S,T,B,A B S,T,B,A S,T,B,A A S,T,B,A T,A S,T,A A S,T,B,A S,£3,A S,T S,T,A l' T,A S,T S,T T,A B,A S,T,A S

103 54) Ruby -crowned Kinglet Regulus calendula S 55) Eastern Bluebird Sialia sialis S 56) Veery Catharus fuscescens T,A 57) Hennit Thrush Catharus guttatus S,T 58) Wood Thrush Hylocichla mustelina S,T,A 59) American Robin Turdus migratorius S,T,B,A 60) Gray Catbird Dumetel/a carolinensis S,T,A 61 ) Brown Thrasher Toxostoma rujilm A 62) Cedar Waxwing Bomhycilla cedrorum T,B 63) Solitary Vireo Vireo solitarius A 64) Warbling Vireo Vireo gilvus S 65) Philadelphia Vireo Vireo phi/adelphicus S 66) Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus A 67) European Starling Sturnus vulgaris B 68) Blue-winged Warbler Vermivora pinus A 69) Brewster's Warbler Vermivora leucohronchialis Pe 70) Nashville Warbler Vermivora ruflcapilla P 71 ) Yellow Warbler Dendroica petechia S,T,B,A 72) Black-throated Bille Warbler Dendroica caerulescens S,A 73) Chestnut-sided Warbler Dendroica pensylvanica T,A 74) Magnolia Warbler Dendroica magnolia S

75) Black-throated Green Warbler Dendroica virens T,A 76) Yellow-rumped Warbler Dendroica coronata S,A 77) Prairie Warbler Dendroica discolor A 78) Black-and-white Warbler Mniotilta varia A 79) Northern Waterthrush Seiurus novehoracensis A 80) American Redstart Setophaga ruticil/a T,A 8\ ) Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapil/us S,T,A 82) Louisiana Waterthrush S'eiurus motacilla S 83) Common Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas S,T,B,A 84) Canada Warbler Wilsonia canadens is T,A 85) Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea T,A 86) Rose-breasted Grosbeak Pheucticlis ludovicianus B,A 87) Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea T 88) Rufous-sided Towhee Pipilo efythrophthalmus S,T,A 89) American Tree Sparrow Spizel/a arhorea T,A 90) Chipping Sparrow Spizel/a passerina S,T,A 91 ) Savannah Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis S

92) Field Sparrow Spizel/a pllsilla T,A 93) Song Sparrow Alelospiza melodia S,T,B,A 94) Swamp Sparrow Melospiza geurgiana T 95) White-throated Sparrow Zonotrichia alhicollis S,T,A 96) White-crowned sparrow Zonotrichia qllerula S 97) Dark-eyed Junco Junco hyemalis S,T,A 98) Bobolink Do/ichonyx oryzivorus S 99) Red-winged Blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus S,T,B,A 100) Eastern meadow lark Stllrnel/a magna S 101 ) Common Grackle Quiscalus quiscula S,T,B,A 102) Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater S,T,A 103) Northern Oriole icterus galhula T,A 104) Purple Finch Carpodacus pllrpureus S

105) American Goldfinch Carduelis tristis S,T,B,A

Observer key:

The above listing has been compiled from lists by Thomas Salo, Linda Taylor, W. L. Butts, Matthew Albright and personal communications from Robert Phillips, Miriam Sharick, Bill Harman, and Earle Peterson.

S = Salo; T = Taylor; B = Butts; A = Albright; Sh = Sharick; P = Phillips; Pe = Peterson; H = Harman; W&H = Whittmore and Hamilton

104

REPORTS:

Sampling Interstitial Phosphorous Levels in Otsego Lake

Paul H. Lord 1

INTRODUCTION

Significance of Analysis

Phosphorous is the element most likely to limit productivity in a body of fresh water (Laws, 1993). This makes phosphorous the most important element to be understood by limno10gists and aquatic ecologist (Hutchinson, 1957) even though it is required in considerably less quantities than carbon or nitrogen (Wetzel, 1975; Cole, 1975). Indeed, phosphorous has been studied by limnologists more intensely than any other element (Wetzel, 1975). Phosphorous is necessary for both photosynthesis and respiration since it is a component of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and is essential for nucleic acids and the metabolism of both carbon and nitrogen (Levitt, 1969 and Cole, 1975). It is found in highly elevated levels in raw sewage and treated final effluents from sewage treatment plants (Sohacki, 1998).

Phosphorous is found in waters and in the sediments of aquatic systems in a variety of forms, although never in elemental form. It is regularly found as soluble reactive phosphate (SRP) (H2P04) (Sohacki, 1998). In lakes and rivers, phosphates in solution are available in small quantities (typically <1 to 230 ug liter although the 230 ug liter measurement was clearly an outlyer (Hutchinson, 1957; Goldman & Horne, 1983)) and for short periods of time (until it is put to use by some aquatic plant or bacterium). Soluble phosphorous (both SRP and organic) is normally ephemeral because:

• it is readily embodied by autotrophic organisms, and • in an oxidizing environment, such as Otsego Lake, it reacts with iron to form

insoluble complexes.

Total phosphorous levels for Otsego Lake are ~ 12 ug lliter (Harman et aI, 1997). Phosphorous is also found comp1exed with iron and calcium (among other cations) that are soluble only under reduced conditions. Finally, phosphorous is found as part of organic compounds and colloids that can be broken down for their phosphorous by specialized plants and bacteria (Goldman & Horne, 1983; Wetzel; 1975).

Phosphorus generally enters a water system by being washed in as part of moving surface waters. They do not exist as gases, though atmospheric depostion may contribute

I SUNY Oneonta biology graduate student enrolled in Bio. 585 Pollution of the Aquatic Environment. Present address: PO Box 296 (217 South Street), Hartwick, N.Y. 13348; Email: [email protected]

105

significantly to lake loading. Due to their ionic nature they are easily adsorbed by soil particles and, therefore, are found in low concentrations in ground water. (This fact recommends septic systems for decomposition of organic waste, though the retentive capacity of phosphorus by soils is limited). While heavy erosion of phosphate-containing rock may be responsible for phosphorus loading in certain areas, by far the most common sources of introduction are organic and industrial wastes moved along by surface water flows. In the 1970s, the heavy use of phosphates in laundry detergents provided eutrophying doses of this aquatic life-limiting nutrient to waterways in industrialized countries world-wide (Goldman & Horne, 1983; Harman et aI, 1997).

Phosphorous in freshwater is most often found as part of living plants and animals. When soluble inorganic phosphates are added to a body of water, they are typically consumed by phytoplankton, bacteria, and littoral vegetation with aggressive rapidity (Hutchinson, 1957; Cole, 1975; Wetzel, 1975), even in excess to plant requirements (Goldman & Horne, 1983). Therefore, inorganic phosphates typically comprise less than 5% of the phosphorus in a lake (Wetzel, 1975).

Many aquatic plants have developed mechanisms for making use of dissolved organic phosphates. Dissolved organic phosphates are subcellular remnants of excretion and expired life forms (Cole, 1975). Certain aquatic plants have developed the capability to produce enzymes which are utilized, external to the plant, to break down organic substances releasing inorganic phosphates which are rapidly taken up by the plant (Goldman & Horne, 1983; Wetzel, 1975). However, most organic phosphates are not made into inorganic phosphates by plants directly. Benthic organisms and bacteria break down excretions and corpses. As a result of normal sedimentation processes, much phosphorous ends up in the sediments underlying lakes.

Since phosphorous is most often limiting and much of it ends up in lake sediments, any potential for mixing of sediments back into the water column has the potential to spur significant aquatic growth. Turbulence can double available phosphate in the water column (Wetzel, 1975). Agitation of the relatively phosphate-rich sediments back into the lake water occurs regularly. Benthic organisms, particularly burrowers, and bottom feeding fishes mix bottom sediments with bottom waters in lakes (Goldman & Horne, 1983; Wetzel, 1975). Water movement, of all types which reach lake bottoms, push bottom sediments around and enrich the waters above. Yearly vernal and autumnal turnovers mix phosphates back into lake waters and stimulate predictable algae blooms. Macrophytes are often responsible for the return of sediment-bound phosphorous to the water column (Prentki, 1979; Barko and Smart, 1979).

Yet, as life enriching to the water as these mixings are, particles containing phosphorous generally follow gravity in the aquatic world and return to the bottom sediments. Oligotrophic and mesotrophic lakes can experience a heavy "dose" of phosphates, experience a "bloom" and quickly return to conditions much as they were prior to the phosphate dose (Hutchinson, 1957; Wetzel, 1975). There is a chemical-electrical force assisting in keeping phosphates in sediments adsorbed to ferric oxides and hydroxide. This force is present as long as the bottom sediments are oxidized. Once they become anoxic and reduced, phosphates, ferric ions, and manganese are freed to solution (Hutchinson, 1957; Wetzel, 1975).

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The impact is significant. A eutrophic summer-stratified lake, which experiences life and death in quantity, may develop an oxygen-deprived hypolimnion prior to the end of summer. The anoxic sediments release phosphorous to overlying waters. This is known as internal loading. The increased enrichment of internal loading facilitates even more aggressive plant growth with subsequent death causing the bottom sediments to become even more anoxic, continuing a positive feedback cycle that may continue until autumn turnover. Turnover thoroughly mixes the phosphates into the water while reoxidizing the bottom which reestablishes the phosphate "trap" (Hutchinson, 1957).

On Otsego Lake, phosphorous is believed to be limiting and" ... has been monitored with the greatest intensity since 1968" (Harman et aI, 1997). Interstitial water has been sampled previously (Vertucci et. al., 1981) but without real confidence in the results since the samples could not be protected from oxidation once removed from the sediments (Harman, 1998). In 1996, research was initiated to determine if littoral sediments, mixed into the water column by powerboat perturbations, were supplying algae with useable forms of phosphorus (France and Albright, 1996).

Reaction

The analytic technique used can be summarized by the following equations (Sohacki, 1998; Sohacki, undated; APHA et al., 1992):

Ammonium Molybdate + P04-2 __ H+--> Phosphomolybdate;

Phosphomolybdate + Ascorbic Acid Potassium antimonyl-tartrate > Molybdenum Blue; where:

• Ammonium molybdate is (NH4)6M070z4 . 4H20;

• H+ is provided by sulfuric acid diluted with distilled water;

• Potassium antimonyl-tartrate is K(SbO)C4H40 6 • 1/2HzO.

Interferences of the above reactions

Silica can provide a positive interference. High arsenate (As04'\ which is often found as a contaminant in pesticides, can interfere negatively (Wetzel & Likens, 1991), as do a variety of other substances (floride, thorium, bismuth, sulfide, thiosulfate, thiocynate, and excess molybdate) (APHA et al., 1992).

The most likely source of noncontamination interference with production of accurate results from this phosphorous - phosphate determination is the oxidation of the pore water before insertion in, or after removal from, the sediments. Any oxidation of the retrieved interstitial water would" ... significantly change the concentration of dissolved elements" (Mudroch and Azcue, 1995). Timely processing of the retrieved samples is essential to avoiding this potential interference.

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Contamination precautions

Since phosphorous is measured in such small quantities and since it is part of a wide variety of organic and inorganic compounds, it is easy to contaminate a measurement and produce invalid results. Even in the laboratory many compounds used regularly (e.g., "no phosphate" detergents and deionized H20) contain considerable quantities of phosphorous (Sohacki, 1998).

To avoid contamination, the following procedures were followed (Sohacki, 1998 after APHA et al., 1992; Bottomly and Bayley, 1984.):

• Collectors were acid washed, soaked in 1 M HN03 for 30 days prior to first use, and rinsed in glass distilled I-hO.

• Glassware was acid washed, rinsed with concentrated H2S04 prior to first use, soaked with 10% HCI after each use and rinsed with glass distilled H20.

• Only glass distilled H20 was used for dilutions.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology used in assembling and employing the interstitial soluble reactive phosphorous collectors was patterned after the earlier work of Hesslein (1976) and Bottomly and Bayley (1984) as further developed by the Institute of Ecosystem Studies (IES) (Wigland, 1998). The major differences in the samplers used in this study versus those employed by IES were the measures taken to simplify production and to reduce the cost of manufacturing the samplers. The samplers were made out of stock I 1/2 inch (3.8 cm) and 2 inch (5.1 cm) polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping, PVC fittings, Plexiglas, PVC cement, rubber cement, Ace number 59 O-rings, and dialysis membrane (SpectriPor: MWCO: 6000-8000; flat sheets 240 x 240 mm cut to fit with a one inch overlap).

The samplers are comprised of two major components: an outer "package" and an internal collector (known as a "peeper"). The outer package is comprised of a length of 2 inch (5.1 cm) PVC suitable to collecting at the desired sediment depth. It is capped with a 2 inch (5.1 cm) PVC cap with a 1/6" (.42 cm) hole drilled in the center (for release of any trapped air) which was painted a fluorescent green (for deep water sites) or pink (for shallow water sites) to facilitate relocation. This cap also expedites any pushing of the package into the sediment. The other end was made bluntly pointed, to assist in penetration of the sediments, by the use of a 2 inch (5.1 cm) to 1 1/2 inch (3.8 cm) PVC fitting terminated with a 1 1/2 inch (3.8 cm) PVC "trap" fitting. The "pointed" end components were glued to the 2 inch (5.1 cm) PVC pipe to ensure they did not detach in placement or retrieval. The 2 inch (5.1 cm) PVC pipe was drilled with a 1/2 inch (1.3 cm) drill bit approximately two inches ( 5 cm) apart to ensure the free flow of pore water through the outer package. The internal and external surfaces of the outer package were sanded to eliminate any PVC burrs that could damage the peepers.

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The internal peepers were made out of 1 1/2 inch (3.8 cm) PVC pipe cut to lengths of approximately 3 inches (7.6 cm). These collectors were also drilled with a 1/2 inch (1.3 cm) bit placed approximately inch and a half (3.8 cm) apart. Holes were not cut along the blue guide line running the length of the pipe nor within one half inch (1.3 cm) of the top or bottom edge. Using a rotary table saw and a small file, the top and bottoms of the peepers were grooved 1/4 inch (0.64 cm) from their edges to accept the o-rings (which secured the dialysis membrane). Plexiglas tops and bottoms were rough-cut for the peepers and attached using multi-purposed PVC cement (Ace #43692) and sanded down to the diameter of the 1 1/2 inch (3.8 cm) PVc. Peepers were soaked in I M HN03 for 30 days, rinsed in glass distilled water and air dried on laboratory muslin under an aluminum foil "tent". O-rings were soaked for only four days due to their deterioration when exposed to I M HN03 for longer periods of time. They were rinsed and dried, as were the peepers. Dialysis membrane was then attached to each peeper by gluing an edge of the membrane along the PVC blue guide line with rubber cement (Ace product). This proved challenging in that the rate of successful adhesion was only three out of seven attempts. Improvements in adhesion could possibly be facilitated by abrading the smooth outer surface of the PVC where the glue is applied (Sohacki, 1998).

The four collectors that did not hold the membrane with the rubber cement were rewashed and dried prior to attaching dialysis strips with Ace "All-purpose Super Glue" (part number 10238). This glue's active ingredient was cyanoacrylate ester.

Once the glue set, the peepers were submerged in glass distilled water and the dialysis membrane was wrapped around the peeper to form a seal held in place by the O-rings. Best results were obtained by cutting the membrane in about three and a half inch (8.9 cm) widths and trimming after the O-rings were put in place to secure the membrane. Peepers were maintained in glass distilled water, purged of oxygen by bubbling with medical grade nitrogen gas (for 42 hours) until inserted in the outer package immediately prior to placement in the sediments. In inserting the collectors in the package one jammed due to a wrinkle in the dialysis membrane. Two collectors were placed: one deep (56' [17 m]) and one shallow (3 1/2' [I m]).

Peepers were placed in their outer packages for specific sediment depths by using various lengths of stock 1 1/2 inch 3.8 cm) PVC as spacers. Markings on the outside of the packages indicated the depths to which the packages had to be driven into the sediments. The shallow water collector was placed about one foot (0.3 m) shoreward of the end of the Biological Field Station (BFS) pier. The collector was submerged in the sediments about 12 inches (0.3 m). The deep water collector was placed in the bottom under 56' (17 m) of water and five inches (12.7 cm) of sediment at a location marked with a submerged buoy. The intention was to mark the bouy's position with a Global Positioning System device, but it failed forcing us to rely on triangulation.

Peepers were left in place for nine days (3-12 May 98) to allow for a complete exchange of dissolved ions with the contacting pore water. Future studies will seek to determine the appropriate interval for reaching equilibrium.

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Immediately after bringing the packages to the surface (before peepers were extracted), the peeper water was extracted using hypodermic needles and syringes (Monoject 12cc and B-D Plastipak Discardit 20cc). Standard insulin injection hypodermic needles were too thin to readily retrieve the 10 ml samples required. Extreme patience was required in withdrawing the samples. Two samples (l0 ml and 9 m!) were retrieved from the shallow water collector and stored in disposable centrifuge cuvettes. The deep water peeper's membrane tore, preventing water retrieval. Samples were immediately fixed with BFS phosphorous "premix" (after Griesbach and Peters, 1991) in a 1:10 ratio. Upon return to the laboratory, spectrophotometer readings were taken for the sample and standards. The methodology used for determining the total reactive phosphorous found in the peepers was that specified in Albright (1998) (after Griesbach and Peters, 1991).

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Phosphorous standards provided a linear relationship with absorbance as follows: Absorbance = .0025 (Phosphorous ug) - 0.001.

This relationship has an R2 value of .9988 indicating a solid linear relationship. The two shallow water collections were found to have 15.2 and 17.2 ug/l P, which is consistent with previous Otsego Lake pore water phosphorous research (Vertucci, et. al., 1981), where levels obtained were between 2.1 and 19.7 ug/1.

Areas of concern remain to be addressed in follow-on research: • The fit of peepers in collectors needs to be adjusted with deeper a-ring grooves or

thinner a-rings. • Refined procedures for assembling the collectors need to be developed • Adhesion of membrane to peeper external surfaces needs particular refinement. • Procedures for storage of prepared peepers (in deoxygenated water in museum

jars?) needs to be developed to limit the expense of medical grade nitrogen used. • Hypodermic needles with larger diameters should be obtained. • The possible phosphorous contamination by the "super glue" and needles and

syringes needs to be evaluated. • Glass syringes that could be acid washed might better ensure no phosphorous

contamination.

REFERENCES Albright, M. F. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewaters. Amer. Public Health Assoc. New York.

Barko, 1. W. and Smart, R. M. 1979. The role of Myriophyllum spicatum in the mobilization of sediment phosphorous. IN: Breck, 1. E., Prentki, R. T., and Loucks, O. L. 1979. Aquatic plants, lake management, and ecosystem consequences of lake harvesting. Center for Biotic Systems, Institute of Environmental Studies, University of WisconsinMadison.

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Bottomley, E. Z and Bayley, 1. L. 1984. A sediment porewater sampler used in root zone studies of the submerged macrophyte, Myriophyllum spicatum. Limno!. Oceanogr., 29: 671- 673.

Cole, G. A.. 1975. Limnology. The C. V. Mosby Co., St. Louis.

France, K. E. and Albright, M. F. 1996. The relative effects of recreational boating and wind conditions on perturbation of sediments on littoral substrates in Otsego Lake. In 27th

Ann. Rept. , 1995. SlJNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Pp 76-84.

Goldman, C. R. and Horne, A. 1. 1983. Limnology. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Griesbach, S. 1. and Peters, R. H. 1991. The effects fo analytical variations on estimates of phosphorous concentration in surface waters. Lake and Reserv. Manage. Vol. 7(1). Pp. 97-106.

Harman. W. N. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hannan, W. N., Sohacki, L. P., Albright, M. F., and Rosen, D. L. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake, 1936 -1996. Occas. Pap. No. 30 SUNY Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hesslein, R. H. 1976. An in situ sampler for close interval porewater studies. Limno!. Oceanogr.21: 912-914.

Hutchinson, G. E. 1957. A treatise on limnology. Vol. 1. Geography, physics and chemistry. Wiley, New York.

Laws, E. A. 1993. Aquatic pollution. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

Levitt,1. 1969. Introduction to plant physiology. The C. V. Mosby Co., St. Louis.·

Mudroch, A. and Azcue, 1. M. 1995. Manual of aquatic sediment sampling. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton, FL.

Prentki, R. 1. 1979. Depletion of phosphorus from sediment colonized by Myriophyllum spicatum L. IN: Breck, 1. E., Prentki, R. T., and Loucks, O. L. 1979. Aquatic plants, lake management, and ecosystem consequences of lake harvesting. Center for Biotic Systems, Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Sohacki, L. P. undated paper; rec'd Jan 98. Determination of soluble reactive phosphate phosphorous via the ascorbic acid method. SUNY Oneonta.

Sohacki, L. P. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta.

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Vertucci, F. A., Harman, W. N., and Peverly, 1. H. 1981. The ecology of the aquatic macrophytes of Rat Cove, Otsego Lake, N.Y. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Occasional Paper 8: 1-210.

Welch, P. S. 1952. Limnology. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Wetzel, R. G. 1975. Limnology. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.

Wetzel, R. G. and Likens, G. E. 1991. Limnological analyses, 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Wigland, C. 1998. E-mail from [email protected] to [email protected] dtd Friday, March 06, 1998 1:35 PM.

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Analysis of soluble reactive phosphorus in pore waters of Otsego Lake bottom sediments

Darcy R. Williams I

INTRODUCTION

Of life's essential nutrients, phosphorus has been the most limiting in Otsego Lake (Harman et al., 1997). It is only needed in small quantities, yet its scarcity has served control growth of primary producers. Recently Otsego Lake has experienced a significant increase in phosphorus concentrations in the water due to human presence (Harman et al., 1997). The increase in phosphorus comes from three major external sources: septic leachate, development, and agriculture (Rosen, 1998). Water runoff from these sources carries a high concentration of phosphorus, which eventually reaches the lake. This has triggered excessive growth, particularly in phytoplankton populations.

Phosphorus is consumed by organisms in its inorganic form, as phosphates. As they pass through the body some are converted to organic phosphorus; when waste material is excreted approximately half is in an organic form and half is inorganic. The majority of phosphates in lakes are orthophosphates (P04

3') (Goldman and Horne, 1983), which are also

known as soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) (Hooper, 1973). Phosphorus present in the water column in organic form is dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP). DOP can form as a result of decomposition of organic material. To be converted to phosphates, DOP must be exposed to an enzyme such as alkaline phosphatase (Goldman and Horne, 1983) before it can be consumed by organisms.

Both organic and inorganic phosphorus that is present in the water column will eventually sediment to the bottom of the lake and will be incorporated into the substrate. According to Bostrom et al. (1982), a "major proportion" of phosphorus input into oligotrophic lakes is deposited in the sediments. Otsego Lake is a meso-oligotrophic lake (Hannan et al., 1997). If sediment conditions are aerobic, then SRP is quickly immobilized by iron and aluminum. These compounds typically form at the sedimenUwater interface where they are exposed to oxygen in the water column. The sediments below the surface are anaerobic and therefore contain free SRP in the interstitial waters (Hesse, 1973). The layer formed at the sediment surface prevents free SRP in the sediment from entering the water column. This generally creates a natural SRP deficiency in the lake, limiting growth. Any artificial phosphorus source disrupts this balance. In addition to increased external loading, a large quantity of phosphates enters the water column in Otsego Lake through regeneration, paI1icuiarly by alewives and zooplankton (Warner et al., 1996). Following the introduction of alewives in 1986, their population has grown exponentially, which has continually increased the amount of phosphates they regenerate. They have also decreased the mean size of zooplankton in the lake by grazing on them, which may increase the rate of phosphorus

I Robert C. MacWatters Internship in the aquatic sciences, summer 1998. Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, NY

113

In addition to the direct addition of phosphates to the lake, certain processes may liberate SRP to the water column. One cause of the release of SRP is the decrease in oxygen concentrations at the sediment/water interface of the lake. The large phytoplankton populations in Otsego Lake stimulate an oxygen deficiency in the hypolimnion. This is created by the decomposition of phytoplankton; when they die they fall to the hypolimnion where they are broken down by bacteria. The bacteria consume oxygen from the water, which decreases dissolved oxygen concentrations (Harman et al., 1997). The lack of oxygen reduces the iron and aluminum in the sediment and eliminates the compound barrier at the sediment/water interface. This makes SRP available for consumption (Hesse, 1973). Another cause of SRP release into the water column is by physical disturbances of the sediment, such as those created by bioturbation, natural waves and motorboat activity; boats moving in shallow water often disturb the sediments and stir SRP into the water (Rosen, 1998).

The goal of this study is to estimate the quantity of free SRP in the sediments of Otsego Lake that potentially could be released into the water column. In order to make such a measurement, interstitial water must be extracted without being exposed to oxygen. Many studies have been done to attempt similar measurements. Both Mayer (1976) and Hesslein (1976) did sediment pore water studies using dialysis membrane as a filter through which soluble nutrients could pass. Mayer (1976) submerged dialysis bags in the sediments within a perforated tube. The bags were filled with distilled water and then were allowed to sit in the sediment to equilibrate. Hesslein (1976) created samplers of acrylic plastic with compartments that could be filled with distilled water and then sealed with dialysis membrane. Other studies have followed, including Bottomley and Bayly (1984) and Carignan (1984). Summaries of their methods are published in books by Mudroch and Azcue (1995) and Muffle and De Vitre (1994).

Vertucci et al. (1981) studied phosphorus content in the sediments of Rat Cove in Otsego Lake by taking sediment core samples at various depths up to 20 cm. To prevent the pore water from being exposed to oxygen he packed sediment in beakers. Samples were suction filtered to separate sediment from pore water. His data provide comparison material for Otsego Lake despite the different methods used. Lord (1998) did a study most closely following the methods of Bottomley and Bayly (1984) at the Biological Field Station. My study has been a continuation of Lord's, with minor changes in methods.

Concurrent to my research on phosphorus, a study was done at the Biological Field Station on water seepage rates from the sediments into the water column (Donnelly et al., in prep.). Seepage meters were placed in various locations in the lake for various lengths of time. It is possible that seepage rates are representative of a quantity of SRP entering the lake from the sediments. To be able to compare results, some of my samplers were placed in the same locations as the seepage meters.

METHODS

To determine the quantity of soluble phosphorus in the sediments, two-part collectors were constructed, including external shells called inserters and internal collectors called peepers

114

(Figure 1). The inserters are 2" (5.1 cm) polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe with 0.5" (1.3 cm) diameter holes drilled approximately every 1.5 in (3.8 cm) along the pipe to allow water passage. To create a blunt yet tapering bottom end, a cap was created using a 2" (5.1 cm) to 1.5" (3.8 cm) PVC fitting, ending with a 1.5" (3.8 cm) PVC "trap" fitting. These pieces were glued in place using PVC cement. The top end of the inserter was capped using a 2" (5.1 cm) PVC cap with a 1116" (0.16 cm) hole drilled in its center. The inserters were placed in both shallow-water sediments close to shore, and in deep-water sediments. The shallow-water inserters were 18" (45.7 cm) in length, of which the top 0.75" (1.9 cm) were exposed when placed in the sediments. The cap on each shallow-water inserter was painted bright orange and attached to a small foam floater that hung approximately 6-12" (15-30) above the inserter so that the inserter could be easily found again. Fishing line attached the floater to the cap through a 1132" (0.08 cm) hole drilled in the cap and a hole punched through the foam. The deep-water inserters were 5' (1.5 m) long, and when placed were pushed 4' (1.2 m) into the sediments so that the top 12" (30.5 cm) were exposed. The exposed section was painted bright yellow so that it could be easily found. A floater was not attached to the cap of the deep-water inserters because the yellow paint was easier to see at depth than was the floater. Six inserters were created in total: four shallow-water inseliers and two deep-water inserters. Placement and removal of deep inserters was accomplished using SCUBA.

The inner collecters, called "peepers," were constructed of2.75" (7 cm) long segments of 1.5" (3.8 cm) PVC pipe, sealed at the ends with plexiglass squares that were glued on with PVC cement. The plexiglass was sanded down to the diameter of the pipe, and the edges were rounded smooth. Six holes were drilled with a 0.5" (1.3 cm) drill bit in each peeper to allow ion exchange. Two grooves were cut in each peeper using a rotary table saw and placed approximately 0.1" (.25 cm) deep and 0.25" (.64 cm)from each end to hold size 12 Rubber bands in place (see below). Before use the peepers were soaked in 1 M HN03 for 30 days to prevent possible contamination by phosphorus that may have been present in the lab. The peepers were again soaked in 1 M HN03 for 7 days before subsequent use.

After soaking for 30 days in an acid bath the peepers were rinsed three times with hot tap water and twice with glass distilled water and then were placed in an aluminum foil tent to dry. The peepers were wrapped in SpectraJPor® Membrane Dialysis Flat Sheets with a molecular weight cut off (MWCO) of 6-8,000. The membrane was cut with acid-washed scissors to approximately 3.5" (8.9 cm) in width (to extend just beyond the ends of the peeper), and 9.5" (24.1 cm) in length, to allow for an inch (2.5 cm) or more of overlap. To hold the membrane in place, one end of the membrane was glued to the peeper using Super Glue®, the main ingredient of which is cyanoacrylate, and left to dry overnight. The following day the peepers were placed in a container of glass distilled water that was at least 4" (I 0 cm) deep (to allow the peepers to be completely submerged), and the dialysis membrane was wrapped tightly around the peeper, devoid of air bubbles. Size 12 Rubber bands were wrapped around the peepers over the grooves to hold the dialysis membrane in place. Containers were acid-washed to prevent contamination. The water was then bubbled with nitrogen gas for 24 hours to eliminate oxygen, and the peepers were stored in the oxygen-free water in 16 oz. (473 ml) glass jars until just prior to placement in the sediment.

-----------

(a).

Waler surface

Sediment surface

Ipeeper](b).

Plexiglass top and bottom -7

3"

115

~ow-waterInserterJ

Slyrofoam submerged buoy

18"

~ groove for rubber band

~ groove for rubber band

Figure 1. Diagram of a shallow-water inserter (a) and a peeper (b).

116

The peepers were suspended within the inserters at specific intervals. The short inserters were built to hold peepers at 3" (7.6 cm) and 12" (30.5 cm) deep. The long inserters each held four peepers, at 3"(7.6 cm), 12" (30.5 cm), 24" (61.0 cm) and 36" (91.5 cm) deep. The peepers were held in place with 1.5" (J..8 cm) PVC pipe spacers, cut to the appropriate lengths.

The inserters were pulled out of the sediment by twisting and pulling, as gently as possible to prevent the dialysis membrane from ripping. They were brought quickly to just below the surface and, while still in the water, sediment was washed from the inserters to find matching holes on the peeper and inserter. A syringe was used to draw two 10 ml samples of water immediately out of each peeper. The syringe used was a 5 ml glass syringe with a size 16, 3/4" (1.9 cm) needle. Each sample was kept in a separate centrifuge tube to which a composite reagent (modi Ged from Griesbach and Peters, 1991) was added immediately following sampling in a 10: I sample-to-reagent ratio. The composite reagent was made according to the ascorbic acid method to find soluble reacti ve phosphorus (APHA et at., 1992), although in smaller quantities. SRP content was measured in flg/L using a spectrophotometer at 885nm. Standards were read with phosphorus concentrations of 0, 2, 5, 10 and 50 flg/L and used to create a standard curve.

To determine the speed of equilibration bet\veen sediment pore water and the peepers, 3 shallow-water inserters were placed together in Rat Cove of Otsego Lake in 8 feet of water (Figure 2) on July 1, 1998, each with one peeper 12" (30.5 cm) deep. They were removed after 7, 15, and 28 days. On the same day one deep-water inselier was placed at the same site with peepers at 12" (30.5 em), 24" (61.0 em), and 36" (91.5 em) to determine the depth of the highest concentrations of SRP. These were removed after 28 days. This initial study was used to determine the time and depth that the peepers should be in the sediments in order to find the greatest quantities of phosphorus.

A second set of inserters was placed at the same site on July 16, 1998. This set included 4 shallow-water inserters, each with one peeper at l' deep. These were removed after 13, 21, and 34 days. Two were removed after 34 days.

On August 26, 1998 I placed two long inserters off of Clarke point in Otsego Lake (Figure 2), under 39' (11.9 m) of water. Each had 3 peepers at l' (30.5 em), 2' (61.0 em), and 3' 91.5 em). The sediment has a high clay content at this site, meaning that it probably has a high concentration of aluminum. If the interstitial waters were exposed to oxygen, then it is likely that any phosphorus would be bonded to the aluminum and would not be free in the water.

To compare SRP content in the shallow-water sediments of Rat Cove I, placed 2 short inserters just south of the BFS dock (Figure 2), in approximately 2.5' (0.75 m) of water, and approximately 5' (1.5 m) apart on August 27, 1998. I also placed 2 short inserters in the northwest corner of the Cove (Figure 2), in 2.5' (0.75 m) of water and 5' (1.5 m) apart. According to Vertucci et at. (1981) the northern end of the Cove has significantly more SRP in the interstitial waters than the southern end.

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Clarke Point sample site

Point 'udith Kingfisher Tower

BFS Dock sample site

Figure 2. Bathymetric map of otsego Lake and the pore water sample sites studied June-September, 1998.

Susquehanna River

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RESULTS

Of the two sets of inserters that were placed in Rat Cove to survey equilibration rates and phosphorus at different depths, two patterns emerged (Tables I and 2). Both sets of inserters showed that the largest quantity of SRP was measured at 21 days, followed by that at 15 days (Figure 3). The SRP concentration dropped in each set of inserters sometime after the 21 st day. The deep-water inserter measuring phosphorus at various depths showed the peeper at 2' to have more SRP than at either I' (30.5 cm) or 3' (91.5 cm) (Figure 4). These data helped determine the placement of peepers and inserters later in the summer. The regression (R2

) values on the phosphorus standards throughout the study (0.480-0.999; mean = 0.893) were not quite high enough to consider readings to be certifiably precise for SRP content. This should be considered while analyzing the data.

Set I, Placed 7/1/98

Peeper Depth (ft)

Date pulled Time under (days)

Sample I (ppb)

Sample 2 (ppb)

[P] mean (ppb)

IA I 7/8/98 7 1.03 0.89 0.96 IB I 7/16/98 15 14.67 15.09 14.88 IC I 7/29/98 28 -4.93 -7.40 -6.16 ID-I I 7/29/98 28 -4.10 -6.57 -5.34 ID-2 2 7/29/98 28 141.25 77.01 109.13 ID-3 3 7/29/98 28 25.54 46.13 35.84

Table I. Phosphorus concentrations in peepers of shallow- and deep-water inserters, placed 1 July, 1998.

Set 2, Placed 7/16/98

Peeper Depth (ft)

Date pulled Time under (days)

Sample I (ppb)

Sample 2 (ppb)

Sample 3 (ppb)

[P] mean (ppb)

2A I 7/29/98 13 3.72 7.02 NA 5.37 2B I 8/6/98 21 6.00 45.17 NA 25.58 2C 1 8/19/98 34 12.32 9.16 6.46 9.30 2D 1 8/19/98 34 4.66 4.21 4.66 4.52

Table 2. Phosphorus concentrations in shallow-water peepers, placed 16 July, 1998.

At Clarke Point the pore waters showed significant quantities of SRP (Table 3). The concentrations were greater at I' (30.5 cm) and 2' (61.0 cm) below the sediment surface than at 3" (91.5 cm) (Figure 5).

-----------

-----

-------------------

119

30

;J21 days -+-Placed 7/1

---.-Placed 7/16

25

~ 20

15

..c c.. c.. 10

34 days [

5 34 days

7 days 0

-5

-10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 time (days)

'zero value represents no detection of phosphorous «2 ppb)

13 days

28 days'

28 days'

Figure 3. Phosphorous equilibration was measured over time with 2 series of four inserters. T_h_e_Y___ _I

were placed under 8 ft of water on july 1, 1998 and July 16, 1998. Peepers were all located 1 ft below the sediment-water interface.

,---------------------- --_._-----

I o -------------- -------------------.-,_.-

sediment-water interface

-0_5

-1

:E. -1.5 J::. +' c.. Gl c

-2

-3

-3.5 -'---------------------------------------'

o 20 40 60 80 100 120 I [P] ppb


I Figure 4. Phosphorous quantities in peepers at depths of 1, 2, and 3 ft below the sediment-water interface. The inserter was allowed to equilibrate for 28 days. Values represent an average of 2 10 ml samples taken from each peeper. I

3

120

I ..c: 12E. CI> Cl

24

I

pO"" [ 0'","" 1

12I1nserter 2 -_. - - --

11639.23

-90.82 ~

i

~ 3879.94

I

-500 o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 [P] (ppb)


Figure 5. Phosphorus concentration in peepers of deep-water inserters, Clarke Point, 21 September, 1998.

. ...._-- .. -- .----.--.-.. ·····--·------1 6546 I

i65

55

45

I-;;;~~e~-

b~" 25

15

5 -2.64 -0.07

I I -5

BFS Dock NW Rat Cove


Figure 6. Phosphorus concentration in peepers of shallow-water inserters, Rat Cove, 17 September, 1998.

121

Inserter Depth in sediment (inches)

Depth under water (ft)

Sample 1 (ppb)

Sample 2 (ppb)

[P] mean (ppb)

A 3 40 109.78 642.59 376.18

A 12 40 1637.33 1641.13 1639.23

A 24 40 1356.37 1219.69 1288.03

B 12 40 -77.53 -104.10 -90.82

B 24 40 3879.94 3879.94 3879.94

Table 3. Phosphorus concentrations in peepers of deep-water inserters, Clarke Point, 26 August to 21 September, 1998.

In Rat Cove, SRP concentrations were significantly higher in the northwest corner than they were south of the BFS dock (Table 4, Figure 6). This is consistent with the work of Vertucci et al (1981). At the dock there was no measurable SRP in the pore water, yet in the northwest corner quantities exceeded 60 ppb. Data was limited to one peeper in the northwest corner because one of the peepers was destroyed and the other was lost.

Site Depth in sediment (inches)

Depth under water (inches)

Sample 1 (ppb)

Sample 2 (ppb)

[P] mean (ppb)

BFS Dock Surface 25.5 -1.74 -3.54 -2.64 BFS Dock 9 25.5 1.09 1.61 1.35 BFS Dock 12 25 -0.97 -2.00 -1.48

NW Cove 3 NA NA NA NA NW Cove 12 I I 54.65 76.28 65.46 NW Cove 12 NA NA NA NA

Table 4. Phosphorus concentrations in peepers of shallow-water inserters, Rat Cove, 27 August to 17 September, 1998.

DISCUSSION

It was expected that SRP concentrations would increase with time and then would level off as SRP in the peepers and the interstitial waters equilibrated. A decrease in SRP after three weeks was unexpected, yet it occurred in both sets of peepers and so was used as a reference for determining the length of time that peepers were left in the sediments. The greatest concentration of SRP was found at 21 days; for this reason peepers were kept in the sediments for as close to 21 days as possible. Other similar studies have found equilibration to take anywhere between 6 and 30 days, and often close to 15 days if water temperatures are 20-25°C (Mudroch and Azcue, 1995). The depth of peepers varied according to thickness of the sediments. Because the highest quantity of SRP found in the depth survey study was at 2' (61 em), peepers were placed up to 2' (61 em) deep at Clarke Point, but not deeper. The shallow

122

water sediments often are less than two feet thick so peepers were placed at l' (30.5 cm) and just below the surface at 3" (7.6 cm). The survey study was used as a guide, but not as a set of rules because repetitions had been limited.

The large quantity of SRP found at Clarke Point may be due to the clay sediments. Clays tend to have high concentrations of iron and aluminum which bind to phosphates (Bostrom et a/~ 1982). In addition, sediment and associated phosphorus falls to the bottom of the lake which may cause the higher concentration of SRP in the bottom sediments. In Rat Cove, the greater quantities of SRP in the northwest corner may be due to the amount of organic debris present there in the form of leaf litter, woody plant material, aquatic macrophytes, and waste from the migrating bird populations that gather there.

The purpose of this study is to refine a protocol for studying interstitial waters at the Biological Field Station. Although it is time consuming and requires SCUBA divers, this protocol avoids many of the problems encountered in previous studies of phosphorus in pore waters such as filtration and exposure to oxygen. The insel1ers and peepers are inexpensive, simple to build and most materials are easy to find.

The results of a concurrent study on seepage in Otsego Lake (Donnelly et al., in prep.) indicate that there is a negligible amount of seepage at Clarke Point. Therefore, at that site, any relationship between SRP in the pore waters and seepage would be irrelevant.

REFERENCES

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 1i h ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.

Bostrom, Bengt, Mats Jansson, and Curt Forsberg. 1982. Phosphorus release from lake sediments. Arch. Hydrobio!. Limno!., 18:5-59.

Bottomly, E. Z. and I. L. Bayly.1984. A sediment porewater sampler used in root zone studies of the submerged macrophyte, J\1yriophyllum .spicatum. Limno!. Oceanogr., 29(3):671-673.

Buffle, Jacques and Richard R. De Vitre. 1994. Chemical and Biological Regulation of Aquatic Systems. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton, Florida.

Carignan, R. 1982. An empirical model to estimate the relative importance of roots in phosphorus uptake by aquatic macrophytes. Can. 1. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 39:243-247.

Donnelly, D., D. R. Williams and P. H. Lord. In preparation. Seepage Meters: Protocols for the construction, installation, utilization and removal of seepage meters on the bottom of Otsego Lake for the determination of groundwater flux through bottom sediments. SUNY Oneonta Bio!. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Goldman, C. R. and A. 1. Horne. 1983. Limnology. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.

123

Griesbach, S. J. and R. H. Peters. 1991. The 'effects of analytical variations on estimates of phosphorus concentration in surface waters. Lake and Reserv. Manage. 7(1 ):97-106.

Hannan, W. N., L. P. Sohacki, M. F. Albright, and D. L. Rosen. 1997. The State of Otsego Lake, 1936-1996. Occasional Paper #30. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N. Y.

Hesse, P. R. 1973. Phosphorus in Lake Sediments, In Griffith, E. J, A Beeton, J M. Spencer and D. T. Mitchell (eds.). Environmental Phosphorus Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Hesslein, R. H. 1976. An in situ sampler for close interval pore water studies. Limnol. Oceanogr. 21:912-914.

Hooper, Frank F. 1973. Origin and Fate of Organic Phosphorus Compounds in Aquatic Systems, In Griffith, E. J, A Beeton, J M. Spencer and D. T. Mitchell (eds.). Environmental Phosphorus Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Lord, Paul H. 1998. Sampling interstitial phosphorus levels in Otsego Lake. Unpublished term paper in BIOL 367, SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Mayer, L. M. 1976. Chemical water sampling in lakes and sediments with dialysis bags. Limnol. Oceanogr. 21:909-912.

Mudroch, Alena, .los M. Azcue, and Paul Mudroch. 1997. Manual of Physico-Chemical Analysis of Aquatic Sediments. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton, Florida.

Mudroch, Alena and .los M. Azcue. 1995. Manual of Aquatic Sediment Sampling. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton, Florida.

Rosen, D. L. 1998. Otsego Lake: A Guide to its Ecology and Management. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Vertucci, F. A, W. N. Harman, and J H. Peverly. 1981. The ecology of the aquatic macrophytes of Rat Cove, Otsego Lake, N.Y. Occasional Paper #8. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Warner, D., L. Rudstam, and W. N. Harman. 1996. An estimation of the density, abundance, biomass and species composition of the Otsego Lake pelagic fish community and zooplankton and alewife phosphorus regeneration. In 29th Ann. Rept. (1996), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

124

Protocols for the evaluation of groundwater flux through bottom sediments of Otsego Lake using seepage meters

David Donnellyl

ABSTRACT

A device for measuring seepage flux in Otsego Lake was constructed and evaluated. Three types of collection containers, including Reynolds Oven Bags ®, 2.5 gallon Hefty One Zip bags ®, and 30 gram weather balloons were employed. Each container was pre-filled with 1000 ml of water and deployed for several days. Volume change was then measured to calculate seepage flux, and chloride concentrations were occasionally determined to ascertain whether the in-flowing water was groundwater or lake-water that had leaked in. Preliminary results indicate that the balloons most accurately quantify seepage. It is unknown whether the variability encountered is due to inaccuracies in the method or to the heterogeneous nature of Otsego's sediments.

INTRODUCTION

Seepage describes the movement of water to or from substrates on the bottom of lakes and the overlying surface water. Seepage meters attempt to measure this flux. They are based on the concept that as water enters or leaves the substrate on the bottom of a lake, a change in pressure is created in a sealed container placed on the bottom of the lake (Lee, 1977). The intent of this study is to provide a preliminary investigation into the seepage in Otsego Lake and to provide insight into the methodologies employed.

Previously, a hydrologic budget was conducted on Otsego Lake (Albright, 1996). This budget balanced without accounting for seepage, indicating that the seepage is negligible or balanced. However, this has not yet been verified. Seepage is of interest because it can make up a large portion of a lake's water budget. Seepage is generally estimated as the difference between measured inputs and outputs. The inadequacy in this is that all error in measured values become attributed to seepage (Winter, 1981). Seepage is also of interest because phosphorus is present in the sediment, and seepage rates can influence the rate at which the phosphorus enters the water column.


The container used for measuring this movement of water was the end 15 cm of a 55 gallon oil drum (Figure 1). This chamber had two holes drilled in the top surface. One hole was drilled to fit a size zero rubber stopper. This hole was placed as close to the

1 Bassett Healthcare Science Research Training Program, summer 1998. Present affiliation: Cooperstown High School

125

edge of the drum as possible, to allow air to escape during deployment. A second hole was drilled to fit a size-ten stopper, about 2 cm closer to the center of the drum, in a line with the first hole and the center of the drum. The stopper was bored to

~-~--~-------------------~-----

Balloon

Glass Tube

large Stoppn

Small Stopper

4em

Oil Drum

2 em

Sediment

Figure 1. Seepage meter inserted in sediment. Note how the meter is tilted, so that the side with the stoppers is higher, allowing air to escape and helping to force the water out (Winter, 1989).

accommodate a glass tube of about 6 to 7 cm in height and 1 cm in diameter, cut from a 50 m1 Pyrex ® volumetric flask. This tube provided a flange that allowed for securing the water receptacle.

The drum was then coated with two coats of marine resin. This prevented the drum from reacting with the surrounding environment, as well as sealing the drum and the number-ten stopper together. The resin coated both the inside and outside of the drum completely, as well as the seam around the stopper. The drums were then painted with a bright neon green color to make them easily visible underwater. Green was found to be more visible than pink, yellow or orange because of light attenuation. To make the meters easier to spot, a painted Styrofoam buoy was attached with a magnet in such a way that it floated a meter above the seepage meter (Figure 1).

126

The seepage meters were placed on the bottom of Otsego Lake. At sites deeper than 1 meter, the work was done by a SCUBA diver. It was easiest to install the meters on a silty bottom, although sand is reportedly the best medium for conveying seepage (Winter, 1981). After removing any plants that might be growing in the area the drums were pushed into the sediment at an angle with the side ofthe drum with the holes being about 4 cm above the substrate and the opposite side being about 2 cm above the substrate. The size-zero rubber stopper was not attached at the time, thus allowing benthic organisms and air to escape. Before the collection containers were installed, a lag time of four days was allowed to flush the meter with ground water should seepage be present and to allow sediment gases, disturbed by placing the meter, to escape.

A holder was made for the glass tube to prevent leakage during transport. The holder was made by boring a hole in a size-ten stopper about two thirds of the way through. The plug was then pulled out with a pair of pliers and the stopper was placed over the glass tube. The coring device used was the same size as the one used earlier to cut through the stopper. The large tube holders facilitate a diver's handling of the equipment underwater.

The first type of collection device used at the beginning of the experiment was a Reynolds Oven Bag®. Later, 2.5 gallon Hefty One Zip® bags with the zippers cut off were used. The next type of collection device used was a 30 gram weather balloon. The latter had to be washed to remove a powder, which coated the inside. The balloons were obtained from Scientific Sales, Inc®. To prevent water being drawn into the bag by expansion (Shaw and Prepas, 1989), 1000 ml of water was added to each container prior to its use. Early in the experiment, 1000 mt distilled water was used. Later in the experiment (beginning 28 August 98), ambient water was used (taken from the same location and depth as the seepage meter). The balloons were then attached to the glass tubes by placing the open end of the balloon over the tube and twisting a rubber band over the joint. The size ten rubber stoppers, which had been made into holders for the tubes, were then placed over the ends of the tubes. When the bag was brought close to the seepage meter, the holder was removed and the tube was inserted into the stopper on the drum and pushed into place. Immediately afterwards, the small stopper was put into its hole in the drum. The balloons were left on for periods from one day to a week after which they were interchanged with new balloons. A holder was put on the old balloon during transport to the surface.

On the surface, the volume was measured from the collection device with a graduated cylinder, and a sample of the water was brought back for chloride sampling. The following equation was used to calculate a rate of seepage (Shaw and Prepas, 1989):

q == 3.9211V

t

q == seepage in ml/m2/day IIV == change in water volume t == time in days 3.92 == converts the area under the drum to meter2

127

Upon return to the lab, the samples were tested for chlorides using the mercuric nitrate method (APHA, 1989). Samples were also collected from surrounding springs to give an indication of the chloride levels in the ground water. Chloride was used as an indicator of seepage because it is a conservative, inert substance and would not change form in the reducing environment created under the seepage meter (Hutchinson, 1992). Also, the lake, which historically had low chloride levels of Ippm, now has levels of around 9 ppm. Groundwater still has a chloride level of I ppm (Fetterman, 1998). Therefore, it was expected that low chloride levels in the seepage meter would indicate that the water collected was groundwater rather than lake-water which had leaked in.

Eight seepage meters were built and installed over the course of the summer. They were installed in pairs (Figure 2): one pair at I meter depth in Hyde Bay, a second pair at 0.5 meters in Hyde Bay, a third pair on the slope of Sunken Island at 11 meters (36 feet) and 10.5 meters (35 feet), and a fourth pair on Clarke Pointe at 12.2 meters (40 feet). The pairs in Hyde Bay were later moved to Fairy Springs at 4 meters (12 feet).

Shallow seepage meters were removed with a pair of lifting hooks (patterned after hay bale hooks) which were inserted under the sides of the meter. Removal of the deeper meters was assisted by attaching a 3/16" x 3" medium duty toggle bolt to a 6" x 2" eye bolt. The toggle was screwed onto the eyebolt so that it would flip open once the toggle was pushed into the small hole. This was attached to a line, which the diver attached to a lift bag which was inflated to raise the meter.


Table 1 contains seepage data collected by weather balloons and Hefty One Zip bags®. In addition, chloride levels of surrounding springs are included.

The results were highly variable. At the 1 meter deep site in Hyde Bay, one of two seepage meters placed 1 meter apart had seepage rates that routinely were several times higher than the readings of the other. This indicates that there is seepage in Hyde Bay but the underlying topography is so heterogeneous that the seepage rates vary tremendously. The seepage meters, which were placed on the slopes of Clarke Point and Sunken Island, were placed on a layer of clay that seems to be present across the lake between a depth of 36 and 40 feet. The seepage meters located at those sites indicated little or no seepage as a general rule.

The balloons seemed to be better than the bags for seepage water collection. The balloons more often indicated no seepage, while the bags tended to indicate small changes. This may have been because the bags were pulling in water as they returned to their natural position (Shaw and Prepas, 1989). The lack of seepage collected and the location of these meters indicates that seepage is minimal at deeper sites. As distance from shore increases, the seepage rate usually decreases exponentially (Winter, 1981).

128

Otsego Lake (Glimmerglass) fairy SprJn~

Figure 2. Map of Otsego Lake with seepage meter sites.

129

Date Site

(depth M)

Meter Change in

volume (ml)

Measuring

Device

Seepage

(ml/m2/day) CI

(ppm)

Water

Type

30-Jul Hyde

1

640

1460 bag

bag

53

121

OW OW

10-Aug Hyde

05-1.0

130

2950

bag

bag

16

368

OW OW

14-Aug Clarke

12.2

0

40

balloon

bag

0

7

OW OW

14-Aug Sunken

11 0

30

balloon

bag

0

5

OW OW

17-Aug Clarke

12.2

0

0

bag

bag

0

0

2

2

OW OW

17-Aug Sunken

11

-30

40

bag

bag

-5

7

0.5

0.5

OW OW

20-Aug Sunken

11

0

40

balloon

bag

0

13

OW OW

20-Aug Hyde

0.5

150

630

bag

balloon

50

210

7

7

OW OW

26-Aug Clarke

12.2

0

-10

balloon

bag

0

-2

1

1

OW OW

26-Aug Sunken

11

0

50

balloon

bag

0

10

1

1

OW OW

28-Aug Hyde

1

270

1400

bag

balloon

675

350

10.5

1

LW LW

21-Sep Fairy

4

1N

1S

2N

2S

130

500

0

-240

balloon

balloon

balloon

balloon

101.9

392

0 -188.2

LW LW LW LW

30-Sep Fairy

4

1N

1S

2N

2S

180

330

250

1000

balloon

balloon

balloon

balloon

78A

143.7

108.9

435.5

LW LW LW LW

7-0ct Fairy

4

1N

1S

2N

2S

950

270

100

620

balloon

balloon

balloon

balloon

532

151.2

56

347.2

LW LW LW LW

21-0ct Fairy

4

1N

1S

2N

2S

100

250

100

150

balloon

balloon

balloon

balloon

28

70

28

42

13

13.5

LW LW LW LW

30-0ct Fairy

4

1N

1S

2N

2S

250

1190

575

420

balloon

balloon

balloon

balloon

1089

5183 250A

182.9

LW LW LW LW

11-Nov Fairy

4

1N

1S

2N

2S

50

180

0

-50

balloon

balloon

balloon

balloon

16.3

58.8

0

-16.3

LW LW LW LW

Table 1. Summary of seepage rates and chloride concentrations in seepage in Otsego Lake, 1998. The data represents two seepage meters placed beside each other at each site.

Legend: Hyde = Hyde Bay 1N = site 1, north meter Sunken =Sunken Island 1S = site 1, south meter ow = distilled water as prefill

Clarke =Clarke Point 2N = site 2, north meter LW = lake water as prefill

Fairy = Fairy Springs 2S = site 2, south meter

130

The high chloride readings, which were sometimes found in Hyde Bay and Fairy Springs seepage samples, indicate that the surrounding ground water has higher-thanexpected levels of salt. The lower readings found at the deeper meters indicate that the distilled water remained in the bag and that little leakage took place.

One problem that was encountered was finding the correct type of bag to use as a collection device. Shaw and Prepas (1989) recommend using Alligator bags®. These, however, are not readily available. Reynolds Oven Bags® were used as a replacement. These were tested and found to be permeable to water; they also lacked durability and were susceptible to tearing. The next type of bag used was a Hefty One Zip® 2.5-gallon bag. These bags were strong and impermeable, but also inf1exible. They seemed to draw water into themselves, and thus overestimate seepage. The weather balloons were by far the best collection device. They were impermeable, able to hold at least four liters without becoming turgid, and easy to install. The balloons were also easier to drain, because of their shape.

Winter (1981) recommends using distilled water to pre-fill the bags. However, as chloride content was being evaluated, distilled water would lead to ion dilution, making it difficult to evaluate the water's source. For this reason, we changed to using lake-water to pre-fill the bags, in order to ensure this water had the same chloride level as the water originally in the drums. That way, inflowing water having a chloride concentration different from ambient lake water could be assumed to have originated from ground water.

Buoys were anchored near some of the deeper seepage meters to facilitate retrieval. Occasionally they had been removed. For that reason, lines were run from the seepage meters to a spot just off shore, or to a buoy marking a danger spot on the lake, so that they could be located. Many of the bags placed at a depth of 0.5 meters in Hyde bay were punctured. The damage occurred so regularly that the meters were removed from that area.

CONCLUSION

The geology surrounding and under Otsego Lake is composed of glacial debris. This makes the geology of the area extremely heterogeneous. It would require hundreds of seepage meters, and very likely thousands of data points in order to form a clear picture of the lake's total seepage. If seepage meters placed one meter apart routinely have readings that vary greatly from each other and also over time, it is unlikely that the seepage could ever be measured for the entire lake. However, the method seems to be effective enough to allow an accurate seepage estimates to be made on a more homogenous lake, and to identify locations with significant seepage in Otsego Lake.

131

REFERENCES

Albright, M. F. 1996. Hydrological and nutrient budgets for Otsego Lake, NY and relationships between land form/use and export rates of its sub-basins. Occasional Paper No. 29. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N. Y.

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard Methods for examination of water and Wastewater. 1i h ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, D.C.

Fetterman, A. 1998. Personal Communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUN"Y Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Hutchinson, N. J. and B. Neary. 1992. Using a dynamic, multi-basin phosphorus model to evaluate the response of a shallow, eutrophic lake to nutrient reduction strategies. (Abstract). NALMS 12th IntI. Symp. Nov 2-7, 1992. Cincinnati.

Lee, D. R. 1977. A device for measuring seepage flux in lakes and estuaries. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22(1):140-147.

Shaw, R. D., and E. E. Prepas. 1989. Anomalous, short-term influx of water into seepage meters. Limno!. Oceanogr., 34(7):1343-1351.

Winter, T. C. 1981. Uncertainties in estimating the water balance of lakes. Water Research Bulletin. 17:82-115.

Winter, T. C. 1978. Ground-water component of lake water and nutrient budgets. Verh. Internal. Verein. Limnol. 20:438-444.

132

Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a as a representation of phytoplankton in phosphorus-limited media

Darcy R. Williams I

INTRODUCTION

Otsego Lake is a meso-oligotrophic lake that is moving toward eutrophication as a result of phosphorus loading (Harman et aI, 1997). The major sources of phosphorus to the watershed are believed to be septic leachate, agricultural fertilizers and residential development (Rosen, 1998).

Trends in data from recent years show movement toward eutrophication in Otsego Lake; these include increasing total phosphorus and resultant increasing chlorophyll a concentrations, decreasing Secchi transparency readings and decreasing hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations(Harman et al., 1997). The increase in phosphorus has triggered the changes in chlorophyll a, Secchi transparency, and dissolved oxygen levels. Of the total phosphorus entering Otsego Lake more than 80% is retained (Albright, 1996) and that which is available is consumed immediately by primary producers, particularly phytoplankton. Most phosphorus is associated with particulate material which sediments to the lake bottom. It has been suggested that this fraction may subsequently become available to algae following sediment resuspension (France and Albright, 1994; Bostrom ef al., 1982). According to studies that compare phosphorus levels to transparency, a quantity of phosphorus that doubles in size will be equivalent to a transparency reduction of 50% due to phytoplankton growth (Godfrey, 1977; Carlson, 1977; Albright, 1996). Oxygen-consuming bacteria decompose phytoplankton in the hypolimnion, thereby decreasing overall oxygen levels. The decrease in oxygen concentrations affects the entire food web in the lake by decreasing the habitat for cold water fish. These fish prey on alewives, so without them the already-significant alewife population would increase. This would further lead to a decrease in the zooplankton population and ultimately to higher standing crops of phytoplankton. More phytoplankton will cause a greater deficiency of oxygen by their decomposition (Harman et al., 1997).

Both phosphorus levels and phytoplankton populations have been studied in Otsego Lake in the past, but a precise correlation between the two has not been made. The goals of this study were to (1) find a standard relationship between phosphorus and chlorophyll a content and (2) from this determine the phosphorus fraction in lake sediments that is available for algal uptake.

METHODS

The methods used for this study were a modification of a study done at BFS by Ives and Albright (1997). Phytoplankton cultures were grown according to Ives' methods and those suggested by the Living Materials Department at WARD's Natural Science Establishment, Inc (1998). Cultures of Oscillataria sp. and ChIarella .sp. were used because

I Robert C. Mac Watters Internship in the aquatic sciences, summer 1998. Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, NY

133

have the best growth results (WARD's Natural Science Establishment, Inc., 1998) and both are present in Otsego Lake.

Cultures of Oscillatoria sp. and Chlorella sp. were grown for 8 days in 1%, 10% and 25% concentrations of the original cultures to insure that one of them would provide optimal growth conditions. They were cultured under conditions of 16:8 hours of lightdark daily, were not shaken on a shaker tray (WARD's Natural Science Establishment, Inc., 1998) and were at room temperature (approximately 24°C). The growth medium consisted of a phosphorus-free macronutrient solution (Table 1) modified from Standard Methods (APHA, 1989) and a modification of Fritz f/2 Algae Food as the micronutrient solution (Fritz Industries, Inc., 1997; APHA, 1989) (Table 2). The macronutrient solution was made to allow for the manipulation of phosphorus concentrations. For initial culturing of the algae samples, phosphorus was added to the macronutrient solution in the form of K2HP04 providing a phosphorus concentration of 0.186 mg/l (APHA, 1989). Boric acid was added to the micronutrient solution to give a boron concentration of 32.5 flg/l, as recommended by Standard Methods (APHA, 1989).

Compound Concentration (mg/l) Element End Concentration (mg/l)

KN03

I

30.30 N K

4.20 11.70

NaHC03 15.00 Na C

4.10 2.14

MgS04-H20 14.70 S Mg

1.91 2.90

MgCh 5.70 Mg CI

1.45 4.25

CaCh 4.41 Ca CI

1.20 3.21

. .Table 1. CompOSItiOn of phosphorus-free macronutnent medIa (modIfied from APHA, 1989).

Element Final Concentration

Boron (B) 32.5 flg/l

Iron (Fe) 1.73 mg/l

Manganese (Mn) .045 flg/l

Cobalt (Co) .0027 )lg/l

Zinc (Zn) .005 ~lg/l

Copper (Cu) .0023 )lg/l

Molybdenum (Mo) .0012 )lg/l ..

Table 2. CompOSItIOn of mlcronutnent medIa (modified from Fntz Industnes, Inc., 1997; APHA, 1989).

134

After 8 days, volumes of algae were spiked into phosphorus limited growth media. One ml of algae was spiked into 50 ml phosphorus limited media. The 25% algae culture was not used because it had surpassed the optimal growth phase and was growing slower than that of the I% and 10% cultures. Algae from the 1% and 10% cultures were spiked into media with phosphorus concentrations of 0.000, 0.005, 0.0 I0, 0.050, 0.100, and 0.500 mg/l. On days 0, 8, and 14, these samples were analyzed for chlorophyll a concentration.

Analysis of chlorophyll a followed a procedure used by Welschmeyer (1994). Ten ml from each 50 ml sample were vacuum pumped through GF/A filters. The filters were folded, patted dry, and then cut into small pieces and placed in a grinding tube. A few ml of a 90% acetonell 0% saturated magnesium carbonate solution were added to the tube and the filter was ground to a homogeneous slurry using a pestle on a hand drill. The pulp was poured into a centrifuge tube and topped off with acetone solution to make a total volume of 10 ml. The tubes were stored in a refrigerator for 1.5 hours and then were allowed to return to room temperature for 0.5 hours. The pulp was centrifuged at 1000 X gravitational forces (2100 rpm) for 5 minutes. The supernatant was poured into a cuvette and analyzed for chlorophyll a content on a Turner Designs 700 Fluorometer. Chlorophyll a was measured in parts per billion (ppb). All of these steps \vere performed in low light conditions to prevent the chlorophyll a from degrading.


The initial cultures grew successfully for 8 days providing algae cultures for use in the P-limited media. The chlorophyll a concentrations measured just after the algae were spiked into the media (at t=O) were nearly equivalent across samples (Figures 1,2,3, and 4). During the first week of growth some cultures grew successfully while others did not; growth did not relate to phosphorus concentration. All Chlorella sp. cultures showed a decrease in chlorophyll a concentration (Figures I and 2). All Oscillatoria sp. cultures showed an increase in chlorophyli a, but across samples they did not correlate with phosphorus concentrations (Figures 3 and 4). After two weeks chlorophyll a concentrations changed significantly but again not in correlation with phosphorus concentrations (Figures 1,2,3, and 4).

The ul timate intention of this work was to ascertain the content of bioavailable phosphorus in Otsego Lake sediments by supplying sediments as the only phosphorus source. For this to be possible, correlations between chlorophyll a and phosphorus in the culture media needed to be evident. As this was not the case sediment phosphorus could not be evaluated. Experiments are now being undertaken (Lord, 1998) to refine the methodology used in this work.

135

60

50

,-- ---- ---

DO days

.8 days

014 days

40 ..-... ..0 C. C.- 30ns

.r:. U

20

10

0

0 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.5

~.

0: .... .. .

r-l ...

0.1

- ~ I L -.1·:-:-:-1

[P] (mgll)

Figure 1. Chlorophyll a concentrations in 1% ChIarella sp. samples across a range of P-limited media.

- -- -----------------~---------~-------- -----

----------. -- --._-- -- -. ---------- -------------- --- -- --- -----

60 , ___1

DO days 50

.8 days

~_~~ day_sj40 ..-... .c c. c.- 30 ns

.r:. U

20

--

10

_:-:-:. _:-:.: 0

o 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 [P] (mgtl)

Figure 2. Chlorophyll a concentrations in 10% ChIarella sp. samples across a range of P-limited media.

-- ._--------------.-------------_.--

136

I

I_~_~ O__O •

60 0/"" ---,

roO-cl~ys 50

I .8 days I

I 014 days l.--..-.. ..~

40 :00. 0.

";;30

.J:. U

20

10

o o 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5

[P] (mgll)

Figure 3. Chlorophyll a concentrations in 1% Oscillatoria sp. P~limited media.

samples across a range of

60 -,-----------------------------------,

50

40 -.c 0. 0. n! 30

.r: U

20

DO days

.8 days

014 days

10

o o 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5

[P] (mgll)

Figure 4. Chlorophyll a concentrations in 10% Oscillatoria sp. samples across a

range of P~limited media.L .._.. _

137

REFERENCES

Albright, M. F. 1996. Hydrological and nutrient budgets for Otsego Lake, NY and relationships between land form/use and export rates of its sub-basins. Occasional Paper #29. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, Ii h ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.

Bostrom, Bengt, Mats Jansson, and Curt Forsberg. 1982. Phosphorus release from lake sediments. Arch. Hydrobio!. Limno!., 18:5-59.

Carlson, R. E. 1977. A trophic state index for lakes. Limno!. Oceanogr. 22(2):361-369.

France, K. E. and M. F. Albright. 1994. Sediment deposition and redeposition in the littoral and profundal zones of Otsego Lake. In 27th Ann. Rept. (1994), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Fritz Industries, Inc. 1997. Supplied Fritz f/2 Algae Food. Dallas, TX U.S.A. 75217.

Godfrey, P. J. 1977. Otsego Lake Limnology: Phosphorus loading, chemistry, algal standing crop and historical changes. In 101h Ann. Rept. (1977). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W. N., L. P. Sohacki, M. F. Albright, and D. L. Rosen. 1997. The State of Otsego Lake, 1936-96. Occasional Paper #30. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Ives, Kristina M. and Mathew Albright. 1997. Characterization of Otsego Lake sediments and investigations into the ability of algae to utilize sediment-bound phosphorus in phosphorus-limited media. 30th Annual Report. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Living Materials Department. 1998. Personal communication. WARD's Natural Science Establishment, Inc. Rochester, NY.

Lord, P.H. 1998. Personal Communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Rosen, D. L. 1998. Otsego Lake: A Guide to its Ecoiogy and Management. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

WARD's. Culture of Freshwater and Marine Algae in the Laboratory. WARD's Natural Science Establishment, Inc. Rochester, NY.

Welschmeyer, N. A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorophyll band pheopigments. Limno!. Oceanogr. 39: 1985-1992.

138

Evaluation of Seston in Otsego Lake, summer 1998

William A. Hahn Jr.!

INTRODUCTION

There have been an abundance of studies performed on Otsego Lake, reviewing many aspects of its integrity, and factors that may affect it (Albright, 1998). One important factor of the lake's biological system is its trophic state. The trophic state of a lake is, fundamentally, a measure of the biological activity in a lake, which is largely influenced by the available nutrition. Most organic matter which is generated in a lake through primary production will eventually decay, and in doing so, consume oxygen dissolved in the water. An ultimate consequence of increasing eutrophy is the loss of oxygen in a lake's deeper thermal strata. If severe, this results in the Joss of deep water fauna, including cold-water fish, and promotes the liberation of phosphorus from lake sediments, compounding the problem and making remediation difficult (Wheat et al., 1998). One indicator ofa lake's trophic condition is an analysis of the amount ofseston, or particulate matter suspended in free water (Hutchinson, 1967). Seston includes both non-living matter (tripton) and living matter (plankton), such as algae and zooplankton. The current seston study applies methods utilized in an Otsego Lake seston analysis during the summer of 1997 (Wheat et al., 1998). The study evaluates site TR4-C, and includes preliminary data on North Site and South Site (Figure 1).

METHODOLOGY

Preparation for seston analysis was accomplished by rinsing (23) 4.7 em diameter GF/A glass microfibre filters by passing three 20 ml aliquots of distilled water under vacuum. Filters were transferred to stainless steel planchets and dried at 105° C until constant weight was obtained (about one hour). Filters were stored in a sealed desicator and were weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg immediately before sample processing.

The samples taken from TR4-C were acquired on 12 August 98 using a 4-liter Van Dorn sampler. They were collected at 4-meter intervals from the surface to 20 meters with duplicate samples taken at 16 meters and 20 meters. Samples from North Site and South Site were collected on 13 August 98. Due to shallower depths, North Site samples were collected at 4-meter intervals from the surface to 12 meters, and South Site at 4-meter intervals from the surface to 16 meters with a duplicate at the surface.

I Bassett Healthcare Science Research Training Program, Summer 1998. Present affiliation: Worster High School

139

CRIPPLE CREEK

CLARKE POND

01$(GO uo.K~

(GlIMMERGlASSJ 018... eou-rrv. Ift'W ..,...

~--THREEMILE POINT

LEATHERSTOCKING CREEK

POINT JUDITH KINGFISHER TOWER

BLACKBIRD BAY

WILLOW BROOK

SUSQUEHANNA RIVER

Figure 1. Map of Otsego Lake with site TR4-C, North Site, and South Site labeled (King, 1998).

140

After collection, the samples were processed by passing them through the prepared fl1ters under vacuum at 15 PSI. The apparatus consisted of a 1/6 horse power vacuum pump, a 6-place manifold fit with #9 stoppers, 1000 ml filter flasks fit with #8 stoppers, and 400 ml funnel cups. The procedure was continued until either the entire sample had passed through the filter, or until the filter became clogged. In either event, the volume of water that was passed through the filter was recorded, and the f!lter was returned to its planchet. After all of the samples were processed, they were placed in an oven for one hour at 105° C. They were then reweighed and returned to the desicator. The difference between this weight and the filter weight prior to sample processing provides the seston dry weight. For quality control, five blank filters were also processed. This involved passing 100 ml of distilled water through prepared filters and processing as usual.

To acquire ash weight, the filters were combusted in a mufi1e furnace at 550 ° C for one hour, cooled in the decicator, and reweighed. The difference between this weight and filter weight previous to processing yielded ash weight. Organic seston weight is the difference between dry weight and ash weight.

RESULTS

Table 1 contains the results of the analysis of site TR4-C, taken on 12 August 98. It displays profiles of dry weight, organic seston weight, and ash weight, all displayed in milligrams/liter. Table 2 similarly summarizes the results of the analysis ofNmth Site and Table 3 the South Site on 13 August, 98. Table 4 contains the results of the analysis of the blank filters.

Depth

m Drywt.

mgll

Organic seston mgll (%)

Ash mgll

0 2.06 1.75 (85) 0.32

4 2.19 1.21 (55) 0.98

8 2.50 1.37 (55) 1.13

12 1.58 0.76 (48) 0.82

16 1.28 0.13 (10) 1.15

16 0.96 0.85 (89) 0.11

20 0.81 0.26 (32) 0.55

20 1.50 1.13 (75) 0.38

Table 1. Profiles of dry weight (mg/l), organic seston weight (mg/l and as a % of dry weight), and Ash weight (mg/I), TR4-C, 12 August, 1998.

141

Depth m

Dry wt. mg/I

Organic seston mg/I (%)

Ash mg/I

0 2.43 0.97 (40) 1.47 4 2.87 0.77 (27) 2.10 8 2.55 0.96 (38) 1.59

12 2.53 0.96 (38) 1.56

Table 2. Profiles of dry weight (mg/I), organic seston weight (mg/I and as a % of dry weight), and Ash weight (mg/I), North Site, 13 August, 1998.

Depth m

Dry wt. mg/J

Organic seston mg/J (%)

Ash mg/J

a 2.42 2.11 (87) 0.31 0 2.14 0.52 (24) 1.62 4 2.42 1.46 (60) 0.96 8 1.37 0.80 (59) 0.57

12 1.83 1.10 (60) 0.73

Table 3. Profiles of dry weight (mg/I), organic seston weight (mg/I and as a % of dry weight), and Ash weight (mg/I), South Site, 13 August, 1998.

S am pie Dry wt.

mg

Organic seston

mg

Ash

mg 1 0.0 0.7 -0.7 2 -0.3 0.2 -0.5 3 0.0 0.3 -0.3 4 -0.3 0.4 -0.7 5 -0.3 0.2 -0.5

Table 4. Profiles of dry weight (mg), organic seston weight (mg), and Ash weight (mg), blank filters. These involved passing 100 ml of distilled water through prepared filters and processing as usual.

142

DISCUSSION

Generally, the changes in trophic indices that have been documented over the past several decades in Otsego Lake imply increasing eutrophy of this water body (Wheat el

aI., 1998). However, the results of this year's study exemplify concentrations of organic seston most comparable with those found in the study done in 1997, and much lower then those of the 1975 study (Figure 2). There are several possible reasons for these apparent discrepancies.

The original seston study in 1935 (Tessler and Bere, 1936), as well as the studies done in 1971 (Sohacki, 1972) and 1975 (Doremus, 1976), used a continuous-flow centrifuge rather then the vacuum filter method. Comparing the current work with the studies up until 1997 may be difficult due to the differing methodologies. Secondly, all of the studies examined seston on only one occasion (with respect to the individual site). Seasonal fluctuations in algal standing crop are considerable, as are temporal trends among years (Albright, 1998). Another methodological problem was that the filters would become clogged with sestonic matter, limiting the volume of seston that could be filtered to the point of being near the limit of accurate weighing. The effects of experimental error are magnified when working with such relatively small sample quantities.

Despite the fact that the results offered by this study do not coincide with the trophic trends such as oxygen depletion rates, transparency, and clorophylla, the study was, perhaps, valuable for its evaluation of the technique. The study provided insight as to possible improvements for its theoretically sound methodology. One conceivable improvement would be to sample regularly throughout the summer. This would help to reduce the affect that seasonal algal variations and benthic organisms have on the results. Use of larger filters is another potential improvement. This would allow less filter obstruction and, when combined with increased sample quantities, may increase accuracy.

143

Organic Seston (mg/I)

0 0.5 1.5 2,5 3.5 4

0

2

4

6

e l1J OJ E. 10 .c Q. l1J

120

14

16

18

20

-+-7123/35

_7123/71

--,!,- 8115/75

--*-8/11/97

--*-8/12/98

Figure 2. Organic seston concentrations at TR4-C, Otsego Lake, on 7/23/3 5 (Tressler and Bere 1935), 7/23/71 (Sohacki, 1972), 8/15/75 (Doremus, 1976) 8/11/97 (Wheat et aI" 1998), and 8/12/98. (Modified from Wheat et aI" 1997).

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 1998. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, summer 1997. In 30 th

Annual Report (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Doremus, C. 1976. Ecological factors affecting phytoplankton grow1h during summer stratification in Otsego Lake including comments on the Lake's trophic stutus. In

144

8 th Annual Report (1975). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 35-53.

Hutchinson, G.E. 1967. A treatise on limnology, Vo!. II. lntrouction to lake biology and the limnolplankton. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.

King, D.A. 1998. Analysis of chlorophylla in Otsego Lake, summer 1997. In 30 til

Annual Report (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Sohacki,L.P. 1972. Limnologicalinvestigations.ln4 1ll AnnualReport (1961). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Pp. 16-18.

Tressler,W.L and R. Bere. 1936. A limnological study of some of the lakes in the Delaware and Susquehanna water sheds. In A biological survey of the Delaware and Susquehanna watersheds. Pp. 222-236.

Wheat ef al. 1998. A preliminary investigation of the seston of Otsego Lake, summer 1997. In 30 til Annual Report (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta

145

A comparison of littoral fish diversity and size in Otsego Lake in 1986 and 1998

Briana 1. Wilson I and David M. Warner2

ABSTRACT

Fish were collected from four sites on Otsego Lake on 3 and 4 August 98 to describe littoral populations and diversity and to make a comparison with a similar study conducted in 1986. A haul seine was used to catch the fish, which were marked, weighed, measured and released. The Peterson mark-recapture method was used to estimate abundance at the four sites. Margalefs diversity index was used to compare sites and years. Diversity varied between sites in both years, and some sites varied between years. The number of fish caught in 1998 (14, range=7-l3 per site), compared to 1986 (II, range=7-ll per site) indicates that species richness has increased. There are several more species of fish in the shallow areas of Otsego Lake and the populations of some species now have expended distributions. Other population distributions have decreased and total captures at some sites declined. Some species found in 1986 were not found at any of the sites this year.

INTRODUCTION

Diversity plays a very important role in the biological integrity of a lake. Diversity is a measure of the richness (number of species) and evenness (distribution of individuals within those species). It is the most fundamental description of the nature of a community and can serve as an indicator of environmental quality (Harper, 1981). It has generally been accepted that high values for diversity indices indicate a relatively unspoiled system, but in some cases diversity actually increases with perturbation (Ney, 1993). At very low productivity (equivalent here to nutrient-poor, often acidified waters), species diversity is low, presumably because few species can tolerate conditions or find food (Sutcliffe and Hildrew, 1987).

Most fishery studies done on Otsego Lake have examined sport fish such as lake trout (Salvelinus namyacllsh), lake whitefish (Coregonus coregol1us), and cisco (Coregonus artedii). The purpose of this study was to estimate the diversity oflittoral zone (near-shore) fish following alewife introduction. Alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus) were introduced in 1986 and have subsequently come to dominate the fishery. Austin et al. (1986) conducted a similar study before the irruption of the alewife population. A comparison of the two years will help us understand the impact alewives have had on Otsego Lake. Crowder (1990) noted that alewives negatively impacted Great Lakes fish assemblages through competition. It was expected that this change had restructured the near-shore fish community of Otsego Lake as well.

I Bassett Healthcare Science Research Training Program. summer 1998. Present affiliation: 2 Graduate student, SUNY Oneonta, BFS

146


On 3 and 4 August 98 samples of fish were taken using a shore-to-shore haul seine. At each of the four sites, which include the mouths of Hayden Creek and Shadow Brook located in the north end and Rat Cove and Blackbird Bay located in the South (Figure 1), the boat was beached and one person remained on shore. That person held the float line in one hand and had the lead line around their ankle. The boat was then maneuvered in a semi-circle away from shore. As the boat proceeded, the seine was flaked out of the boat until the bag was reached. Once the bag, or pouch, was reached, the boat turned towards shore. The net was pulled as close to shore as possible. A second person then got out and pulled the opposite end of the net in by hand. Two people on each end pulled the net in. Captured fish were placed in a water-filled, aerated container to help keep the fish alive. After the net had been emptied, each fish was measured to the nearest millimeter and weighed to the nearest in gram.

Data collected in 1996 (Austin et al.) used gill nets and Otter trawl as well as a seine. In 1998 seining was the only capture method. As a result, it is possible that differences in habitat (depth fished), size, and species selectivity create some bias. Avoidance of the net by larger fish may have reduced the mean size of fish captured. Margalefs diversity index (Ney, 1993) was used to compare richness and evenness between sites and years. Peterson's mark-recapture method (Devries and Frie, 1996) was used to estimate total abundance at each site. Fish were marked using a hole punch.

RESULTS

The results of this study are listed in Tables 1. A comparison of the number of fish collected in 1986 and in 1998 is shown in Figures 2-5. Figure 6 compares the average lengths of the fish in 1998 with those of 1986. Figure 7 displays the number of fish captured at each site in both years. Figure 8 gives the number of species captured at each site in both years. Overall species richness increased from 11 species in 1986 to 14 in 1998. With the exception of Rat Cove, the number of fish per site also increased. Rat Cove was the most diverse site in 1986 and the least in 1998. Hayden Creek was the most diverse site in 1998, with 13 of the 14 species captured, compared to 10 of 11 species in 1986. Shadow Brook and Blackbird Bay both had 8 species in 1998 and had 8 and 7 species respectively in 1986. Margalefs diversity indices for the two years were not significantly different (p>O.05). Mean and median number of species were not significantly different either (p>O.05). However, the total number of species caught in 1998 was significantly higher than in 1986. Some species have expanded distributions compared to 1986. Bluegill, large-mouth bass, and red-breast sunfish were found only at Rat Cove and Hayden Creek in 1986, but were common to all sites in 1998. Rock bass, white sucker, and yellow perch were only captured at Hayden Creek and Shadow Brook in 1998, whereas in 1986 these species were common to all sites. Golden shiners were not captured in 1998 but were taken from all sites in 1986. Pumkinseed catch was higher at all sites in 1998.

Mean length of every species captured in 1998 was lower than in 1986 (p<O.05). Grand mean lengths for each site in 1998 were also lower than in 1986. For example, large-mouth bass

147

Table 1: Number and mean size of species caught at Hayden Creek (HC), Shadow Brook (SB), Blackbird Bay (BBB), and Rat Cove (RC) on 08/03/98 and 08/04/98.

Hay<den Creek soecies

Alewife Brown bullhead

Bluegill Carp

Common shiner Banded killifish

Large-mouth bass

Pumpkinseed Red-breasted sunfish

Rock bass

Tessellated darter White sucker Yellow perch

total

number cauaht mean lenoth

18 124 12 58 10 70 1 40

50 73 2 38

74 53 40 117 4 86 4 51 14 47 1 155 2 170

232

Shadow Brook species number cauqht mean lenqth

Bluegill 6 84 Banded killifish 4 44

Large-mouth bass 21 64 Pumpkinseed 22 113

Red-breasted sunfish 25 88 Rock bass 1 65

Tessellated darter 1 55 Yellow perch 2 138

total 82

Bl kb' dBac If ay species number cauaht mean lenath

Bluegill 12 140 Carp 5 566

Banded killifish 4 44 Large-mouth bass 56 85

Chain pickerel 1 415 Pumpkinseed 7 117

Red-breasted sunfish 4 78 Tessellated darter 1 40

total 90

148

Table 1: continued from previous page.

Rat Cove sDecies number cauaht mean lenath

Alewife 6 52 Bluegill 17 104

Common shiner 5 66 Large-mouth bass 68 64

Chain pickerel 3 95 Pumpkinseed 28 111

Red-breasted sunfish 4 89 total 131

Key to abbreviations used in Figures:

Abbreviation Ale Bb BIg Car CSh GSh Kil Lgm Pic Pks Rbs Rba 5mb TeD WhS YeP

Common Name alewives brown bullhead bluegill carp common shiner golden shiner banded killifish large mouth bass chain pickerel pumpkinseed red breasted sunfish rock bass small mouth bass tessellated darter white sucker yellow perch

Scientific Name Alosa pseudoharengus Ietalums nebulosus Lepomis macrochirus Cyprinus carpio Notropis cornutus Notemigonus Clysoleucas Fundulus diaphaJlus Microptems salmoides Esox niger Lepomis gibbosus Lepomis auritus Ambloplites rupestris Micropterus dolomieue Etheostoma olmstedi Catostomus commersoni Perca jlavescens

149

80 T-------------------------;::::====:::;--J

II70 1986

60 II 1998

2 0 -j """"

w ~

i.L f.'"

~<to -+ ~~ . -0

§ Z30 -+.. .

:4 :;::: ...:

..:,

>"

Ale Bb Big Car CSh GSh Kif Lgm Pic Pks Rbs Rba 5mb reD WhS YeP

Fish Species

Figure 2: Number of each fish species caught at Hayden Creek in 1986 and 1998.

80

70 II 1986

60 111 1998

I·····.c 50

u::'"'0 ~ 40 Q) ..c E :J Z30

20

10

0-+--4---+Ale Bb Big Car C5h G5h Kil Lgm Pic Pks Rbs Rba 5mb reD Wh5 YeP

Fish Species

Figure 3: Numbers of each fish species caught at Shadow Brook in 1986 and 1998.

150

80 I--------------------------~

70 mJ. 1986. 1998~ 60·

LSO (J)

u::: '>o Qj40

..0 E ::::l

Z30

20 .

10 .

Ale Bb Big Car CSh GSh Kil Lgm Pic Pks Rbs Rba 5mb TeD WhS YeP

Fish Species

Figure 4: Number of each fish species caught at Rat Cove in 1986 and 1998.

80

70

60

II 1986

50 L l/l

u:: '0 ~ 40 Q) .0

E " z 30

20

10

0 Ale Bb Big Car CSh GSh Kil Lgm Pic

Fish Species Pks Rbs Rba 5mb TeD WhS YeP

Figure 5: Numbers of each fish species caught at Blackbird Bay in 1986 and 1998.

151

L500 II-II-;;-I---r---r~---r-r--r--.=============~

E

c Q)

co Q) >

--r-r--r-'II !IBWJI 1986 II 1998

-t-a----t--t-----t-t--t-;;;;-+--+--{....=::..-......;:::;:::...........-H

=5,300 +

E400

---+---+ -H.,+-+--+--+--+11I-+--.J.--I--I-III---1--I_a-l------.j

-+"1-+--+--+--+--+1. f-l--I--.J.--+-II-+--+lI-+-----j&zOO +

co 100

--+---+

~ +--I-

If !i~ I rm ---H-."..+II H~_ __+-a_~I-/--_+l

Ale Big CSh,n KIIII,B. PICk. Rbs 5mb WhSuck Bb Carp GShin Lgmb Pksd Rbass TeDart YePerch

Figure 6: iYfean lengths of fish species for all sites combined in 1986 and 1998,

500 ,--------r------.------~-----_

II 1986

o

100

400

-§ 300 +---====~_+------_+------_t--u: '0 ... (j) .c E ~200

HC S8 BBB RC

Site Totals

Figure 7: Total numbers of fish caught at each site in 1986 and 1998, HC = Hayden Creek, SB = Shadow Brook, BBB = Blackbird Bay, and RC = Rat Cove,

152

12 rJ) Q) 10'(3 Q) Q. 8rJ)

'+0 L... 6 Q)

..Cl E 4::J C

2 BBB RC SB HC

site

Figure 8: Total number of species captured at each site in 1986 and 1998.

were on average under 100 mm in 1998, compared to 174 mm in 1986. Other predators, such as rock bass and chain pickerel, showed similar size decreases. Rat Cove was estimated to have the highest populations, Blackbird Bay the lowest. Abundance could not be estimated for Hayden Creek because no marked fish were recaptured.

DISCUSSION

It appears that some species, such as small-mouth bass, chain pickerel, and yellow perch are rare or no longer exist at the sample sites. Austin et al. (1986) do not state which net was used to capture small-mouth bass in their study, so it is possible that the 1998 sampling technique was not effective in capturing this species. The fact that diversity indices indicate that there are no significant differences in evenness of overall richness is misleading. In the simplest sense, there is a significant difference in the overall richness based upon the capture of three additional species in 1998. It is important to note that indices used in this study do not examine overlap between years, nor do they examine shifts in the number of sites in which a given species was captured.

The alewife and common shiner seem to have replaced the golden shiner with largemouth bass replacing small-mouth bass. Alewives have eliminated native cyprinids through competition for food and predation on larvae (Warner et af., 1996), but theoretically they offer additional food for a historically slow-growing large-mouth bass population (Austin et al., 1986). This study indicates that all littoral piscivores are on average smaller now, ruling out the possibility that alewives offer enough additional food to increase growth. It is likely that growth of most of the piscivores is regulated by low average water temperature at the norther edge of their range. Many of the large-mouth bass were relatively small, just large enough to be marked and identified. Over five hundred fish were collected and released, and although net selectivity

153

may account for reduced mean lengths in 1998, it still appears that a decline in growth has occurred. A large diversity indicates a health lake because "A healthy surface-water body provides a habitat to many species" (Novotny and Olem, 1994). When increases in diversity are a result of adding alien species, this is not necessarily true. Even though diversity indices indicate that species riclmess and evenness are similar between 1986 and 1998, there appears to have been a shift to more evenly distributed generalist species, loss or reduction of several native species (white sucker, yellow perch), and a reduction in mean fish length since the alewife introduction. Gro\vth rates of these fish should be examined in more detail in the future using scale analysis. It would also be beneficial to examine the diets of these fish to determine if they are eating alewives to any great degree.

REFERENCES

Austin, lE., R.C. MacWatters, W.N. Harman, and R.M. Hannan. 1986. Age and growth of eleven fish species in littoral areas of Otsego Lake. In 19th Annual Report, 1986. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Crowder, L.B. 1990. Community ecology. In C.B. Schreck and P.B. Moyle (eds.). Methods for fish biology. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD. Pp. 609-631.

Davis, W.S. and T.P. Simon. 1995. Biological assessment and criteria: Tools for water resource planning and decision making. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton. Pp. 21.

Devries, D.R. and R.V. Frie. 1996. Determination of age and growth. In B.R. Murphy and D.W. Willis (eds.). Fisheries Techniques. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD. Pp. 483-512.

Gee, J.H. and P.S. Giller. 1987. Organization of communities: Past and present. The 2ih

Symposium of The British Ecological Society, Aberystwth 1986. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Pp. 11-12,362.

Ney, J.J. 1993. Practical use of biological statistics. In c.c. Kohler and W.A. Hubert (eds.). Inland fisheries management. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD. Pp. 11-12, 362.

Nielsen, L.A. and D.L. Johnson. 1983. Fisheries techniques. Southern Printing Company, Inc. Blacksburg, VA. Pp. 128-142,225-226,283-297.

Novotny, V. and H. Olem. 1994. Water quality: Prevention, identification, and management of diffuse pollution. International Thomas Publishers, Inc. New York. Pp. 753-754.

Schemnitz, S.D. 1980. Wildlife management techniques manual, 4th Edition. The Wildlife Society. Washington, D.C. Pp. 235-236.

Smith, L.c. 1985. The inland fishes of New York State. NYS Dept. of Env. Cons. Albany, NY.

154

Analysis of the diet, distribution, and size of angler-caught fish from Otsego Lake, summer 1998

David M. Warner!

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to collect data describing the food habits and distribution of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and other piscivores in Otsego Lake and to determine which species prey on alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus). This is also a preliminary investigation of food requirements of lake trout with known growth rates. Green (1880), as quoted in Odell (1934), said "I have discovered that the alewife, commonly called 'saw-bellies', breed in our inland lakes...This discovery I consider very valuable, for there is no better food for all kinds of fish, and especially the salmon trout..." With this in mind, we asked Otsego Lake anglers to provide spatial and biological information about their catch. Stomachs were collected when possible. Taken from a variety of piscivores, this information can help us better understand the predatorprey relationships in Otsego Lake. It appears as though lake trout have become more abundant following the introduction of the alewife in 1986 than recorded since the beginning of this century (Shaw, 1886). Figure 1 shows the trends in abundance of lake trout, cisco, and lake

.c ()

ro o smelt introduced alewife introduced :Q 0.8 c o E ctl 0.6 (/)

ctl <5=0.4 o c o to 0.2 0.. o I

0.. 0-.L..i-f--f--+-+--+-----I--+---+--f--l--1---+-+---1--1-I--f--+-+--+-----I--t--+---t--l-___t__'

1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985

-9- lake trout -E3- cisco - whitefish

Figure 1. Relative abundance of three salmonid species in Otsego Lake with reference to the date of smelt and alewife introduction. Derived from Sanford (1997;1998).

I Master's degree candidate: SUNY Oneonta, Biology Department.

155

whitefish from 1970-1998. It appears that the lake trout and cisco populations were inversely linked prior to 1986. Since 1986, 152,830 lake trout, 57,650 Atlantic salmon (Salmo salat), and 6,000 and brown trout (Salmo trutta) have been stocked in Otsego Lake (Sanford, 1998). In addition to the apparent increase in lake trout abundance, the growth rate of lake trout in Otsego Lake is now as rapid as in any other New York lake, including Lake Ontario (Sanford, 1998). Compared to 1980-1985 size-at-age data from Heby, Rudstam, and Kitchell (1995), lake trout grew less rapidly than Lake Ontario lake trout at that time. Lake trout are benefitting from alewife introduction in that they grow more quickly. It would seem likely that other alewife predators may benefit in a similar way. This should not be interpreted as an indication that the net impact of alewife introduction is positive. Alewife introduction has been implicated to negatively impact lakes at nearly every trophic level (Stewart and Schaner, 1998). In Otsego, their irruption in the early 1990's was coincident with decreasing crustacean zooplankton size and abundnace, decreasing transparency, increased rate of hypolimnetic oxygen depletion, and reduced populations of other planktivorous fish. Additionally, a diet dominated by alewives or smelt can lead to reproductive failure in salmonids because both contain the enzyme thiaminase (Ketola et al., 1998). Thiaminase catalyzes the destruction of thiamine. Its presence results in a shortage of thiamine in salmonid eggs and early mortality syndrome. This syndrome has been observed in Cayuga Lake and Lake Ontario (Ketola et al., 1998).

METHODS

A data form the size of an index -card was designed and handed out to anglers in the summer of 1998 (Figure 2). Both biological and spatial data were collected. Space was provided to record date of catch, species, length, and stomach contents if known. Spatial data were

OTSEGO LAKE FISH STOMACH CONTENT SURVEY

Dale:

Fisherman: 7·

nepth & Location [see revene map):

fish TIpe (Species):

Length:

Comments:

iN

Figure 2. Data form provided to fisherman in summer 1998.

Figure 3. Map of Otsego Lake provided to fisherman, summer 1998 (Lord, 1998).

156

collected by providing a map (Figure 3) of the lake on the reverse side of the questionnaire. On this map, the lake was divided in 12 segments. Anglers were asked to indicate in which segment and at what depths they caught fish. Stomachs were stored in preservative until BFS staff could pick them up. Food items were examined with a dissecting microscope and identified to at least the order level.

To calculate the quantity of food required to support known growth rates (Sanford, 1998) of both marked and unmarked 4+ lake trout a fish bioenergtics model (Wisconsin Sea Grant) was used to calculate specific consumption rate (glg/day). Essentially it is an estimate of how many grams are eaten for every gram that the consumer (lake trout) weighs, considering annual weight gain. Given the number of grams of food required per gram of 4+ lake trout, it is possible estimate how much food was required to reach the weight of a 5+ lake trout. Data required for the model consisted of temperature, diet composition, start weight, and end weight. The model spanned 365 days from January JSI to December 31 st. Temperature in the model was that value measured at 25 m depth at TR4-C for every month of the model year, 1997. Lake trout diet was assumed to be primarily alewives. Mean length for marked and unmarked fish at 4+ were 520 mm and 430 mm respectively (Sanford, 1999). Weights at these lengths were estimated from a weight-length regression derived from September, 1996 N.Y.S.D.E.C. gill net data (Sanford, 1996). The equation is as follows:

weight (g) = 1.89807E-7*length(mmY'3.62685

From the mean of 365 daily specific consumption values for a 4+ marked and 4+ unmarked fish, it was possible to estimate the quantity of food consumed during one year. Total food consumed is simply the product of individual fish weight, daily specific consumption, and the number of days in the model period.

RESULTS

Data andlor stomachs from 20 fish were included in this study. Seventeen of the fish were lake trout ranging in size from 533-787 mm. The other three fish included one lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeajormis), one smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui), and one yellow perch (Percaflavescens). Only four of the stomachs contained food. One lake trout stomach contained 1 smelt and 1 unidentified fish operculum. All other lake trout stomachs were completely empty and without a single scale or other particle to indicate recent feeding activity. The lake whitefish stomach was from a 406 mm fish and contained the following items in order of descending proportion: Chironomid larvae, aquatic mites (hydracarina), chironomid pupae, trichoptera pupae, nematodes, and pea clams (Sphaeriidae). The smallmouth bass stomach was from a fish 432 mm long and contained one common shiner (Notropis cornutus). The yellow perch stomach was from a fish 356 mm long and contained Bosmina longirostris, unidentified copepods, and a trichopteran pupa. No alewives were found in any fish stomach. All lake trout and the lake whitefish were captured between 67-85 ft. The smallmouth bass and yellow perch were captured at a depth of 40 ft. All fish were captured in sections 8 and 9 of the lake. No fin clips were reported for lake trout.

157

Lake trout in Otsego show tremendous growth rates. Age 1+ stocked fish are larger than wild fish of the same age, presumably due to their hatchery upbringing. However, growth rates appear similar. The mean weights of 4+ and 5+ marked fish were 1,259 g and 2,762 g, respectively, reflecting a one-year weight gain of approximately 1,500 g. Predicted weights for 4+ and 5+ unmarked fish were 645 g and 2,084 g, respectively, indicating a 1,440 g gain. Age 4+ marked and unmarked lake trout consumed 7 g and 11 g of food per day.

DISCUSSION

This study has provided valuable information that will help focus future efforts. It is not surprising that lake trout stomachs contained no alewives. Acoustic surveys (Warner et aI,

1996; in prep.) and gill netting (Sanford, 1996) indicate that although there are some larger (150170 mm) alewives within depth strata occupied by lake trout in summer and early fall, most are located within the top 10 meters of the water column during stratification. Alewives of this size represent only 0.84% of the alewives caught in 1996 using gill nets, seine, trawl, and trap net (n=833) (Biological Field Station, unpublished data). The presence in 1996 of large zooplankton (from 0.75 to 1.5 mm) such as Daphnia pulex and Senecella calanoides in water deeper than 20 m (Warner, in prep.) further indicate that alewives are rare at 25 m in summer.

Miller and Holey (1992) found that angler-caught lake trout actually have a higher proportion of alewives in their stomachs than fish captured with other methods. The former New York State Conservation Department found alewives in 107 of 108 lake trout stomachs examined in the Finger Lakes Survey Report (1928). This study provided contrary information. Results presented here agree with those presented Eby, Rudstam, and Kitchell (1995). They stated that spatial segregation between lake trout and prey such as alewives is strongest during summer and can greatly reduce food availability when lake trout energy requirements are high. Based on the work of He and Wurtsbaugh (1993), Eby et af. (1995) estimated that it would take a 50 cm lake trout fifteen (15) hours to digest a 15 g prey item. Considering this, our results indicate lake trout are facing extended time periods without food. This may be possible because of the thick (0.51.0 cm) fat deposits observed in most of the fish caught by anglers. This fat deposition suggests that prey consumption during periods other than summer stratification is very high.

Although sample size in this study is small, our results indicate that the during much, or most, of the summer stratification period, lake trout and alewives are in separate habitats. Predation on alewives by individual species varies seasonally. During the late-May to early August spawning period, littoral fish such as large-mouth bass, chain pickerel, and smallmouth bass are likely to consume large numbers. When alewives are in the pelagic zone, they are likely to be preyed upon by lake trout, Atlantic salmon, and brown trout until temperature restricts lake trout to deeper water. Evidence from lake trout not included in this study indicate they are caught in the epilimnion as late as June I st. Following fa!! mixing, alewives are found in the warmest suitable water available, which brings them in direct contact with lake trout.

Based on length-at-age data for un-marked fish provided by 1998 N.Y.S,D.E.C. (Sanford, 1999) gill netting, the age range oflake trout was from 4 to 10 years. Approximately 71% of the lake trout in this study were 4 or 5 years old, 12% were 6 years old, and 17% percent were

158

between 8 and 10 years old. Figure 4 compares length-at-age values for marked and un-marked Otsego Lake fish with values from Lake Ontario (Eby et al., 1995). The comparison does not reflect the 1998 growth rate for Lake Ontario fish, indicating that growth in Lake Ontario has declined if lake trout from Otsego now match their growth rate as indicated by Sanford (1998, pers. comm). Marks, or clips, were not reported on fish in this study. This may corroborate data collected by N.Y.S.D.E.C. in September, 1998 (Sanford, 1999) that indicates unmarked lake trout are doing very well and comprised 40-42% of the gill net catch. Age 4+ lake trout consume the equivalent of one average alewife per day in Otsego Lake. Questions still remain regarding the timing and location of this predation. This work provides information to guide us in considering future studies of predation on alewives. Lake trout predation on alewives during summer stratification is probably minimal. Consumption of alewives by lake trout is significant. Bioenergetics modeling should be examined further to help ascertain how much observed alewife winter mortality is a result of predation by lake trout. This type of research may be instrumental in helping to manage both lake trout and alewives. It is also necessary to focus effort more closely on littoral fish such as large-mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), chain pickerel (Esox niger), and small-mouth bass.

- unmarked --e- marked Lake Ontario• Figure 4. Length-at-age data for unmarked and marked lake trout compared to length-atage for Lake Ontario lake trout for comparison. Otsego Lake data from Sanford (1999, pers. comm.). Lake Ontario data derived from Eby et al., (1995).

90

80

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.c 50 +-' 0) c Ql 40

30

20

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71 length

•

•

1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 8+ 1 + age

159

REFERENCES

Eby, L. A. , L. G. Rudstam, and J. F. Kitchell. i 995. Predator responses to prey population dynamics: an empirical analysis based OIl lake trout growth rates. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 52(7):] 564-1571.

He, E., and W. A. Wurtsbaugh. 1993. An empirical model of gastric evacuation rates for fish and an analysis of digestion in piscivorous brown trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 122: 717-730.

Green, S. 1880. The alewife in fresh water. Forest and Stream 15: J 67.

Ketola, H. G., P. R. Bowser, L. R. Wedge, and S. Hurst. 1998. Thiamine remediation of early mortality in fry of Atlantic salmon form Cayuga Lake. Great Lakes Research Review 3(2): 21-26.

Lord, P. H. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Miller, M., and M. Holey. 1992. Diets of lake trout inhabiting nearshore and offshore Lake Michigan environments. J. Great Lakes Res. 18: 51-60.

New York Conservation Department. 1928. A biological survey of the Oswego River system. The Finger Lakes Survey Report. Sup. to the 11 11 Annual Rep't. Albany, N.Y.

Odell, T. T. 1934. The life history and ecological relationships of the alewife (Pomo!obus jJseudoharengus [Wilson]) in Seneca Lake, New York. Trans. Am. Fish Soc. 64: 118-126.

Sanford, D. K. 1996. Unpublished data. Regional Fisheries Biologist, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Stamford, N. Y.

Sanford, D. K. 1999. Unpublished data. Regional Fisheries Biologist, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Stamford, N. Y.

Shaw, S. N. 1886. History of Cooperstown. Freeman's Journal, Cooperstown, N.Y.

Stewart, T. 1., and T. Schaner. 1998. Alewife and their role in structuring the Lake Ontario fish community. Great Lakes Research Review 3(2): 29-31.

Warner, D. M., L. G. Rudstam, and W. N. Harman. 1996. An estimation of the density, abundance, biomass, and species composition of the Otsego Lake pelagic fish community and zooplankton and alewife phosphorus regeneration. In 291h Ann. Rept., 1996. Pp 86-96. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Warner, D. M. In preparation. M.A. thesis. SUNY Oneonta, Biology Department.

160

Biological control of purple loosetrife in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary .using Galerucella spp., summer 1998

Tavis Austin'

ABSTRACT

The summer of 1998 marked the second year of Galerucella spp. monitoring in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary. Using the monitoring protocols developed by Cornell University's Dr. Bernd Blossey2, the Spring Quadrat sampling was completed to assess the growth and spread of purple loosetrife (Lythrwn salicaria). Monitoring will continue for the next several years. Results form this survey will be analyzed and used as supporting materials in future mitigation and implementation of biocontrol agents.

INTRODUCTION

Purple loosetrife (Lythrum salicaria) is a perennial wetland plant that is common throughout temperate North America. It was introduced from Europe in the early 1800s, unintentionally in ship ballast and intentionally for ornamental and medicinal purposes. Loosetrife is commonly found in wet areas including marshes, shorelines, ponds, wet meadows and roadside ditches (Stuckey, 1980).

In North America, purple loosetrife is very invasive and typically forms large, dense, monospccific stands. Native plants are often nearly eliminated as loosetrife occupies their habitat (Malecki et af., 1993). Purple loosetrife is not a problem in its native range where it is fed upon by approximately 120 species of phytophagous insects (Malecki et af., 1993).

Locally, purple loosetrife is an inferior resource for most animals since it replaces native plants more valuable for food and cover (Haworth et al., 1993). Consequently, purple loosetrife has degraded many wetlands, including the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, by significantly reducing the abundance of native vegetation and, presumably, associated species of wildlife.

Historically, attempts to control purple loosetrife without impacting non-target species have included the physical removal of the plant and its root system and the use of herbicides. Neither of these methods are particularly successful. Currently, biological control methods are being utilized that repress the growth and spread of this invasive alien plant (Blossey and Schroeder, 1995). Biocontrol involves the usage of a plant's natural enemies to reduce populations of pestiferous plants to acceptable levels (Malecki et al. 1993). Such means for the control of purple loosetrife have been examined extensively and years of research have identified

I Cooperstown Lake and Valley Garden Club intern, summer 1998. Present affiliation: Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. 2 This project involves a cooperative effort by the Cooperstown Lake and Valley Garden Club, Cornell Universities "Biological Control of Invasive Species Program" and the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station

161

insect species that are host-specific (i.e. will attack only L. salicaria) and therefore will not negatively impact native plants, even those within the same genus.

During the summer of 1996, investigations were conducted related to the feasibility of using biocontrol measures to manage purple loosetrife in the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary (Jorczak, 1997). As a result of that work, two species of leaf-feeding beetles, Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla, were introduced from Cornell University. It was expected that these beetles would lessen the competitive ability of purple loosetrife by feeding upon their meristematic regions, resulting in defoliation, impaired growth, decreased seed production, and increased mortality (Blossey et al., 1994).

METHODS

In the spring of 1998, Dr. Blossey's "Spring Quadrat Sampling," protocols were completed at Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary. The intent was to verify the survival of the Galerucella spp., monitor the qualitative and quantitative effects of the beetles on purple loosetrife and to note any signs of recovery by the nati ve flora.

The work done at Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary followed the guidelines stipulated by Blossey (1997). This protocol describes the site location, monitoring and observational techniques, defines the terms used and provides the data sheets for assessing progress during biannual observations (Austin, 1998). These data will be used locally as well as augmenting the database of the biocontrol information at Cornell University.

Form 1 provides a description of the sampling area and a history of insect release. On I July 98 five sampling quadrats (each I m2

) were determined and marked with yellow flagging to allow the future sampling to occur in the same locations within the Sanctuary. Three of the five sites had previously been established for the work completed in 1997 (Austin, 1998). The three existing sites were maintained in order to monitor the beetles' progress and development after wintering in the sanctuary. Two additional sites were created in order to follow the protocols developed by Cornell which require a five quadrat minimum.

The monitoring protocols are provided in Austin (1998). Results from this survey will be analyzed and used as supporting materials in future mitigation and implementation of biocontrol agents.


The measurements and abundance/frequency category groupings included in Form 2 allow for tabulation and manipulation of the data with regard to the monitoring protocol established by Cornell University. However, it is not necessarily evident to those unfamiliar with

162 FORM 1: SITE LOCATION: Sile Name: (?~,(!(klfi(~r ;):".,jCO!l'~P ~XH\v-b','i CL) Dale: t::! /f T Town: 'lpC'(l~ S£ IcJ Counly:. 01-6';;'$) Slale: A)}'

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Phone: ((",2]) "SLjl-flTJ0

SITE CHARACTERISTICS: Habitat Type: _River LWetland _Lake _Meadow _Irrigation Ditch _Other

Road Map to Site

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FORM 2: SPRING QUADRAT SAMPLING: Site Name: G SS Date of Observations: I j ,4/ 98 Weather. ...:C::.:)...:O~lJ~d~lfr...' I_

I

Time)J:30 -)i:,() Observer Name(s):

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Purple Loosestrife rate% feeding damage and cover

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E L A A A %damage %cover #stems %cover #stems

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1-5% B 5-25% C 25-50% D 50-75% E

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2.2. Purple Loosestrife Height (em) of the 5 tallest plants

Typha spp. Height (cm) of the 5 tallest plants

Quadrat

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164

quantitative documentatiorr the extent to which loosetrife in the area was impacted. Each of the sampling areas containing Galerucella spp. was affected. The impacted loosetrife exhibited less vigor, had sholier inflorescences and significant leaf damage, and bloomed approximately two weeks later than neighboring plants. This trend was also noted in comparison to the normal blooming and overall hardiness of the plants in non-inhabited areas. At no time during or after this study were beetles, or evidence of their presence, noted on any species other than purple loosetrife.

Given the impacts of a small number of Galerucella spp. on purple loosetrife, and the absence of any impact on non-target species, it seems that biocontrol measures on this pestiferous, nonnative plant may be effectively implemented by this means. Future inspections of the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary will provide insight into the beetle's ability to become established and document the reestablishment of the native flora.

REFERENCES

Austin, T. 1998. Biological control of purple loosetrife in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using Galerucella spp., summer 1997. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Blossey, B. and D. Schroeder. 1995. Host specificity of three potential biological control agents attacking the flowers and seeds of Lythrum salicaria (purple loosetrife). Biological Control 5: 47-53.

Blossey, B. 1997. Purple loosetrife monitoring protocol, 2"d draft. unpublished document. Dept. of Natural Resources, Cornell University.

Haworth, M.J., H.R. Murkin, and R.T. Clay. 1993. Effects of shallow flooding on newly established purple loosetrife. Bioscience 43: 224-227.

Jorczak, E. 1997. Biological control of purple loosetrife in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, Otsego County, New York. In 29 th Ann. Rept. (1996). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Malecki, R.A., B. Blossey, S.D. Hight, D. Schroeder, L.T. Kok, and J. R. Coulson. 1993. Biological control of purple loosetrife. Bioscience 43 :680-686.

Stuckey, R.L. 1980. Distributional history of Lythrum salicaria (purple loosetrife) in North America. Bartonia 47:3-20.

165

A characterization of the aquatic macrophyte communities in North Pond, Chenango County, NY

Willard N. Hannan, Matthew F. Albright and Darcy King1

INTRODUCTION

North Pond is a 27.5 ha (67.95 acres) dimictic body of water, 6.7m (22 ft.) in depth, 4km (2.5mi) north-west of Gilford in Chenango County NY (N42° 26.31', W75° 30.17' ). On 6/23/98 total phosphorus and N02 +N03 concentrations were 0.073 and 0.1 02mg/l, respectively, implying potential nitrogen limitation. Secchi transparency was 4.2m. Figure 1 is a map of North Pond illustrating the estimated extent of rooted aquatic vegetation, including the distributions of the more abundant macrophytes.

METHODS

We visited North Pond on 6/24/98, for abut 3 hours, utilizing a jolm boat,

plant rake and free diving equipment to observe, collect and sample macrophytes arOlUld the entire perimeter of the lake.

RESULTS

We collected the following macrophytes:

Submergents: Nuphar variegatum Bullhead lily N.vmphaea odorata White water-lily Potamogeton ampli/olius Broad-leaved pondweed Ramlnculus aquaticus Aquatic buttercup Ceratophyllum demersum Coontail Heteranthera dubia Yellow starflower Elodea canadensis Waterweed Nitella sp. Stonewort

Emergents: Eleocharis spp. (2 species) Spike-rush Eriocaulon septangulare Pipewort Pontederia chordata Pickerel-weed

10swego County Planning internship

166

Floating leaved plants

Submergents

, j

4I

•

Figure 1. Distribution of aquatic macrophytes in North Pond, Chenango Co., NY. Dot represents deepest area in basin: Plankton and water quality analysis collection site.

167

Dominant planktonic algae included:

Anaebeana sp. Aphanizomenon sp. Dinobryon sp. Ceratium sp. Arcella sp.

Common zooplankters found were:

Daphnia pulex (Branchiopoda) calanoid and cyclopoid copepods Keratella sp. (Rotifera) Arcella sp. (Sarcodinia)

DISCUSSION

There are none of the aggressive alien plants (e.g. Eurasian milfoil or crispy pondweed) present that cause so many problems in lakes in the northern tier of the States and Canada. There are tremendous populations of large crustacean zooplankters cropping planktonic algae as fast as they grow, maintaining water clarity.

Potamogeton amplifolius was the most obvious submergent macrophyte (the only taxon reaching the surface of the water) of the eight species we encountered. All maintained the same relationships with each other that we have observed in other New Yark State inland waters (Vertucci et al., 1981; Harman et al., 1998a, 1998b) resulting in four distinct communities as illustrated (Figure 2).

REFERENCES

Harman, W. N., M. F. Albright, P. H. Lord and D. King. 1998a. Panther lake aquatic macrophyte management plan facilitation: 1998 update on the distributions of nuisance plants. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Tech. Rept 4:1-16.

Harman, W. N., M. F. Albright, P. H. Lord and D. King. 1998b. Aquatic macrophyte management plan facilitation, Moraine Lake, Madison County, NY. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Tech. Rept 5:1-47.

Vertucci, F. A., W. N. Harman and 1. H. Peverly. 1981. The ecology of the aquatic macrophytes of Rat Cove, Otsego Lake, N.Y. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Occasional Paper 8:1-210.

168

N. variegatllm N.or/oraea

t-- .------- -

/111

COMMUNITY TYPE I

Figure 2a. A diagrammatic view of the vertical structure of Community type I (Vertucci et al., 1981).

fm

C()M~IIJNITY TYPE II

Figure 2b. A diagrammatic view of the vertical structure of Community type II (Vertucci et al., 1981).

169

} y

P (/11(111$

\

1m

COMMUNITY TYPE III

Figure 2c. A diagrammatic view of the vertical structure of Community type III (Vertucci et al., 1981).

1m

COMMUNITY TYPE IV

Figure 2d, A diagrammatic view of the vertical structure of Community type IV (Vertucci

et al., 1981).

170

A preliminary limnological investigation of Goey Pond, Hartwick, NY, 1998

Diana Cronk l

INTRODUCTION

Goey Pond is located in the Town of Hartwick on Goey Pond Road. It was formerly the drinking water source for the town of Milford. Diving observations indicate that the building of a dam increased the total depth by 5 to 7 meters. Goey Pond water quality characteristics had never been analyzed. Therefore, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, light tronsmission, chlorophyll a, phosphate and nitrate measurements were completed over the course of visitations on 12,16, 18 and 30 July 98.

METHODS

All testing was done at the deepest point on Goey Pond (Lord, 1999). This point was determined and verified through a variety of ways. Transects using a sonar system depth finder were completed, and were followed by the use of a depth sensor on a Hydrolab Scout 2 multiprobe. The maximum depth at which measurements were taken was 14.3 meters. This point is documented on the Global Positioning System equipment owned by the Biological Field Station.

Dissolved oxygen (mg/l), pH, temperature and conductivity (mmho/cm) measurements were taken at each meter using a Hydrolab. Water samples were taken using a VanDorn \vater sampler, and chemical analysis was performed to test for dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, phosphate. and nitrates. The Winkler method was used for dissolved oxygen. Titrations with color indicator solutions (phenolphthalein and bromcresol green methyl red) were completed for the analysis of alkalinity (APHA, 1989). Percent Saturation of oxygen was determined using a nomograph. Soluble reactive phosphate-phosphorus was analyzed using the single reagent ascorbic acid method (APHA, 1989). Nitrates were tested using cadmium reduction method (APHA. 1989) to oxidize all N02 to NO] followed by the addition of colored reagent and use of a spectrophotometer, and chlorophyll a concentrations were obtained through glass membrane filtration, extraction with acetone and measurements using spectrophotometric teclmiques. All laboratory methods were taken from class handouts (Sohacki, 1998) and/or Standard Methods (APHA, 1989). Finally, light transmission was measured using a submarine photometer.

'Graduate student; submitted as partial requirement for Bio. 585 (limnology)

171


Measurements and samples were taken on 12,16, and 18 July 98. On 16 July, other students assisted in taking samples, reading the Hydrolab results and performing the chemical analysis.

Temperature measurements on all three days were fairly consistent especially in the regions of the metalimnion and hypolimnion. The epilimnion, however, showed an increase in temperature from 12 July to 18 July of 3 to 4cC. It should be noted that air temperatures at this time were consistently in the low 30'so C with little rainfall. Temperature profile (Figure 1) analysis indicated that the epilimnion occupied the upper 3 to 4 meters. The metalimnion was 4 to 8 meters and the hypolimnion fell from 8 meters to 14.3 meters.

......... 12 July 30

16 July 25

u -......- 18 July

OJ 20... ::::l

III-... 15 OJ Q. 10E OJ I 5

0

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Depth (m)

Figure 1. Temperature (CO) profiles of Gooey Pond, 12, 16 and 18 July 98.

Dissolved oxygen profiles strongly indicated a depletion with near anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion. This is evident in the readings below 2.0 mg/l and the observed formation of a white precipitate (Mn(OH) ) during chemical analysis. Hydrolab readings below this level were not trusted, and chemical analysis supported these findings. Unfortunately, some measurements were not recorded below 2.0 mg/I on 16 July while using the Hydrolab so the data are incomplete. Figures 2-4 provide profiles of dissolved oxygen on 12, 16, and 18 July, respectively.

172

14 -+- Hydrolab

12 _ Winkler

:::J- 10 C')

E 8

c:i 6

Cl 4

2

0 8 9 10 11 12 13 140 2 3 4 5 6 7

Depth (m)

Figure 2. Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) profiles of Gooey Pond, 12 July 98 as determined by Hydrolab measurements and chemical analysis.

14 --- Hydrolab

12 Winkler -•2

0 • 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Depth (m)


:::J 10-C') 8E

0 6

Cl 4 •

173

8 9 10 11

14 , -e- Hydrolab12 --- Winkler

--::; 10

OJ 8E

6o o 4

2

o o 2 3 4 5 6 7 12 13 14

Depth (m)


The relationship between depth and dissolved oxygen yielded a similar result which indicated a clinograde curve with an oxygen maximum in the metalimnion (+ heterograde) (Wetzel, 1983). The amount of oxygen in a lake at depth is dependent on four physical factors (Lampert and Sommer, 1997):

I. Circulation patterns present 2. Volume of the hypolimnion 3. Amount of decomposing matter 4. Temperature

These four factors, along with algal photosynthesis and respiration, play an important role in oxygen concentrations by depth.

The 10\\/ amounts of oxygen found in the hypolimnion are most often due to the presence and activities of decomposer bacteria (Wetzel, 1983). These decomposer bacteria may have an abundance of detritus to degrade due to inflow sources or due to conditions that follow an algal bloom. A surplus of decaying matter due to the death of algae would increase the decomposition occurring in the lake. Through the degradation of detritus, oxygen is used for respiration, and since this is below the compensation level, oxygen can quickly become depleted (Harper] 992).

An oxygen maximum was found in the metalimnetic region as indicated by the graphs. This often occurs in lakes with surrounding land forms, morphometry and biota that support its development, such as protective topography, large volume to surface area and vegetation. The average location for a metalimnetic oxygen maximum is 3 - 10m, but in clear lakes it can extend to depths up to 50 m (Wetzel, 1983). According to the data, the maximum for Goey Pond occurred at 6 to 7 meters. It should also be noted that saturation levels are at or above 100%

174

from 4 to 6 meters. Algal populations, when above the compensation level, are often the source of the oxygen being produced and reaching such high levels in this area (Wetzel, 1983).

Levels of pH are affected by photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen assimilation, and the relationship found between the life processes and the carbonate-bicarbonate/carbon dioxide equilibrium (Lampert and Sommer, 1997). Basin composition and its ability to deal with the addition of H+ ions greatly affects the pH levels found. Alkalinity (buffering capability) predictions, therefore, can be made based on the pH of a lake. Measurements taken indicate that the pH ofGoey Pond range from 5.95 to 7.24. On each visit, the pH decreased within the epilimnion and metalimnion by almost 1 unit. The hypolimnion, however, remained relatively consistent (Table 1).

Depth (m) 12 July 30 July Surface 7.19 7.09 1 7.24 7.12 2 7.1 7.09 3 7.23 7.10 4 7.01 7.07

5 6.87 7.24

6 6.52 6.86 7 6.34 6.68 8 6.26 6.2 9 6.06 6.05 10 6.0 5.95

11 6.03 5.96

12 6.07 5.99

13 6.16 6.04 14 6.38 6.11 14.3 6.20

Table 1. pH profiles of Goey Pond on 12 and 30 July 98.

Alkalinity samples were taken and analyzed on both 12 and 16 July. Results using the phenolphthalein/bromcresol green methyl red/.02 N HCl titration method indicated that alkalinity was low with most samples yielding < 1 mg/l (as CaCOJ). Only at the bottom 2 meters did the alkalinity reach or exceed 1 mg/l. This would indicate that the lake is calcium (Ca+) poor and slightly acidic (Lampert and Sommer, 1997). Since alkalinity or ANC (acid neutralizing capacity) (Wetzel and Likens, 1991) is needed to offset the addition of acids from acid rain and other pollutants, a lake with low alkalinity (such as Goey Pond) is susceptible to dramatic and rapid changes in pH (Lampert and Sommer, 1997).

The clarity of the lake and its transmission of light was analyzed using a Secchi disk and a submarine photometer. Secchi disk measurements were taken during each of the three

175

visitations. The readings on 12,16, and 18 July were 7.4,8.4, and 8.7 meters, respectively. This would indicate that the pond is very clear with increasing clarity occurring over the period of 7 days. Secchi disk readings are subject to conditions (sun, shade, wave action) and the person making the measurement. Error is inherent, but because of universal utilization, Secchi transparency is considered a good indicator of relative clarity/light transmission. This measurement, along with total phosphorus and chlorophyll a, are indicative of the trophic state of a body of water (Harper, 1992). Light transmission, measured by using a submarine photometer on 18 July, is illustrated in FigureS.

100

Q) 80(.) t: (\l

~ 60 E III t: (\l 40 .... I~ 200

0 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14,3

Depth (m)

Figure S. Profile of light transmittance (as percent of surface illumination) of Goey Pond, 18 July 98.

Light decreases with depth due to scatter and absorbance by particles (Wetzel, 1983). This is important due to the affects of the attenuation of light on the producers. The compensation level is found at 1% transmission, and is where photosynthesis (production of oxygen) of plants equals their respiration (use of oxygen) (Lambert and Sommer, 1997). Above this level is the euphotic zone where biomass production can take place (Wetzel, 1983). Goey Pond has a large euphotic zone. The compensation level is not reached until a depth slightly over 13 m.

Since phosphorus generally dictates the trophic state of lakes, its concentrations are important to consider. A profile of soluble reactive phosphorus is given in Figure 6. Concentrations (ug/l) increased with depth, and a pronounced increase at the sediment/water interface was evident. This is likely due to the lack of a microzone, or oxidizing interface, which

enables the phosphorus to stay in a soluble form (Wetzel, 1983). High oxygen use (decomposition) and high soluble phosphorus can contribute to the phenomenon known as

176

"galloping eutrophication" where the prevailing conditions continue along the same course leading to great jumps in the process of eutrophication (Lambert and Sommer, 1997) unless the system is otherwise limited.

10

C' 8 -OJ) 6;:l '-'

~ 4 ~ rFJ 2

0

0 2 4 6 8 JO 12 14 16

Depth

Figure G. Profile of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP, ug/I) of Gooey Pond, 30 July 98.

Chlorophyll a, which reflects algal standing crop, was analyzed spectrophotometricaJly following acetone (Sohacki, pers. comm.) Based on the following formula, results were as follows:

ChIor a (ug/L) = (k) CD (E665 E665 ) (v)

(V) (Z)

k= absorption coefficient of chlorophyll (11.0) f= factor to equate reduction in absorbency to initial chlorophyll concentration

1.7: 0.7 or= (2.43)

v= volume of extract in centrifuge tube in ml (corrected for glass fibers) V= volume of sample originally filtered Z= length of light path through cuvette in cm (1.2) E665 = absorbance at 665nm - absorbance at 750nm before acidification EG65 = absorbance at 665nm - absorbance at 750nm after acidification

Duplicate analyses yielded chlorophyll a concentrations of 1.87 and 3.45 (mean = 2.66) ug/l.

Phytoplankton generally experience their biomass maximum during July and August (Lampert and Sommer, 1997). Therefore, the amount of phytoplankton would most likely peak at a higher level, given that the samling was in mid-July. It is likely that, based on the clarity of

the water and these measurements, there is heavy grazing present by zooplankton which continually regenerates nutrients (high production) while keeping algal biomass low. This would

177

results in high light penetration which is evident in this pond (Harper, 1992). While filtering water samples, it was anecdotally noted that zooplankton were indeed present and very large.

Samples for testing the nitrate levels were taken on 30 July. It should be noted that at sampling depths 8m and greater, the pH had to be adjusted (according to Standard Methods) to be between 7 and 9. This was done using dilute NaOH.

Nitrate levels were below detection throughout the water column, suggesting possible limitation. This would most likely be the case during the summer (Harper, 1992).

REFERENCES

Harper, David. 1992. Eutrophication of freshwaters: Principles, problems and restoration. Chapman and Hall.

Lampert, Winifred and Sommer, Ulrich. 1997. Limnoecology: The ecology of lakes and streams.Haney, James F. (Translator). Oxford University Press.

WetzeL Robert G. 1991. Limnology. Springer-Verlag.

Wetzel, Robert G. and Gene Likens. 1991. Limnological analyses. Springer-Verlag.

178

Notes on the flora and fauna ofGoey Pond, Otsego County, NY

Paul H. Lord I and Jessica M. Harman2

INTRODUCTION

Goey Pond (latitude: 42° 37.52'; longitude: 074° 58.46' ), a small lake in the Town of Hartwick, Otsego County, New York, was visited by one or both authors on at least ten occasions over the warm months of 1998. It is dimictic, and has a maximum observed depth of 16.5 m (54 ft). The maximum seasonal variation in water depth was two meters. No year-round residences, and less than six seasonal homes, were found in the small watershed feeding the lake. There were a number of fishermen and a smaller number of motorcyclists and horseback riders

observed making use of the lake and its perimeter, particularly on weekends and holidays. Other aliicles in this annual report describe the lake's morphology (Lord, 1999) and limnology (Cronk, 1999).

METHODS

Observations recorded herein were made while walking around the lake, boating its surface in a johnboat, free diving and SCUBA diving. Notes of observations were regularly made throughout the summer, often before leaving the site. Samples of macrophytes were brought back to the BFS for definitive identification using Fassett (1957).

Additionally, zooplankton were captured with a length of garden hose, weighted on the lower end with a line attached, and dropped through the water column to within 20 cm of the bottom. The line was then brought back up into the boat capturing a composite sample of water and plankton. While this technique was aimed primarily at capturing phytoplankton, the zooplankton were also represented. Samples were subsequently brought back to the BFS where zooplankton were viewed with dissecting microscopes and identified using Pennak (1953).

'SUNY Oneonta biology MA candidate enrolled Bio 585 (Graduate Limnology). Present address: Biological Field Station, SUNY-Oneonta, Cooperstown, N.Y. 13326; E-mail: [email protected]

2BFS volunteer. Present address: Box 9692 State Highway 80, Cooperstown, N. Y. 13326; E-mail: [email protected]

179

RESULTS

We observed the following submerged macrophytes:

Nliphar variegatum Nitella jlexilis

Drepanocladus sp.

Po/wnogedon epihydris Isoe/es sp.

Bullhead lily (with petioles to 2 In in length); Stonewort (from 9.5 m to less than 2 m in depth with a mat at 7 m greater than O.6m thick); Leafy liverwort moss (covering submerged trees and rocks, particularly on the western edges of the lake); Leafy pondweed; Quillwort.

Common zooplankters found were:

Daphnia spp. Cladocera (large, red); Chaobof"lIs sp. Phantom midges.

Common benthic crustacean found was:

Decapoda Crayfish.

Forest canopy bordering the lake was dominated by:

Tsuga canadensis Eastern hemlock (found dead underwater to depths of 5 m); Qua'us spp. Oaks; Acer spp. Maples; Be/ula spp. Birches.

Vertebrates observed to be in the area:

Micropterlls dolomieu Lepomis spp. POll/oxis sp. Esox sp. N%phthalmus viridescens

viridescens Ardea herodias Corvus brachyrhynchos Meleagris gallopavo Castor canadensis Tamias sp. Sciurus carolinensis Procyon lotor

Small mouth bass; Sunfishes; Crappy; Pickerel; Red spotted newts;

Great blue heron; Crow; Turkey; Beaver; Chipmunk; Grey squirrel; Raccoon.

180

DISCUSSION

Only the submerged aquatic macrophytes were inventoried in any systematic fashion. The other plants and animals listed were noted because they caught the attention of the authors while involved with other tasks. Obviously, much work remains to exhaustively inventory the fauna and flora of the Goey Pond watershed.

There are none of the aggressive alien plants (e.g., Eurasian milfoil or crispy pondweed) present that cause so many problems in lakes in the northern tier of the States and Canada. There are sizeable populations of large crustacean zooplankters cropping planktonic algae as fast as they grow, maintaining water clarity.

Nitella flexilis was the most obvious submergent macrophyte of the five species we encountered, although the Drepanocladus sp. was dominant along the steep western slopes of the basin. This mix of aquatic plants is unique and should be protected.

By far the most common veliebrate encountered in the water was the common newt. These salamanders maneuver around all through the stonewort and flee from approaching divers indicating some fear of predation contrary to the generally accepted belief that the color of their spots warns predators of their indelibility.

The red color of the Daphnia spp. encountered was assumed to be from ingesting purple sulfur metabolizing bacteria found in the profundal zone of the lake.

The authors only generally know the history of Goey Pond. Three families own the watershed. Ml'. David Gladstone of Henreitta owns most. His wife's family owned the land since before the turn of the century. Mrs. Gladstone relates that the land was never farmed although it has been lumbered regularly. The lake appears to have been expanded considerably by a ~4 m high dam at its south end which was presumably built at about the time the village of Milford started using the lake for its water supply. The old pipes are still noticeable in the southern end of the lake and as they feed through the dam. This also appears to account for the trees found to depths of 5 m. Milford stopped using the lake's waters in the late 1980's or early 1990's. No homes or camps are within 200' of the lake.

This entire watershed is unique and near pristine meriting protection and further study.

REFERENCES

Cronk, D. 1999. A preliminary limnological investigation of Goey Pond, Hartwick, NY, 1998. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Ann. Rept 1998.

Fasset, N. C. 1957. A manual of aquatic plants. The University of Wisconsin Press.

Lord, P. H. 1999. New lake mapping technologies evaluated on Goey Pond. SUNY

181

Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Ann. Rept 1998.

Murie, O. J. 1974. A field guide to animal tracks. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston

Page, L. M. and Brooks, M. B. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston.

Pennak, R. W. 1953. Freshwater invertebrates of the United States. The Ronald Press Company. New York.

Petrides, G. A. 1986. A field guide to trees and shrubs, Northeastern and north-central United States and southeastern and south-central Canada. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston.

Stokes, D. and Stokes, L. 1996. Stokes field guide to birds. Little, Brown and Company. Boston.

182

New lake mapping technologies evaluated on Goey Pond, Hartwick, NY

Paul H. Lord 0

INTRODUCTION

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S. military system made possible by 24 satellites in precise orbits circling the earth's surface twice daily (Garmin Corporation@, 1998; Connolly, 1998). GPS technology has been in widespread use in the civilian sector for most of the last decade. Nevertheless, it is not often considered for lake mapping because it is not as precise as traditional survey methods. This lack of precision is primarily due to the fact that the civilian variant of the system has a "j itter" of approximately 75 meters intentionally introduced into it to prevent hostile forces from using the GPS against the interests of the United States government (Dana, 1998). Nevertheless, the author believed that the 75-meter jitter (and inherent system inaccuracy of 20+ meters) might be insignificant in mapping any but the smallest lake if civilian system averaging functions were employed. This study reviews the practicality of using commercial GPSs and an in-house C++ program to map a small lake, Goey Pond (latitude: 42° 37.52'; longitude: 074° 58.46' ), in Otsego County, New York.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ANALYSIS

GPS technology is light\veight, inexpensive, and easy to employ as attested to by its widespread use with recreational boaters. Given that most lakes are significantly larger than 20 acres, an error of 15 to 20 meters on anyone dimension might not be that significant when mapping its general dimensions. While GPS technology is mentioned in at least one limnological text as having potential for lake mapping (Wetzel and Likens, 1991), no specific procedures for such use is known. If GPS technology can facili tate the production of lake maps more readily than the use of aerial photographs recommended by a variety of texts (e.g., Cole, 1994; and Lind, 1974), then procedures for its use need to be developed.

BACKGROUND

Twenty-four GPS satellites are in 12 hour orbits radioing time and satellite identification data towards earth. When communication exists between a GPS receiver and three satellites, two dimensional location information can be calculated. When the

o SUNY Oneonta biology MA candidate enrolled Graduate Limnology (Bio. 585). Present address: 100 Sunset Ridge, Hartwick, N.Y. 13326; E-mail: !ordp@usa,net; telephone: (607) 547-5962.

183

GPS receiver communicates with four satellites, altitude can also be calculated. Satellites are in orbits that ensure that between five and eight satellites can be reached from any point on the earth - if you have a clear path to the satellite. GPS receivers are line-of-site microwave transceivers (Connolly, 1998; Dama, 1998: GarminQ~), 1998).

The military system (AKA the Precise Positioning System (PPS)) is quite precise: 22-meter, instantaneous two-dimensional accuracy and 28 meter, instantaneous vertical accuracy. The military protects U.S. interests by modulating the civilian GPS signal (AKA the Standard Positioning Service (SPS)) with random noise and a time varying bias and by encrypting the PPS and satellite control communications.

Other errors are frequently encountered in GPS system use. Most of them are responsible for inaccuracies ofless than one meter, but the ionosphere and its varying impact on GPS microwave signals is imperfectly modeled in GPS systems. Ionospheric disturbances can cause errors in the ten-meter range. Not surprisingly, human error introduced in controlling or programming satellites has been responsible for significantly larger errors (Dana, 1998).

METHODOLOGY

Garmin GPS II Plus® devices were procured and used to record the latitude and longitude (to thousandths of minutes) of positions around the perimeter of Goey Pond and to note the deepest point encountered in the lake. Locations were fixed by use of the "mark" and "average" functions. Averaging was typically allowed to continue until the "Figure of Merit"l (FOM) value read less than 50 although in some locations (presumably where satellites were blocked) FOM values in the 50s and 60s (and occasionally even higher) were accepted. Positions so marked are automatically stored in a list of "waypoints" by the GPS II Plus® (Garmin® Corporation, 1998). Three units were used to mark each location. Attempts were made to "aim" the antennas in different directions to access different mixes of satellites.

After each day's "marking", the latitudes and longitudes for each waypoint were downloaded to a spreadsheet and the average value of the three latitudes and longitudes were calculated. Downloading was initially done by hand which proved tedious, but the Biological Field Station (BFS) has since procured a download cable and software to facilitate loading GPS waypoints into a Microsoft Excel® spreadsheet.

Depth contours of Goey Pond were recorded using a Ross Straightline Sonar and Recorder® unit (SIN 1227-213). Depth \vas calibrated with a President LTD 420 LoraniFishfinder® (SIN 25000171). Transect procedures were per Sohacki (1998), Harman (1998), and Albright (1998) after Lind (1974) and Cole (1994).

Goey Pond's shoreline \vas mapped using a list of averaged GPS waypoints (Table 1) and the Geographic Relations System (GRS) (a proprietary software product

I Figure of Merit is not defined in the Gam/in GPS II Plus® documentation. It was assumed to be an estimate of probab Ie error. This needs to be confirmed and is an area for follow-on research.

184

produced in June 1998 for, and owned by, the BFS). This DOS based program has an Excel® spreadsheet interface for inputting latitude and longitudinal values that are then displayed on the screen and connected. GRS documentation specifies the procedures for mapping lake boundaries (Anonymous, 1998).

As a means of comparison, an aerial photograph of Goey Pond was obtained from the Otsego County offIce of the U.S. Geographical Survey. The aerial photograph was not of high quality, but provided a basis for tracing the outline of Goey Pond.

Depth contours were mapped using traditional procedures per Sohacki (1998) and Harman (1998).

Table 1. Synopsis of Goey Pond perimeter coordinates and location descriptions collected 30 July and 1 August 98.

All North locations are 42 degrees; minutes provided below. All West locations are 074 degrees; minutes provided below.

Locat GPSGPS GPS Location Description GPSAverage IGPS GPS ions #1 N #2 N #3 N N #1 W #2W #3W

OA

OB

OC

00

OE

OF

OG

OH

01

OJ

37.51 37.50 37.54 37.521 58.5 58.5 58.5 Big hemlock. 8 1 3 17 23 19

37.49 37.43 37.46 37.462 58.5 58.5 58.5 Center of notch formed by two 1 5 a 60 56 48 hemlock blow-downs.

37.53 37.52 37.53 37.528 58.5 58.5 58.5 Shoreline rock with White Ash cluster 1 4 a 59 62 58 behind it

37.53 37.53 37.53 37.535 58.5 58.5 58.5 1 7 8 66 80 79

37.53 37.53 37.53 37.531 58.6 58.6 58.6 Paper birch with posted sign. 1 a 1 30 23 22

37.56 37.55 37.56 37.560 58.5 58.5 58.5 Standing split Who Ash wI rotted log 2 7 a 82 91 90 @ water's edge; previous site 'a'.

37.60 37.60 37.60 37.601 58.5 58.5 58.5 Rock on NW shore.

Ia 1 3 73 77 85 37.61 37.61 37.61 37.613 58.5 58.5 58.5 Ramp.

7 1 1 64 62 62 37.64137.55 37.65 37.619 58.5 58.5 58.5 White oak.

6 6 6 28 30 30 37.64 37.65 37.66 37.655 58.4 58.4 58.4 Marsh grasses with small cherry or

9 5 1 74 86 92 birch tree.

185

Table 1 (cont.). Synopsis of Goey Pond perimeter coordinates and location descriptions collected on 30 July and 1 August 98.

Locat GPS jGPS GPS Average GPS GPS GPS Average ILocation Description ions #1 ~1#2 N #3 N N #1 W #2W #3W W I

I OK 37.661 37.67 37.67 37.673 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.475 Paper birch.

~ 7 55 83 86 -OL 37.68 37.69 37.69 37.694 58.4 58.4 58.4 I 58.477 Paper birch.

9 5 8 69 79 83 OM 37.68 37.68 37.69 37.688 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.414 Stumps & rotted log in front of white

4 8 1 09 18 16 lash. ON 37.71

6 37.71

3 37.71

5 37.715

1

58.4 06

58.4 05

58.4 06

58.406 White popular; pt. of bay.

00 37.66 37.68 37.67 37.675 58.3 58.3 58.4 58.397 Dying 40' oak with posted sign. 6 1 8 93 77 20

OP 37.63 37.63 37.63 37.636 58.3 58.3 58.3 58.381 Bonsai oak. 1 8 9 72 83 88

OQ 37.62 37.62 37.62 37.625 58.3 58.3 58.3 58.383 Oak wI stump wI 3' hemlock growing 4 9 2 84 83 82 in stump.

~OR 37.60

6 37.60

7 37.60

7 37.607 58.3

34 58.3

42 58.3

28 58.335 Half buried 2 1/2' long x 2' wide bolder

wI paper birch behind. OS 37.59 37.58 37.59 37.591 58.3 58.3 58.3 58.355 Dead oak blow-down wI leaves; used

6 6 0 48 55 61 for transect. OT 37.56 37.56 37.55 37.560 58.3 58.3 58.3 58.350 Hemlock blow-down between two

0 2 7 52 46 51 stumps growing birches. OU 37.55 37.55 37.54 37.549 58.3 58.3 58.3 58.323 Knurled white stump wI small hemlock

5 0 3 17 22 30 behind. OV 37.42 37.40 37.39 37.408 58.3 58.3 58.3 58.370 Oak blow-down wI leaves in lily pads.

3 8 3 63 64 83 OW 37.38 37.39137.40 37.396 58.3 58.3 58.3 58.388 S. of 5 stumps; posted sign behind

4 8 7 95 84 85 not Gladstone. OX 37.33 37.33 37.32 37.333 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.415 Sm. hemlock in water SE of beaver

7 6 6 20 14 12 lodge; hemlock behind. OY 37.37 37.37 37.36 37.369 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.466 Stump; previous BFS 'R'. Wiland,

1 1 4 69 67 62 Milford posted. OZ 37.29 37.31 37.26 37.294 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.433 Stump -100' from dam.

9 5 8 05 23 70 AA 37.27 37.26 37.27 37.273 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.449 SSE corner at dam.

8 6 6 31 76 40 AS 37.29 37.29 37.29 37.295 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.456 SSW corner at dam.

1 9 6 52 61 54 AC 37.32 37.32 37.32 37.320 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.444 Blow-down wlo bark -100' NNW of

0 0 0 43 46 42 dam. AD 37.36 37.36 37.37 37.370 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.477 Beaver lodge.

9 8 2 85 72 75 AE 37.43 37.42 37.42 37.428 58.4 58.4 58.4 58.465 Hemlock blow-down (recent) wI

I 2 7 6 54 67 74 needles still on. AF 37.48 37.48 37.49 37.489 58.4 58.5 58.4 58.496 Lily pads fronting moss covered

I 8 8 0 94 02 91 stump wI hemlock and birch behind.

186

RESULTS

Figure 1 [GPS map] was drawn with the data contained in Table 1 using the software described above. The result provides only a semblance of the lake to be mapped as can be ascertained from review of Figures 2 [photo] and 3 [trace].

Figure 4 is an annotated copy of Figure 3 showing transects made. Figure 5 is an annotated copy of Figure 4 showing depths recorded along transects. Figure 6 is the depth contour map for Goey Pond produced.

DISCUSSION

Because the quality of the GPS waypoints lake outline (Figure 1) was so poor, we were forced to return to Goey Pond to locate transect endpoints in order to ascertain where those locations were on the Goey Pond perimeter map (Figure 3). This endeavor was reasonably successful primarily because the GPS data put us back in proximity to the transect endpoints which were then recognizable from site descriptions noted at the time that the transects were made. However, a compass and protractor or a plan table and alidade should have been used to most accurately locate the transect endpoints on the perimeter map.

Plotting the depth contours revealed locations where additional transects would have eliminated some uncertainty. The author recommends that anyone mapping lakes plot their transect data after each outing, before making new transects.

Figure 6 is a good approximation of the morphometry of Goey Pond with an estimated accuracy of +/- 10%.

Civilian GPS (Standard Positioning Service (SPS)) location data without enhancement is not reliable enough to map small lakes. It might well provide a quick map of a large body of water, but such lakes are not in need of mapping. It certainly will direct the user to a location proximate to that marked, but is wholly inadequate for surveying types of applications without enhancement.

Fortunately, enhancements do exist. If another system is used to "correct" inaccuracies introduced into the GPS, GPS data can be used for surveying and for detecting such minor movements as those associated with plate tectonics.

Carrier Phase Tracking. One way this is done is by phasing the receipt of signals on two physically separated transceivers and measuring the time-lapse differences in receipt of satellite signals. Movements smaller than a centimeter can be identified with this technology which is known as carrier phase tracking (Dana, 1998).

Differential GPS Techniques. Another methodology for overcoming natural and introduced flaws in GPS positioning systems is to use a secondary satellite signaling system to offset GPS errors. This allows for the calibration of a GPS unit by providing it with its precise location. The United States Coast Guard runs such a system all along U.S. coastlines and throughout the Great Lakes. (It does not cover central New York State.) This system provides one to ten (average: six) meter accuracy and corrections can be

187

( .

GOQ;y Po~).

1~ f1().$"'-S

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1000

Figure l.Goey Pond as mapped from GPS coordinates coll\::cted July - August 1998. Figure 2. Goey Pond in 1982 USGS photograph.

Goey Pond

From

1982

USGS

Aerial Photograph

500 feet

I000 feet

Figure 3. Goey Pond perimeter.

188 F" P

~ l-

't.:J'\ ,'/' , \ . \;tt-~ ,

\

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Figure 4. Goey Pond transects.

Figure 5. Goey Pond depths derived from transects.

189

500 feet

]000 feett----~~~--_______1

Figure 6. Goey Pond Depth Contours.

190

obtained after-the-fact. Unfortunately, receivers that can store data to accept after-the fact corrections cost $2,000 to $5,000 and require personnel time and training to be used effectively (Schlechte, undated; Dana, 1998; and USCG, 1998).

REFERENCES

Albright, M. F. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SU1\JY Oneonta.

Anonymous. 1998. GRS: Geographic Relations System. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Cole, G. A. 1994. Textbook of limnology; Fourth Edition. Waveland Press, Inc., Prospect Heights, Illinois.

Connolly, J. 1998. Personal GPS. Computerworld. July 13, 1998. Vol 32. No. 28

Dana, P. H. 1998. Global positioning system overview. Revised: 7/16/98. www.utexas.edu/depts/grg/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.hmtl as of7/17/98.

Garmin Corporation. 1998. GPS II Plus owner's manual & reference. Part Number 19000130-10 Rev A. Garmin (Europe) Ltd., Romsey, UK.

Harman, W. N. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta.

Lind,O.T. 1974. Handbook of Common Methods in Limnology, The C. V. Mosby Company, Saint Louis, Mo.

Schlechte, G. L. Undated. Design process for the United States Coast Guard's differential GPS navigation service. U. S. Coast Guard Omega Navigation System Center, 7323 Telegraph Road, Alexandria, Va 22310-3998,

Sohacki, L. P. 1998. Personal communication. SUNY Oneonta.

United States Coast Guard. 1998. DGPS (and subordinate pages). Revised: 08 April 1998. www.navcen.uscg.mil/dpgs/default.htm as of 7/30/98.

Wetzel, R. G. 1983. Limnology. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia,

Wetzel, R. G, and Likens, G. E. 1991. Limnological analyses, 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag, New York.

191

Small mammal survey of Greenwoods Conservancy, summer 1998

Mike Villanella I

INTRODUCTION

Qualitative and quantitative surveys were done at the Greenwoods Conservancy in the summer of 1998 to provide a baseline study of mammal, amphibian, and reptile species composition. Most of the emphasis was placed on small mammal populations, to be determined using two different methodologies. Greenwoods Conservancy is a nature preserve encompassing approximately 1000 acres. The conservancy is located in the town of Burlington, in Otsego County, New York, approximately 10 miles west of Cooperstown. Greenwoods is protected by conservation easements. Much of the Conservancy, including the watershed of Cranberry bog, has been set aside as forever wild, although a trail system is maintained for monitoring the property (Taylor 1994).

METHODOLOGY

Two protocols were followed, each for four weeks, between May 18, and July 17,1998. To determine small mammal population density and diversity, traps of various kinds were set in different locations. The traps used at these sites included Victor snap traps (mouse and rat), pitfall traps made out of plastic gallon mayonnaise jars, 2" X 2.5" X 6.25" Sherman traps, and two small (7.5" X 7" X 24.5") and one large (15.5" X 20.5" X 42") Havahart traps. Havahart traps were used to capture and relocate any troublesome predators who may have been emptying the other traps. Where pitfall traps were used, a mark and recapture system was practiced. This was achieved by spray painting an orange dot between the animals shoulders at the base of the neck. Once captured and marked, they were released. Study skins were made out of those specimens found in relatively good condition in snap traps.

During the first four weeks of the study, six sites were used (Figure I) with all of the aforementioned traps. Trapping grids consisted of four rows ten meters apart, which contained six traps per row; traps were also ten meters apart (Shemnitz, 1980). Traps were checked every morning and baited with sunflower seeds as needed, except for the rat traps and Havaharts, which were baited with bacon. Several other types of baits were tried, including Jif crunchy peanut butter, Quaker instant oatmeal, and a mixture of the two. Problems arose when using these other baits due to the invasion of slugs in the traps in large enough numbers that it would cause many to spring. The slugs did not seem to favor the sunflower seeds; therefore, they became the bait of choice. None of the live traps were kept open during rainy periods to keep casualties to a minimum.

I Peterson Family Conservation Trust Fellow; Capstone experience, SUNY Oneonta Environmental Sciences Program, summer 1998. Oneonta. NY

192

Route 80

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.'. Local Power Line ====== Maintained Roads =====Other Roads .. Trails

Wetlands rO Open Water

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1000,

Figure I. Map showing the site locations at the Greenwoods Conservancy.

193

Site descriptions are as follows:

• Site A was located in Broad Meadow (Figure 1) and consisted of old field successional plant growth. The field contained various golden rods, thistle, black berries, redtop (Agroslis alba L.) and other grasses, along with an array of wild flowers and milkweed. Pitfall traps were used here. To reduce casualties, traps were not opened on the weekends or during rainy periods.

• Site B was located in a hemlock stand off the trail between Broad Meadow and Seldom Seen Field (Figure 1) with virtually no understory. Sherman traps and snap traps (mouse and rat) were used here. The traps were set using the grid pattern described above with two rows consisting of Sherman traps and two rows consisting of mouse snap traps. Four rat snap traps were set: two between the first and second row at 30 meters apart, and two again at the same distance between the third and fourth row. A Havahart was set here to capture a problem predator but no success was recorded.

• Site C was located in Seldom Seen Field among a grove of Balsam fir saplings. The understory consisted of herbaceous old field successional growth with species such as redtop, blackberries, yarrow, and wild strawberries. No plant survey was done for this study, however I estimate that redtop is probably the dominant species here. Snap traps (mouse and rat) were used here, with rat traps being set in the same fashion as in site B.

• Site D was located in a hedgerow (dominant species unknown) that cut the Highfields area in half. This provided a corridor for animals travelling between the two wooded plots on either side. Snap traps of both kinds were used here in conjunction with a Havahart. The mouse snap traps were place in a straight line through the center of the hedgerow at ten meters apart. The rat snap traps were set at both ends of the hedgerow and one in the measured middle of the hedgerow. The Havahart was placed on a game trail running through the middle of the hedgerow at the northern most end.

• Site E was located in the woods at the far west edge of Broad Meadow. Red Maple, Beech and White Ash made up the wood lot. The uderstory was sparse, but consisted mainly of Red maple, and Beech saplings. There were also some Canada Mayflower and Starflower present in some areas. Only mouse snap traps were used here and no predator problem arose.

• Site F was located off the Mill Brook trail in an area of balsam fir saplings. The saplings \vere similar to those found in site C, but these were obviously much older. The understory was also similar to site C, except there was very little red top in comparison and no wild strawberry was noticed. Both types of snap traps were used here and they were placed in the same manor as in sites Band C.

After four weeks of trapping, a new protocol was used that followed was that of Osenni (1984) who did a similar study at the BFS Upper Site near Cooperstown. Given time constraints, a new site was chosen based on which of the previous six sites displayed the greatest diversity of small mammals. A site was chosen in a new part of Seldom Seen that closely resembled that of

194

site C (Figure 1). The protocol called for a central plot with a twenty-meter radius. Four additional plots were set out along north-south and east-west perpendicular lines from the center, between 45 and 65 meters from the center (Figure 2). Each plot had five trap sites, one in the center of the plot and four at the outer edge of the circle along north-south east-west perpendicular lines (Figure 1). To reduce trap bias, Osenni (1984) used two Sherman traps: one small (2" X 2.5" X 6.25") and one medium (3" X 3.5" X 9"). To further reduce bias, this study uses pitfall traps; this should, in theory, catch all animals that fall into them regardless of the number already caught. Trap bias occurs after a trap is sprung and no other animal can get caught until the trap is reset. In the case of live traps, some individuals may be caught frequently which does not allow new individuals to become trapped.

The pitfall traps were placed into the ground so that the lids were flush with the surface. Grasses and other non-woody vegetation were place around the whole to provide some camouflage. Sunflower seeds were used as bait. The traps were checked daily and baited as needed. The traps were covered during periods of extended rainfall to keep them from filling with water and to keep drowning to a minimum.

Amphibians and reptiles were identified by visual observation. One day was dedicated for amphibian collection and all species caught were identified and preserved. Most of the herpetology study was done by visual observation and close inspection throughout the summer, using the National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians (Behler and King, 1998). Any species that could not be keyed out in the field were brought back to the Field Station for closer examination.


A total of twenty-two mammal species (Table 1), three species of reptiles and 12 species of amphibians were observed Cfable 2). Of the twenty-two small mammal species observed, eleven were trapped (Table 3). A total of 88 individuals were caught and, of those, 58 % were meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus). Deer mice and white-footed mice (Peromyscus spp.) were the second most abundant with 13.6 % of the total. Quantitative analysis of the small mammal species caught was done for both the initial protocol and the Osseni protocol (Tables 4 and 5).

This study was intended to provide base line data on small mammal populations at Greenwoods. Even though correlation of mammal capture data with site characteristics was not a primary goal of the study, an attempt was made to compare species captured with site characteristics. This was then compared with Osenni's (1984) results. Osenni correlated small mammal captures with some environmental factors at the Biological Field Station upper site in Cooperstown.

Blarina brevicauda, short tailed shrews, were captured in three sites of the first trapping protocol in equal numbers. There were two shrews caught in Sites B, C, and D. According to Osenni, shrews were most commonly found in damp areas with a lot of logs, moist grassy fields, or areas with a lot of understory which may trap humidity. Site B, although having no

195

Figure 2. Sample plot arrangement (Osenni, 1984). One central plot of20 meter radius, four outer plots on perpendicular lines 45 - 60 meters from the center. Each X represents a trap location.

196

Table 1. List of mammals noted at the Greenwoods Conservancy. C == found dead in traps, R == caught in live traps marked and released, Vis. == a visual account of tile animals presence.

Common Name Gel/lis/species Status Striped Skunk Mephitis mephitis Vis. Grey Squirrel SClirius carolinensis Vis. White -tailed Deer Gdecoi/eus virginianus Vis. Coyote Canus /atrans Vis. Masked Shrew Sorex cinerells R l3eaver Castor canadensis Vis. Woodchuck Marmota mona>; Vis. Short-tai led Shrew Blarina brevicauda C Meadow vole Microtus pennsy/vanicus C Short-tailed Weasel Mliste/a erminea C Meadow Jumping Mice Zapus hudsonicus C Deer Mouse Peromyscus manicu/atus C White-footed Mouse Peromyscus /eucopus C Red Squirrel Tamillscurills hlldsonicus C Eastern Chipmunk Tamias striatus C Southern Flying Squirrel G/allcomys vo/ans C Porcupine Erithizon dorsatum Vis. Cottontai I Rabbit Sy/vi/agus jloridanlls Vis. Raccoon Procyon /otor R House Mouse Mus musculus C Opossum Diade/phis marsupia/us R Muskrat Gndantra zibethica Vis.

Table 2. List of amphibians and reptiles at the Greenwoods conservancy. C = collected for curation, R = caught and released.

Common Name Genu!J/Species Status Red eft Notophtha/mus veridescens C Green Frog Rana c/amitans C Pickerel Frog Rana pa/ustris C Bull Frog Rana catesbiena C Bullfrog tadpoles Rana catesbiena C American Toad Bulo americana C Wood Frog Rana sy/vatica C Two-lined Salamander ElII)'cea bislineate C Spring Peeper Pselldacris crucifer C Red-backed Salamander P/ethodon cinerius C Jeffersons Salamander Ambystoma jejJersoniaun C Leopard Frog Rana pipians R Spotted Salamander Ambystoma manicu/atum R Eastern Garter Snake Thamnophis siralis R Common Snapping Turtle Chelydra serpentina C Eastern Painted Turtle C/emmys picta picta R

Table 3. Totals and percent totals of all small mammal captures.

~'

Genus/species Total # Captured % of Total Captures

Blarina brevicauda 9 10%

Zapus hudsonicus 4 4.5%

Microtis pennsylvanicus 51 58%

Mustella erminea I Ll%

Peromyscus spp, 12 13,6% ,,-

Sorex cinereus -

5 5.7%

Tamius striatus 1 1.1%

Glaucomys volans 1 1.1%

Tamiascurius hudsonicus 1 1.1%

Mus musculus 1 1.1%

Clethrionomys gapperi 1 1.1%

Table 4. Quantitative list of small mammals caught using the initial protocol.

Species Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 A'S' c 0 E F A B C 0 E F A B C 0 E F A B C 0 E F

Blarina brevicauda 2 I 1 I I Zapus hudsonicus 1 1 2

-~~-

Microtis 1 3 12 8 1 pennsylvanicus Mustela erminea I Peromyscus spp, 2 9 1 Sorex cinereus I 1 Tamias striatus I

Glaucomys volans 1

Table 5. Quantitative list of small mammals caught using the Osenni protocol.

Genus/species Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Mus musculus 1 1 Microtis pennsylvanicus 2 13 I

Sorex cinereus 1 2 Blarina brevicauda I 1 co ......,

198

understory, did have many logs and stumps. Site C was a moist grassy field, and Site D was a thick hedgerow. In the second protocol used in this study, two shrews were caught and the new site was also a moist grassy field. In all cases, there is agreement with Osennis' conclusions.

Microtus pennsylvanicus, meadow voles, are commonly found in moist grasslands, marshes, and wooded areas containing grassy vegetation (Osenni, 1984). According to Osenni's results, the meadow vole selected grassy areas at the Field Station.

In this study, there were a total of 31 individuals trapped. Using the initial protocol, Sites A and C both had 12 captures each. This is consistent with Osenni's results, since both sites are in grassy fields. Site B, which was located in a hemlock stand, had only one capture. These results suggest that meadow voles do not favor this community. This agrees with Osenni's data, Using the second protocol, sixteen meadow voles were trapped.

Zapus hudsonicus, meadow jumping mice, are generally found in moist fields, brushy fields and wooded areas with ample ground cover or leaf litter (Osenni, 1984). Meadow jumping mice were caught at three sites. Sites Band C each had one capture and Site F had two, Site F has dense grassy and brushy vegetation; Sites Band C's also fit the above description, which is suitable for meadow jumping mice. However, since only one mouse was caught in each of these sites, no conclusions can be drawn at this time, No meadow jumping mice were caught using Osennis' protocol.

Peromyscus spp., deer mice, Perumvscus maniculatis gracilis, or white-footed mice, Peromvscus leucupus noveburacensis. Because they are so difficult to distinguish, the two species have been joined together in this study, Deer mice tend to favor more moist wooded areas, such as coniferous forests and mesic deciduous forests. The white-footed mouse tends to favor more xeric conditions (Osenni, 1984). However, both of these species are generally woodland inhabitants and tend to exist in similar ecological conditions (Osenni, 1984). Osenni (1984) does point out that these species are generally found where there is plenty of trees and Ii tter.

Surex cinereus, masked shrews, are found in a variety of habitats, especially marshes, bogs, moist fields and wooded areas (Osenni, 1984). It has been indicated that moisture is the most important factor in determining their distribution (Osenni, 1984). Osenni (1984) found shrews to be common in wet areas supporting dense vegetation.

Masked shrews were only captured in small numbers using the first protocol. Since masked shrews were captured at only two sites, with only one shrew caught per site, no conclusions can be drawn from these results. Three shrews were captured using the second protocol. The new site has dense vegetation and free-standing water in some places.

Other species captured include short-tailed weasel (Mus/ela erminea), eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus), southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans), and house mouse (Mus musculus). However, since less than two individuals in anyone site these species were caught, no significant correlation can be drawn regarding habitat and capture. Week 3 of trapping proved to be the most successful for each protocol (Table 3). During week 3 of the first protocol, results

199

show the most diversity and the greatest number of individuals. During week 3 of the Osenni protocol, results show the greatest number of individuals, but share diversity of captures with week 1 (Table 4).

A total of 15 species of amphibians and reptiles were observed. This number shows more diversity than last year (Weeden, 1997). These results are probably due to greater rainfall in 1998. Precipitation records for summer 1997 are as follows: June 1.93", July 1.99", and August 3.01". Precipitation records for summer 1998 are as follows: June 7.39", July 1.17", and August 4.25". Precipitation information was provided by Hollis (1998).

Improvements to these methodologies can be made to insure success in future studies at Greenwoods Conservancy. The amount of time for trapping needs to be increased along with the number of traps in use per site. Using the first protocol, there were a total of 125 traps in use during the week for a total of3295 trap nights in a four week period (this takes into account the closing of live traps for weekends and rainy periods). This number, when divided by the six communities represented, displays a figure ofless than 550 trap nights per community. This is less than half of the per community total for Osennis' study (1984). Using the Osenni protocol, only 25 traps were employed for a total of 400 trap nights. In addition, the design of pitfall traps could be improved. Pitfall traps should have been equipped with a cover to keep rain out and still allow for small mammal captures. This is important, since some species may be more active during rainy periods. It should be noted, however, that a cover may deter some species from entering the traps at all. A method should, therefore, be carefully researched to allow for optimum captures (Wildlife Advisory Group, 1997). More attention needs to be paid to vegetation and environmental parameters that influenced mammal diversity and density, as in Osennis' study. Additionally, only meadow voles were marked because they were the only species found alive. Although many meadow voles were marked and released for recapture, none were recaptured. A more successful mark-recapture system may be used if more time and traps are allowed.

200

REFERENCES

Behler,1. L., King, W. F. 1998. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles & Amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.

Hollis, H. 1998. Personal Communication. Cooperstown, N.Y.

Osenni, D. 1984. Ecological determinants of distribution for several small mammals: a central New York perspective. Occ. Paper #18, SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N. Y.

Shemnitz, S. D., 1980. Wildlife Management Techniques Manual: Fourth Ed. The Wildlife Society, Washington D.C.

Taylor, L. 1994. Biological survey of cranberry bog, summer 1994. In 27th Ann. Rept. (1994). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Weeden, C. B. 1997. Biological survey of amphibians: Greenwoods Conservancy, summer 1997. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, N.Y.

Whitaker,1. 0., Jr. 1997. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American tv1ammals. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.

Wildlife Advisory Group. "Animal Welfare Unit: Guidelines for the Use of Pitfall Traps." 14 July 1997. Infoseek, www.agric.nsw.gov.auJAw/Guideline/guide6.htm. 8 September 1998.

201

Small mammal survey of Greenwoods Conservancy: Sites A and B, summer 1998

Jennifer 1. Lopez '

INTRODUCTION

In the Town of Burlington, Otsego County, New York, lies a preserve of approximately one thousand acres known as Greenwoods Conservancy. This preserve is protected under a conservation easement through the Otsego Land Trust and is valued as a resource for education and scientific research (Taylor, 1994). During the summer of 1998, a preliminary study of the small mammal populations was conducted in two meadow locations at Greenwoods. The purpose of this study is to estimate the abundance and distribution of small mammal populations using live trapping techniques and by means of the Mark-Recapture Model (Schemnitz, 1980). Being the first of its kind to be conducted at Greenwoods, this survey will serve as a basis for reference and comparison for similar studies that will be conducted in the future. An accurate population estimate allows for the evaluation of changes in populations and their distributions.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Mammals were captured at two meadow sites: Site A is located in Broad Meadow and Site B in Boondocks (Figure 1,). Twenty-five traps were set at each site using a modified Osenni protocol (Osenni, 1984). Trapping was accomplished with the use of pitfalls (empty plastic mayo:maise jugs) instead of one-catch traps (Figure 2). This would allow for more than one

specimen to be caught in one trap, thus avoiding trapper bias. The jugs were placed in holes dug

in the Osenni pattern, partially buried and camouflaged. Sunflower seeds were placed in the surrounding area to serve as an incentive. Seeds were also placed inside the traps in attempts to sustain the mammals caught.

Traps were checked once daily and closed over the weekends. When pitfalls became filled with water, they were dumped and/or sponged dry. Specimens caught alive were identified according to Whitaker (1997), measured, gendered, marked with bright green spray paint, and then released. According to the Mark-Recapture Model, the ratio of recaptured mammals to captured mammals can be used to estimate the population with this equation (Schemnitz, 1980):

N = M(n)

m N = Estimated population M = Total mammals marked and released n = Total mammals captured m = Marked mammals recaptured

I F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation Fellow, summer 1998. Present affiliation: Columbia Universisty, New York, NY

202

Briar Hili

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.'. Local Power Line

======== Maintained Roads = = = = =Other Roads ..- Trails

Wetlands rO· Open Water

Boundary o,

Feel

1000,

Figure 1. Map showing site locations at Greenwoods Conservancy (From Villanella, 1999).

203

Figure 2. Sample plot arrangement (Osenni, 1984). One central plot of 20 meter radius, four outer plots on perpendicular lines 45-60 meters from the center. Each X represents a trap location (From Villanella, 1999).

204

Specimens found dead were collected, measured, gendered, and some were prepared as study skins for future reference. Skins were dried and preserved using boric acid.


Table 1 provides a list of the small mammals captured during this study. Some specimens were too decomposed for any measurements or sex to be determined. Three different species were identified: Microtus pennsylvanicus (meadow vole), Sorex cinereus (masked shrew), and Blarina brevicauda (short-tailed shrew). The meadow in Seldom Seen (Site B) exhibited a greater abundance and diversity than Broad Meadow (Site A). The table also indicates that a large percentage of captured mammals died in the traps and the number of mammals marked and released was low. It was assumed that the mammals were usually more active at night, so traps were checked only once daily during the morning hours. This proved to be an error. Many unnecessary deaths occurred that may have been avoided had the traps been checked several times a day. Many specimens seemed to have died from hypothermia in wet traps, and others may have drowned. Some specimens may have died from insufficient amounts of food. The metabolisms of small mammals are high, and therefore they probably require an almost constant supply of energy.

The remains of eaten seeds were observed inside empty traps on several occasions. It is possible that another animal, such as the meadow jumper, fell into the traps, ate the seeds, and was able to escape or that a predator may have been raiding the traps.

Few mammals were caught and released alive and no marked mammals were recaptured. Therefore, the Mark- Recapture equation cannot be applied and no valid population estimate can be calculated. Intensive trapping and release of a higher percentage of specimens would allow accurate population estimates to be made in the future.

REFERENCES

Osenlli, D. 1984. Ecological determinants of distribution for several small mammals: a central New York perspective. Occ. Paper #18. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY.

Schemnitz, S. D. 1980. Wildlife Management Techniques Manual, 4th Edition. The Wildlife Society. Washington D. C. pp.235-236.

Taylor, L. 1994. Biological survey of cranberry bog, summer 1994. In 27lh Ann. Rept. (1994). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY.

Villanella, M. (1999). Small mammal survey of Greenwoods Conservancy. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY.

Whitaker, 1. 0., Jr. 1997. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mammals. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.

205

Table 1. Taxonomic list of small mammals collected during this study..

Date Site Specimen Sex Length Girth Marked and Released

7/7/98 A Microtus pennsylvanicus M 115 75 N

A Microtus pennsylvanicus M 90 55 N

B Microtus pennsylvanicus M 130 70 N

B Microtus pennsylvanicus M 130 80 Y

7/8/98 A Microtus pennsylvanicus F 155 90 y

A Microtus pennsylvanicus M 145 90 Y



A Microtus pennsylvanicus F 110 80 Y

7/13/98 A Microtus pennsylvanicus N

A Microtus pennsylvanicus N

7/14/98 A Microtus pennsylvanicus F 140 75 Y



7/21/98 A Sorex cinereus F 90 45 N

7/22/98 A Sorex cinereus N

7/23/98 A Microtus pennsylvanicus M 130 N

A Microtus pennsylvanicus M 120 85 N

B Sorex cinereus N

7/24/98 A Microtus pennsylvanicus F 105 75 Y

A Blarina brevicauda F 115 70 N

A Sorex cinereus F 95 40 N

8/3/98 A Sorex cinereus F 80 50 N

8/5/98 B Microtus pennsylvanicus N

B Microtus pennsylvanicus N







B Sorex cinereus M 108 43 N

B Sorex cinereus F 93 45 N

8/6/98 B Microtus pennsylvanicus M 132 82 N

8/7/98 A Microtus pennsylvanicus M 130 70 Y

B Blarina brevicauda F 110 90 N

8/10/98 B Sorex cinereus N


B Blarina brevicauda F 110 65 N



11

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B Microtus pennsylvanicus F 135 70 N


8/14/98 B Blarina brevicauda F 105 95 Y

B Blarina brevicauda F 120 75 Y

B Blarina brevicauda M 120 95 Y

B Blarina brevicauda M 100 75 N




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Physiological mechanisms of "selective" aquatic herbicides

Paul H. Lord I

Editors Note: This paper does not follow the BFS tradition of reporting the results of monitoring or basic research. However, it does provide a recap of other researchers' reports regarding the subject. Since this information is not known to be summarized elsewhere, we are including it in this Annual Report.

INTRODUCTION

This paper reviews research articles identifying the physiological mechanisms (modes of action) of the most popular selective aquatic herbicides and discusses implications of those mechanisms to whole lake management. Specific attention is given to fluridone because it is being used widely and it is being considered for even more lakes contending with exotic macrophyte introductions (NYSFOLA 15th Annual Conference, 1998). Such introductions involve a half dozen or so notorious species such as the Eurasian watermilfoil (EWM) (Myriophyllum spicatum) that is now widespread in Otsego Lake (Harman, et al., 1997) and in many other northern U.S. lakes (Crowell, et al., 1996; Welling et al., 1997; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1993; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996; NYSDEC Lake Services Section, 1997; and Ellis, 1998).

In exploring the literature, it quickly became apparent that specific modes of action are not a focus of interest for limnologists, lake managers, manufacturers or the government. Plant physiologists appear to comprise the group most interested in the modes of action of the herbicides, but most of their herbicide work focuses on tenestrial plants (perhaps because the dynamics of the aquatic environment are more complicated than that of soil and atmosphere).

Limnologists and lake managers considering the use of herbicides are typically driven to such consideration by the introduction of an exotic plant which disrupts the biological relationships between naturally occurring aquatic plants. Exotics typically arrive without natural predators and pathogens and, if they survive their introduction, tend to dominate. (If they do not survive the introduction, their introduction in unlikely to be noted.) When confronted with such situations, lake managers and limnologists look for an herbicide or a natural enemy that will kill off the exotic with minimum "collateral damage" to growth and relationships amongst naturally occurring plants. How the

I SUNY Oneonta biology MA candidate enrolled in Bio 570 (Graduate Physiology). Present address: 100 Sunset Ridge, Cooperstown, N.Y. 13326; E-mail: [email protected]: telephone: (607) 547-5962.

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"solution" targets the exotic is not nearly as germane as the fact that the solution does target the exotic while permitting native plants to survive and to continue nutrient absorption, food production, and habitat development for other organisms (NYSFOLA Conf., 1998; Peverly and Johnson, 1979; Carpenter and Adams, 1978; and Jewell, 1970). Myriad examples of research documenting the practical selective effects and consequences of using various aquatic herbicides are found in the literature (Welling et al., 1997; Crowell, et al., 1996; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1993; Brooker and Edwards, 1975; and Maloney and Palmer, 1956 as examples).

While the u.s. government has not demanded to know how chemical herbicides do their job, it has mandated strict testing for herbicides involving residues, toxicity (acute and chronic), carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, neurotoxicity, reproducti ve effects, skin and eye irritation and impacts on other various animals (mammals, birds, and insects) as well as its fate when left in the environment. Industry has responded and those attributes for each aquatic herbicide have been provided to the government (Oregon State University, 1998 and Hoyer and Canfield, 1998) and often "repackaged" and provided to the public in advertising literature touting the herbicides. (For examples, see SePRO Corporation®, undated; Elf Atochem North America, Inc. ®, 1996; and Monsanto Company®, 1990.)

Legal aquatic herbicide active ingredients, other than those whose use is limited to irrigation ditches, include:

• copper, • 2,4-D, • dichlobenil,

• diquat, • endothall, • fluridone, and

2 • glyphosate (Hoyer and Canfield, 1998) .

Aquatic herbicides that have been described as selective include: • Fluridone (l-methyl-3-phenyl-5(3-(trifluromethyl)phenyl)-4( 1H)-pyridone

[C19H14F3NO]) marketed commercially as Sonar® by SePRO® (SePRO

Corporation®, undated; Hoyer and Canfield, 1998; Crowell et al., 1996 and Humburg et al., 1989);

• 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid [CgH6C1203]) marketed

commercially as Aqua-Kleen, Weedar®, and Landmaster® (Hoyer and Canfield, 1998, Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, 1993; Gallagher, 1992; and Humburg et al., 1989);

• Diquat ( 1,l'-ethylene-2,2'-bipyridyldiylium dibromide salt [CI2HI2N2Br2]) marketed commercially as Aquacide®, Aquakill®, Dextrone®, Diquat®,

2In both 1975 and 1998 the UK had eight plant growth inhibiting chemicals authorized for use in or around water (Brooker and Edwards, 1975; and Barret, 1998).

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Reglone®, Reglox®, Reward®, Tag®, Torpedo®, Vegetrole®, and Weedtrine-D® (the last by Aquatic Ecosystems, Inc. ®) (Anonymous, 1998; Hoyer and Canfield, 1998; and Oregon State University, 1998 and Humburg et al., 1989);

• Endothall (3,6-endoxohexahydrophthalic acid (technical endothall) [C8H 1005]; disodium-3,6-endoxohexahydrophthalate (disodium

endothall); and 3,6-endoxohexahydrophthalic acid amine salt (amine salt of endothall)) marketed commercially as Accelerate®, Des-i-cate®, Aquathol® and Hydrothol® by Elf Atochem North America, Inc. ® (Hoyer and Canfield, 1998; Elf Atochem North America, Inc. ®, 1996; and Humburg et al., 1989);

• Triclopyr (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyloxyacetic acid combined with triethylamine salt [C 7H4CbNOJ]) marketed commercially as Garlon 3A® by Dow Elanco® (and as Access®, Crossbow®, ET®, Grazon®, PathFinder®, Redeem®, Rely®, Remedy®, and Turflon® by others) which is being tested for aquatic environments in seven states with an EPA experimental use permit (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, 1993; and Humburg et al., 1989); and

• Tordan 202C (2,4-D plus picloram [C6H3CI3N202]) also marketed as

Grazon® (Forsyth et al., 1997; and Humburg et al., 1989).

Herbicides work by interfering with "growth, respiration, or photosynthesis" (Laws, 1993). In the following few pages we attempt to delineate what is known about the modes of action for the approved selective aquatic herbicides.

Fluridone

Fluridone appears to be the most aggressively marketed of the approved aquatic herbicides. In spite of this, it was missing from the most valuable on-line database dealing with aquatic herbicides as (potentially) toxic chemicals (Oregon State University, 1998).

Its categorization and action as a selective herbicide is challenged by the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources (1996). Nevertheless, the manufacturer touts the selective nature of fluridone in a 24 page glossy publication in which testimonials to the effectiveness of fluridone are included. According to the manufacturer, most native plants tolerate fluridone, but exotics such as EWM, hydrilla, and curly leaf pondweed are susceptible to its chemistry. In those plants, fluridone interferes with carotenoid production leaving chlorophyll unprotected from decomposition by sunlight. The loss of chlorophyll leads to chlorosis on apical meristems and plant death (SePRO Corporation®, undated; and Humburg et al., 1989). The effects of fluridone are relatively long-lasting since it is a systemic herbicide (Hoyer and Canfield, 1998; and Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996).

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2,4-0

2,4-0 is a long used herbicide with more testing and documentation associated with it than any other herbicide. Initial research on 2,4-0 began under wartime secrecy during World War II (Page, 1998 and; Humburg et al., 1989). It may be the most widely used aquatic herbicide in the U.S. (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996). It is a chlorinated phenoxy compound which operates systemically to control various broadleaf weeds (terrestrial even more so than aquatic) (Hoyer and Canfield, 1998). It is an auxin that apparently resists breakdown by IAA oxidase (Levitt, 1969). It is readily broken down by sunlight, dissolved oxygen, sediment load and dissolved organic carbon. Nevertheless, minute amounts of2,4-0 have been detected in surface and groundwater (Oregon State University, 1998) even though the federal government prohibits its use in water intended for consumption. 2,4-0 works quickly which can jeopardize aquatic oxygen levels when copious amounts of target macrophytes are in the treated area (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996).

As noted, much research has been focused on 2,4-0. Many enzyme functions are disturbed by 2,4-0 which increases ethylene production. Nevertheless, it is believed the major mode of action for 2,4-0 starts with a series of reactions that turn off the gene controlling RNase synthesis. Cell synthesis results if other hormones are available. RNA and protein movement to stems result in blockages effecting both transpiration and translocation. Additionally, 2,4-0 interferes with oxidative phosphorolation (Forsyth, el

al., 1997; Humburg et al., 1989; Ashton and Crafts, 1973; and Abeles, 1973).

Oiquat

Oiquat is considered selective only because it is a contact herbicide and its effects can be localized by careful application. It is a fast-acting herbicide and plant growth regulator. It is used in terrestrial agricul tural operations as a desiccant (potatoes, seed crops, and sugar cane). A key advantage to its use is that it is ephemeral and leaves no residual trace in water, soil, or plants. It is broken down by photochemical degradation. Diquat's fast action is made possible by its absorption into plant leaves. It is so shortlived that it does not have direct impacts on plant tissues not exposed to its effects (Hoyer and Canfield, 1998; Oregon State University, 1998; and AGS Computer Services®, 1998). Because it kills so quickly, its use raises concerns about phosphorous regeneration and oxygen levels in the aquatic environment (Peverly and Johnson, 1979).

Diquat interferes with cell respiration and energy production. Even low concentrations of this herbicide can control aquatic weeds. Apparently, diquat anions form stable free radicals in water which, in turn, form unstable peroxide free radicals which provide the herbicidal effect (Humburg et al., 1989). While diquat is sold by a variety of vendors under various names as noted above, its basic manufacturer is Zeneca Ag Products®, 1800 Concord Pike Wilmington, OE 19897 (Oregon State University, 1998; and MacDonald, et al., 1992).

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Endothall

Endothall is a contact selective herbicide that works well in muddy and flowing water (Elf Atochem North America, Inc. ®, J996; Hoyer and Canfield, 1998; and Oregon State University, 1998). It is used terrestrially both as an herbicide to control broadleaf weeds and annual grasses and as a desiccant to prepare alfalfa, potatoes, cotton, and clover for harvest. Aquatic herbicides are made from the potassium and amine salts of endothall and are used to control phytoplankton, Potamogeton spp., Ceratophyllum spp., Myriophyllum spp. (including EWM), Elodea spp. and others (Oregon State University, 1998; and MacDonald, et al., J992). Because it is a contact herbicide, its effects on target species are relatively short-lived (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996).

Endothall promotes ethylene production (Abeles, 1973) and works on target species by inhibiting lipid and protein synthesis and protein breakdown and by, apparently, inhibiting respiration. This was determined by MacDonald, et al. (1992) in a series of experiments with cucumber (Cuccumis sativa L.) in which they evaluated ion leakage in light and dark, inflorescence of leaf disks, and oxygen consumption of leaf disks. While some plants metabolize endothall acid, others die from exposure to this compound which is comprised solely of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Endothall does not move past the symplast in aquatic plants. Degradation in the environment is attributed to metabolism by microorganisms (Elf Atochem North America, Inc.®, 1996). The basic manufacturer of endothall is ELF Atochem North America®, Three Parkway, Room 619 Philadelphia, PA 19102 (Oregon State University, 1998 and MacDonald, et al., 1992).

Triclopyr

Triclopyr is similar to 2,4,5-T which is notorious for dioxin impurities. Dioxin has not been found associated with triclopyr, which is a fast-acting selective and systemic herbicide used to control various woody and broad leaf plants in terrestrial applications. 1t is an auxin type herbicide that accumulates in meristem tissues. There is little written about its performance as an aquatic herbicide although the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources claims that it is more EWM selective than tluridone. The lack of literature is almost certainly due to its conditional use permit status. Since it is fast acting, it cannot be used in whole lake applications because of the potential for oxygen depletion associated with the die-off of the macrophytes effected. Because it is systemic, it can prevent target macrophyte regrowth for periods in excess of a year. The basic manufacturer oftriclopyr is Dow Elanco®, 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, IN 46268-1054 (Oregon State University, 1998; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996 and Humburg et al., 1989).

Tordan 202C

As noted previously, tordan 202C is a mixture of2,4-0 with picloram which produces an apparent herbicidal "synergistic effect" (Forsyth, et ar, 1997). Inasmuch as 2,4-0 is discussed above, picloram will be discussed here. Picloram is included in a number of commercial products including Access®, Grazon®, Pathway®, and Tordon®

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and is regularly combined with other herbicides such as bromoxynil, diuron, 2,4-0, MCPA, triclorpyr, and atrazine (Oregon State University, 1998).

Picloram is a systemic herbicide used to control various woody and broadleaf plants in terrestrial applications, particularly those intended to foster grass growth. It stimulates ethylene synthesis which inhibits flowering and has other effects. Picloram is absorbed by all plant parts, but less so by foliage than by roots. It remains in the plants for a considerable period of time. The basic manufacturer of picloram is Dow Elanco®, 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, IN 46268-1054 (Oregon State University, 1998; Forsyth, et al., 1992; and Abeles, 1973).

Discussion and Conclusions

The herbicides described in the preceding vary in their suitability for aquatic environments that vary in

• water movement rates; • suspended particles; • macrophyte communities.

Since aquatic environments vary so widely, the variety of choices is fortunate. What is unfortunate is that there appears to be little consensus on the selectivity of the various herbicides.

Results of partial and whole lake tests demonstrate trends in selectivity for various aquatic herbicides (Mol, 1994; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, 1996; Crowell, et al., 1996; and Welling, et al., 1997), but the variation in results underscores our lack of understanding of the mechanisms by which these herbicides work. Aquatic chemistry is complex. It is easily hypothesized that varying lake chemistries interact with selective herbicides in ways that influence their selectivity. We need more focus and research on the specific mechanisms by which the selective herbicides select.

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Literature Cited

Abeles, F. B. 1973. Ethylene in plant biology. Academic Press, New York.

AGS Computer Services®. 1998. Lake management supplies. hltp://www.jawsfish. com/laksupply.htm as of 9 Apr 98.

Anonymous. 1998. Weedtrine-D®. http://www.aquatic-eco.com/products/ wtdllwtdl.htm as of9 Apr 98.

Aston, F. M. and Crafts, A. S. 1973. Mode of action of herbicides. A WileyInterscience Publication, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Barret, P. R. F. 1998. Aquatic weed control: changing attitudes and techniques in the UK. Pesticide Outlook. Vol. 8(2). Pp. 21-25.

Brooker, M. P. and Edwards, R. W. 1975. Aquatic herbicides and the control of water weeds. Water Research. Vol. 9. Pp. 1-15.

Carpenter, S. R. and Adams, M. S. 1978. Macrophyte control by harvesting and herbicides: implications for phosphorous cycling in Lake Wingra, Wisconsin. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management. Vol. 16. P. 20-23.

Crowell, W., Perleberg, D., and Welling, C. 1996. Evaluation offluridone for selective control of Eurasian watermilfoil in Minnesota: plant abundance and water quality during the first two years of the study. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Ecological Services Section, 500 Lafayette Road, Box 25, St. PauL MN 55155-4025

Elf Atochem North America, Inc.®. 1996. Technical information manual: Endothall: the uses and properties as an aquatic algicide and herbicide. Elf Atochem North America, Inc.®, 2000 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103-3222.

Ellis, D. J. 1998. Barbarians at our gates. American Horticulturalist. Vol. 74(3). P.6

Forsyth, D. J., Martin, P. A., and Shaw, G. G. 1997. Effects of herbicides on two submerged aquatic macrophytes, Potamogeton pectinatus L. and Myriophyllum sibiricwn Komarov, in a prairie wetland. Environmental Pollution. 95(2): 259268.

Gallagher, J. E. 1992. 2,4-D aquatic review. (A data support package making a case to remove limitations on WEEDAR 64® use in the Tennessee Valley Authority jurisdiction.)

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Harman, W. N., Sohacki, L. P., Albright, M. F., and Rosen, D. L. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake, 1936 -1996. Occas. Pap. No. 30 SUNY Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hoyer, M. V. and Canfield, Jr., Daniel E., 1998. Aquatic plant management in lakes and reservoirs. http://aquat.ifas.ufl.edu/hoyerapm.html and subordinate links as of 20 Apr 98.

Humburg, N. E., Colby, S. R., Hill, E. R., Kitchen, L. M., Lym, R. G., McAvoy, W. j., and Prasad, R. (editors). 1989. Herbicide handbook of the weed science society of America, sixth edition. Weed Science Society of America, 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820.

Jewell, W. 1. 1970. Aquatic weed decay: dissolved oxygen utilization and nitrogen and phosphorous regeneration. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation. Vol. 43. Pp. 1457-1467.

Laws, E. A. 1993. Aquatic pollution. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

Levitt,1. 1969. Introduction to plant physiology. The C. V. Mosby Co., St. Louis.

MacDonald, G. E., Shilling, D. G., and Bewick, T. A. 1992. Effects of endothall and other aquatic herbicides on chlorophyll florescence, respiration, and cellular integrity. IN Joyce, 1. C. (editor). 1992. Annual Report USDA/ARS IF AS/University of Florida Cooperative Agreement USDA - ARS No. 58-43YK9-0001 Integrated Management of Aquatic Weeds, October 1, 1991 to September 30, 1992. Director, Center for Aquatic Plants, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.

Maloney, 1'. E. and C. M. Palmer. 1956. Toxicity of six chemical compounds to thirty cultures of algae. Water and Sewage Works. Vol. 103. Pp. 509-513.

Mol, N. 1. 1994. Winning the battle against milfoil. The Michigan Riparian. November, 1994. Pp.12-3;18.

Monsanto Company. 1990. Get broad-spectrum control of emerged aquatic vegetation \vith rodeo herbicide by Monsanto®. Monsanto®, 800 N. Lindbergh, Dept. 815, St. Louis, MO 63167.

NYSDEC Lake Services Section. 1997. Common nuisance aquatic plants in New York State. NYSDEC Lake Services Section, 50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY 122333508.

NYSFOLA 15th Annual Conference. 1998. White Eagle Conference Center, Hamilton, NY. May 1-2-3 1998.

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Oregon State University. 1998. ExToxNet: The EXtension TOXicology NETwork. http://ace.ace.orst.eduJinfo/extoxnet/ and subordinate links as of 12 April 1998. A cooperative effort of University of California-Davis, Oregon State University, Michigan State University, Cornell University, and the University ofIdaho. Primary files maintained and archived at Oregon State University.

Page, D. L. 1998. Industry task force II on 2,4-D research data. http://www.24d.org/ and subordinate links as of 4 May 1998. Industry Task Force II on 2,4-D Research Data, 8-26 Cedar Point Villas, Swansboro, NC 28584.

Peverly J. H. and Johnson, R. L. 1979. Nutrient chemistry in herbicide-treated ponds of differing fertility. Journal of Environmental Quality. Vol. 8(3). Pp. 294-300.

SePRO Corporation®. Undated. Sonar® guide to aquatic habitat management. SePRO Corporation®, 11550 N. Meridian Street, Suite 180, Carmel, IN 46032-4562.

Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. 1993. A report from the milfoil study committee on the use of aquatic herbicides to control Eurasian watermilfoil in Vermont. Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, Waterbury, Vermont.

Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. 1996. Eurasian watermilfoil chemical treatment plan: A report to the general assembly. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Department of Environmental Conservation, Water Quality Division.

Welling, c., Crowell, W., and Perleberg, D. 1997. Evaluation offluridone herbicide for selective control of Eurasian watermilfoil: final report. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN 55155-4025.

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TECHNICAL REPORTS

BFS Technical Report #4

PANTHER LAKE AQUATIC MACROPHYTE

MANAGEMENT PLAN FACILITATION: 1998 UPDATE ON THE DISTRIBUTIONS OF

NUISANCE PLANTS

WILLARD N. HARMAN MATTHEW F. ALBRIGHT

PAUL H. LORD and DARCY KING

SUNY ONEONTA BIOLOGICAL FIELD STATION

5838 ST HWY 80, Cooperstown, NY 13326

November, 1998

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INTRODUCTION

The role of aquatic plants in freshwater lakes:

Practically all our northeastern lakes support a diversity of large aquatic plants attached to the bottom (benthic macrophytes) which play an important role in maintaining the potable, recreational and aesthetic characteristics, as well as the ecological functioning, of most waters (Anon., 1990). These plants compete directly with algae in the water column (phytoplankton) for nutrients, thereby maintaining water clarity. They protect shorelines from erosion and stabilize deeper substrates limiting turbidity from silts and clays by physical disturbance. By preventing the resllspension of sediments which have nutrients adsorbed to them, algal growth is limited (Wetzel, 1983).

Macrophytes provide food and cover and/or supplement oxygen supplies for all of the organisms (i.e., fish, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates) that make up shallow water (littoral) aquatic communities. They are the basis of aquatic food webs in these areas, providing indispensable links between the sun's energy and animals that eat plants which are, in tum, eaten by predators (Hutchinson, 1975). In these ways, plants regulate the size and character ofgame fish and waterfowl populations as well as impact other biotic resources we cherish.

In our region there are a few introduced plant species (e.g., Eurasian rnilfoil, curly leaved pondweed, water chestnut) that aggressively out-compete our native flora under conditions of excess nutrient loading, destroying biodiversity and causing the loss of some of the abovementioned benefits. The dense beds commonly forn1ed by these plants often reduce the recreational quality of lakes. These introduced exotics are responsible for the great majority of the complaints heard from recreational lake users.

Aquatic plant management in the northeast:

Modem managers recognize the benefits of our native plant communities and therefore, under all but emergency conditions, use techniques to control the aggressive introductions while attempting to restore native plant diversity for its inherent values. Techniques can be divided into two types: 1. Those that improve the environment by minimizing nutrient loading, reducing littoral disturbance and preventing further introductions, and: 2. Those that directly impact plant populations.

Even aggressive exotics can become innocuous if cultural pollution (nutrient loading) is minimized. Whole lake and watershed management techniques to control runoff are expensive, often politically charged and must be seen as long-term investments. Nevertheless, they must be addressed to assure unqualified success over time.

Introductions are most aggressive when native plants or substrates are disturbed. It's

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harder for exotics to achieve dominance if healthy natives already occupy a lake's bottom. Disturbance of lakeside lands also impact littoral areas to the benefit ofexotics directly by sediment deposition which reduces populations of native plants and indirectly by supplying associated nutrients. All things being equal, the fewer nutrients available for plant growth, the less plants will grow, reducing management problems. However, competitive interactions between planktonic algae and benthic plants may result in complex situations complicating management. Efforts to manage non-native plants must be selective. The more exotic species present, the more extensive, and costly, are the management strategies required. By far, most introductions to inland lakes have been traced to the activities of recreational navigation. Lakes with public access should have some mechanism in place to minimize the chances ofnew introductions.

Strategies directly impacting plant populations are normally categorized as: physical (e.g., harvesting, barriers placed on the bottom or water level manipulation), chemical (use of various herbicides) or biological (utilization of other organisms, usually herbivores). Based on the above discussion, it is asswned that management activities normally are directed at selected target species. It is neither feasible nor desirable to remove all plants from a body of water. If necessary, small areas such as channels and spaces around docks can be treated physically for the convenience of individuals. In even more problematic situations mechanical harvesting on a larger scale may be necessary.

Several problems result from harvesting and other means of physical removal of nuisance plants. Since the majority of exotic species are more competitive in disturbed situations, harvesting enhances growth. Because harvesting is non-selective, native plants competing with the target species are also removed allowing exotics to grow even more vigorously. Herbivores which potentially serve as natural biocontrol agents are removed, compounding the problem. Expenses increase since the more an area is harvested, the more it will need harvesting to assure trouble-free utilization of the site.

The use of herbicides has historically been an important tool in macrophyte control. The greatest concerns with herbicides relate to their toxicity. They are poisons. Many can kill nontarget plants as well as animals and can cause health problems to lake users. There are also a host of poorly understood, subtle and indirect effects on the biota, nutrient flow and food web relationships. Herbicides are available today that allow selective targeting of nuisance species. "Sonar" (1-Methyl-3-phenyl-5-[-3(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-4(1 H)-pyridinone) is an exanlple of a product that is best used to control Eurasian milfoil while permitting most other plants to recolonize, re-establishing a nearly complete native plant community. This, and similar products, must be carefully handled by professional applicators with an understanding of aquatic ecosystems. Also, clearly specified targets should be part of plans developed with the involvement of affected stakeholders. There are still many problems to solve regarding maintenance of appropriate herbicide concentrations over time to attain control without killing non-target species.

Biological control protocols for aquatic plant management are just now being developed. They have great potential for ecologically friendly plant management. There is still more to learn,

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as agents become available for utilization. There are at least three native insect herbivores that can help control Eurasian milfoil in our lakes. Euhrychiopsis lecontei, the milfoil weevil, is present in most northeastern lakes and is being stocked to augment local populations in an attempt to control milfoil (Sheldon, 1997). Acentria ephemerella, the milfoil moth, is being tested for similar use (Johnson, et af., 1998). Cricotopus myriophylli, the milfoil midge, is another organism that occurs naturally in our region (Fagnani and Harman, 1987) and attacks Eurasian milfbil in some situations. These organisms, and others, may have a role in the reduction of milfoil allowing for the re-establishment of the native flora in the northern tier of the United States and Canada. Other organisms, such as East Asian grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon Mella, have been used to good effect in some situations, particulary further south. Permitting issues often preclude there use in New York State.

Introductions of non-native herbivores often requires permits in New York State. It should be recognized that in regulated wetlands, plant management activities of any kind require a permit from the NYS Department ofEnvironmental Conservation and the US Army Corps of Engineers. Plans for introductions to attempt biocontrol should be proceeded by intensive monitoring to ascertain native herbivore damage and population densities prior to management decisions. To date, the evidence is tenuous that native herbivore populations, augmented or introduced, control target species successfully.

Efforts to manage aquatic macrophytes should be part of a coherent plan, no matter how formally documented. Involved groups need to precisely articulate goals and coordinate various activities. Physical control, herbicide use and biocontrol procedures are often incompatible and should not be used concurrently except under professional guidance.

PANTHER LAKE

Panther Lake is located in the Oswego County Towns of Constantia and Amboy, (N 43° 19', W 075° 54'). It has a surface area of 49 hectares (121.5 acres), a mean depth of 5 meters (17 feet) (Petreszyn, 1990), and a maximum depth of8 meters (26 feet) (Panther Lake Assn, undated map). Physical and chemical characteristics of the water as analyzed on 31 July 98 fall within ranges indicated in Hohenstein, et. al., 1997. The lake is tea colored, limiting rooted macrophytes to areas shallower than 4 meters (14 feet).

Scope of work:

The SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station was contracted through the Oswego County Department ofPlanning to develop: 1. A map ofPanther Lake showing the distributions of aquatic vascular plants. The map was created by a combination of aerial photography, SClJBA and free diver swim-overs and water-level observations documented spatially by GPS technology.

We were also to provide a overview of:

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2. Panther Lake aquatic plant growth characteristics. 3. Information concerning potential management strategies relevant under existing legislative

restrictions. 4. An indication of state-of-the-art options involving harvesting and other physical control procedures, selective and broad-range chemical and biocontrol techniques.

Methods:

We visited Panther on 6/3/98 in order to locate access areas, determine logistics for future work and to make preliminary observations of the plant species, especially those obvious only during the spring. We arranged for future contacts with Mr. Robert Beck, President of the Lake Association and Mr. John Gratzer of the same organization. We returned to Panther Lake on 7/31/98 to complete the major portion of the field work. At that time, we toured the lake with the above mentioned individuals to develop a historical understanding of the situation and to visit present (and former) problem areas. A map was developed using surface observations, free diver SWinl overs and aerial photography. This map indicates locations of surface macrophytes as well as sampling transects and sites where water quality and SCUBA profundal observations were conducted. All the above are documented spatially with GPS data-points.

The locations of the largest macrophyte beds were docUlllented using an average of readings from three different portable GPS units (Garmin II+). None exceeded] ha in size, enough to warrant docUlllentation of boundaries via GPS technologies I. Details were proofed by correlation with beds visible in aerial photographs taken during fly-overs on the same day (7/31/98). Species composition of macrophytes making up surface beds were determined by free divers through actual collection and estimation of amount the bottom covered (substrate percent cover per meter square) by each kind of plant (species). This information is compared to data collected in 1990 by Petreszyn.

Free divers swam seven transects to characterize the littoral vegetation throughout the lake. This enabled us to develop an understanding of the physical attributes (height, density, shape) of the plant community important to determine its value as cover for invertebrates, forage and game fish and to better understand littoral food web dynamics (ecosystem function) in the lake. Plant species were determined according to Fassett (1960) and Borman, et al (] 997).

Results:

Figure 1 is a map of Panther Lake showing beds ofrnacrophytes attaining the surface (represented by stippling). Sites 2 and 5 indicate the most extensive stands. Major shoreward portions are dominated by floating leaved submergents: water shield (Brasenia schreberi), bullhead lily (Nuphar sp.) and fragrant water lily (Nymphaea odorata). These species typically

Boundaries of beds of aquatic macrophytes vary spatially over time according to the nature of the species involved. Therefore, greater precision is misleading. I

~ /'Ci

E,Wf/S CSS

\0 ~ ~

~

1 .L

'f-:

\

c 1

I

) /

{ ,~~

Figure 1. Panther Lake showing stands of aquatic macrophytes .eaching ~he surface (stippled areas) in 1998. Site 1 reDresents the deepest are:l of the la.l(e wrere water Guallp:. - . analyses ar1d profundal SCL13A obser.;ations took place. Sites 2-5 illustrate areas where transect.) by free divers took place. Sites A-H represent locations where GPS dat~ were collected releva.,t to mapping activities.

f\.) f\.) --"

222

occur in less than 1.5 meters (5 feet) of water. The deeper areas of Sites 2 and 5 were dominated by big-leaved pondweed (Potamogeton amplifolius), covering 50-74% of bottom between 1 and 2 meters (3 to 7 feet) in depth. Waterweed (Elodea canadensis) was a co-dominate, reaching its greatest density (up to 49% cover) between 1 and 3 meters (3 to 10 feet). Eurasian milfoil was present in minimal amounts at all depths, attaining maximum densities of 49% cover at 2 meters as did flat-stemmed pondweed, Potamogeton zosteriformis. Fern pondweed (Potamogeton robbinsii) and wild celery (Vallisneria americana) were present at low densities throughout the littoral zone (up to 4 meters [15 feet]). There were lesser amounts of other species. Location of sites using GPS coordinates are listed in Table 1. Figure 2 is a reproduction of Petreszyn' s 1990 map illustrating "areas of dense vegetation" for comparison.

Seven transects from the shoreline to the greatest depths of the littoral zone at the above mentioned sites, as well as sites 3 and 4, documented similar distributions of macrophytes as indicated by Figure 3. In that illustration the macrophytes are arranged tentatively by community type, recognizing central New York species associations, according to the methods of Vertucci et al (1981). The morphologies of community types, taken from Vertucci et al (1981) are represented in Figures 4-7. It should be noted that these descriptions, which include sub-surface assemblages of plants, are identical with the surface beds characterized above. Column 1 in Table 2 has been derived from Petreszyn's work (1990)2, and compares his 1990 survey with our complete list of plant species in Column 2.

Water quality data was collected at Site 1, the deepest part of the lake. Information collected agreed with CSLAP data from 1993-96 summarized by Hohenstein et. al., 1997. Table 3 is reproduced from that contribution. A SCUBA dive at the site anecdotally verified water column characteristics (transparency, color and plankton densities) and profunda! substrate conditions. The bottom at about 7.5 meters (25 feet) was higWy organic with pieces of fern pondweed dominating masses of decomposing vegetation.

Discussion:

Littoral communities throughout the lake are remarkably similar. We did not observe any monospecific beds. Species having taller growth patterns, such as big-leaved pondweed (P. amplifolius), were in a few cases the only plants reaching the surface, creating the appearance of monospecificity in those areas. Ifwe assume species mapped in 1990 strongly dominated in beds that attained the surface, as implied in Figure 2, and that they are not examples of the above mentioned phenomenon, there has been: 1. A tremendous reduction in vegetation along the north and south shorelines outside of

protected bays, and 2. Wild celery (Vallisneria americana) and Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) that formerly dominated the submerged rnacrophyte community no longer do so.

2 Isoetes, present on Petreszyn's original list, is omitted. We consider Isoetes as an emergent.

223

Table 1. Latitude and longitude of collection sites on Panther Lake as indicated in Figure 1.

Site number Activity Profundal SCUBA observations Water quality measurements

Location N 43° 19.70' W 75° 54.38'

2 Two free diving transects Intensive macrophyte collections

N 43° 19.74' W 75° 54.04'

3 One free diving transect Intensive macrophyte collections

N 43° 19.53' W 75° 54.20'


N 43° 19.68' W 75° 54.66'


N 43° 20.02' W 75° 55.04'

A GPS waypoint (mapping landmark) N 43 19.58' W 7554.05'

B GPS waypoint N 43 19.53' W 7554.20'

C GPS waypoint N 43 19.68'

W7554,87

D GPS waypoint N 43 19.80" W 7554.88'

E GPS waypoint N 4320.04' W 7555.09'

F GPS waypoint N 43 19.81' W 7554.45'

G GPS waypoint N 43 19.72' W 7554.20'

H GPS waypoint N4319.77' W 7553.99'

224

Figure 2. Distributions of dominant aquatic macrophytes (shaded areas) in Panther Lake in ] 990 (rt'produccd without modification from Petreszyn, 1990)",

225

Figure 3. Distribution of macrophytes along the depth gradient in Panther Lake, Oswego

County, NY, July_31 1998 (Average of7 transects). __=24% or less cover/m2, 25

49% coverlm2, _50-74% cover/m2

. Numbers in parentheses indicate communities of Vertucci, cl aI, 1981. Numbers in brackets indicate tentative community a<;signments.

Depth in meters Taxa 1/2 2 3 4

Nup!Jnr sp. (1) Nymphaea odorata ( I ) RalllnlCufliS aqua/ilis (1) lJrasenia sc!I)'eheri [ IJ Chara sp. (4) Najasflexilis (4) Po/amogeton pusil!us (4) Po/umogeton robhinsii [4]

(4) Val!isneril' americana (2) Jle/enmthera dubia (2) Myriophyllum spicatum - [2J Potanwgetoll zos/eriformis ••••• _

Potamoge/oll amplijiJlius ••••

~~_(1)

Po/amoge/of] epihydrus r2J U/ricularia vulgaris [2[ Elodea canadensis (2) Ni/ella hyalina [3 ]*

*Typically occurs in deep water or as an understory in the shade of'other plants.

MacroJlhytr communitirs as distributed along environmental gradients in Otsego Lake (Vertucci, et al 1981)

( 'ol11mllnilv Dept II Urgclllic r-.latl~r Ca(:Ol FXlractalJle Fe Tvpe (Meters) (Sediment) (Sedi ment) (Sediment)

I OS-15m 12-I /I';';IOM (1-9%CaCOJ 1000- J 20()l11g/1 .) 1-2.51lJ J2-14%OM 20-50%CaCOJ 250-1 500mg/l

3-6 5111 12-14%Oi\1 20-50%)('aC03 12S0-1750mg/l I)-fUm ~-12%OM SO-70%Cacnj 0-250mg/1

226

N vanegi./{tlfn N.odo'-iJta

- --- --- -----_.. - ----_.'- -._---- -- --------j

1111

(()MMlJNITYI YI'L I

Figure 4. A diagrammatic view of the vertical structure of community type I (Vertllcci et aI, 1981 ).

I ()r\1~,1I1~~1 [y I \'\'1. II

Figure 5. A diagrammatic view of the vertical structure of community type II (Vertucci el

aI, 19H J ).

227

(

CflMMUNl1 Y nrlill

Figure 6. A diagrammatic view of the vertical structure of commuDity type 1[[ (Vetiucci el

al,1981).

, (H.1.\IIJNII Y 11 Pl:· IV

Figure 7. A diagrammatic "iew of the vertical structure of community t)'PC IV (Vertucci et

ai, 1981).

228

Table 2. Species of submerged aquatic macrophytes present in Panther Lake, Madison Co., NY in 1990 and 1998.

1990 (from Petreszyn, 1990) Nuphar advena (S)I Nymphaea /uberosa (S)

Chara sp. (S)

Potamogeton robbinsii (M) Potamogeton amplifolius (M) Vallisneria americana (M)

Myriophyllum spicatum (M)

Elodea canadensis (S)

Ceratophyllum demersum (S) Potamoge/on praelongus (M)

1998 Nuphar variegatum (1)2 Nymphaea odora/a (1) Ranunculus aquatilis (1) Brasenia schreberi [1]3 Chara sp. (4) Najasjlexilis (4) Potamogeton pusillus (4) Potamogeton robbinsii [4] Potamogeton amplifolius (4) Vallisneria americana (2) Heteranthera dubia (2) Myriophyllum spicatum [2] Potamogeton zosteriformis (2) Potamogeton epihydrus [2] Potamogeton angustifolius [2] Utricularia vulgaris [2] Elodea canadensis (2) Nitella hyalina [3]

1 Abundance (S)=Scarce, (M)=Moderate (See Figure 3 for indications of abundance for 1998 data) 2 Communities of Vertucci, et ai, 1981 3 Tentative assignment to communities of Vertucci, et ai, 1981

---------

--

229

Table 3. CSLAP data summary for Panther Lake (from Hohenstein el ai, 19Y7).

.. Avg Max N Parameter

3.14 t.GO 31 CSLAP.Zsd 3.26 4.00 8 CSLAP Zsd 3.26 3.7.5 9 CSLAP Zsd 3.08 3.88 6 CSLAP Zsd 2.93 3.50 8 CSLAP Zsd

Avg Max N Parameter O.OJ 1 0.017 31 CSLAP Tot.P 0.011 0.014 8 CSLAP ToLP 0.010 0.012 9 CSLAP ToLP (l 0 J I OJ) J 7 6 CSLAP TOIP () (I I I () Ii I 1 R ('SLAP laIr '-~--- ._--

Year Min ._------_.

1993-% 2.38

1996 2.75._------- 1995 2.50_. 199~ 2.50

1993 2.38

Year Min .. 1993-96 0.007

1996 00091-._-_._.

J995 0.009

] ,!')·1 o (J(I! ---~-_.

1'!')l () (II) 'i ---- .-- .__ .. ._--~---

\. C ;11 i\ 1i I)·__·_·---1--·- . I ')I).J.')!) (iH

I t) '),', ",' .~ --- --_._- ---

I'!'! :\ :-$1

I $ ,!.j () l)

I 'J'! 'i ( 1,"1

Year r,f i It

J 1)1) 1·1)() I .-J II J ljL}() I I ~II

I 'jl).:::'" I; ~;

I C),) I 7(,\

I ill) ~ I'"

...

..-- -

.

2~b... ~~:.t~ __ ~'-__ Par~lIlClrr ---1

77 115 JI CSLAP Cond25 .._._. -- _.-- ----- ._----

7S R(I S CSLAP Conet2 <; _._----- -_._-_.------ -._--~

fX2 85 . ()._. __ (SLAP Cond25

j7~. 7-1 . __ 6____ C-~u~P C~(~~ _ , ! I 7, S CSLAP ('01\ d2S

1\1:1, N I'lll-amdcr~\[: .. ------_. ...-----_._----~

(l.l)h . l~ ~HO ... ~ 1.311. ~_. ~~0!:.S II ~l . )II, I I! 7[) ii ('SI.!\1' ('IJi it

J I i~; 1·1 Xi' I; CSL/ll' Chi"-_.. --- --- --_. _.~. ------~

, I·' J U 7CJ S CSL.'\.P ChI it - ---- - -- ._------- -_._ .. _.- .. -~- ----~---_

:, ~'7 II II) r: CSLAP ('Iii :1 __ .... J.J ~. ~ .._..~.~~-_~_~-~_

230

Comparing the species lists presented in 1990 by Petreszyn with 1998 data (Table 2) indicates several changes. The water lilies, Nuphar variegatum and Nymphaea odorata are present in Panther today; Petreszyn listed Nuphar advena and Nymphaea tuberosa. We assume the latter represent misidentified taxa. We did not encounter coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) nor whitestem pondweed (Potamogeton praelongus) recorded by Petreszyn. We did observe four other pondweeds (P. epihydrus, P. pusillus P. angustifolius and P. zoster/ormis) as well as bushy pondweed (Najasflexilis), starflower (H dubia), water shield (Brasenia schreberi), bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris) and the stonewort (Nitella hyalina). Further comparisons are fraught with difficulties. The terms scarce and moderate, as Petreszyn (1990) used them, are difficult to rectify with plant abundance expressed as percent cover, particularly with diver vs. surface observations.

Temporal changes between 6/3/98 and 7/31/98 indicate seasonal changes in growth between species. Fern pondweed (P. Robbinsii) appeared more abundant in the qualitative samples taken in June than the quantitave work in July indicated. Eurasian milfoil was less obvious in Jtme than in July. Individuals of this species showed evidence of pathology that may indicate current unauthorized herbicide use.

It should be noted that, although present, yellow starflower (H dubia), a problem species in late summer in many lakes, presents no concerns in Panther Lake. Two other plants that often present problems in other lakes, sago pondweed (P. pectinatus) and curley leaved pondweed (P. crispus), were not seen in the lake. The latter, another introduced exotic, commonly causes as many problems as Eurasian milfoil, though much earlier in the growing season.

Management concerns:

Panther Lake has a mix of 18 species of submerged aquatic macrophytes creating a diverse littoral community with successional change during the growing season (phenology) providing constantly changing structure (physiognomy) analogous in many ways to the grotmdcover, tmderstory and canopies typical of forest ecosystems. In our opinion, this mix of species is close to ideal for lakes the size and shape ofPanther Lake. The only aggressive exotic present is Eurasian milfoil, which in the summer of 1998 posed no obvious concerns. The extent of beds of shallow water plant species attaining the surface seem to vary from year to year. These changes are normal and should be expected.

In the short term, if lake users are not satisfied with the current situation, we recommend physical removal, by hand, of problem plants around docks and in swimming areas. The use of tightly woven synthetic fiber barriers may also be effective in these situations. Care should be taken to minimize substrate disturbance. Attempts to bury shallow water plants by introducing sand in beach areas is fruitless and, in the long run, will worsen the situation. Mechanical harvesting is not warranted. Non-specific herbicides are, in our opinions, potentially dangerous to the stability of the condition of the littoral community as it now exists. Specific herbicides generally target Eurasian milfoil, which is not a problem at this time. Ifmilfoil increases in abundance in the future, professionally applied selective herbicides should be considered. At that

231

time the status ofbiocontrol methodologies should be also investigated. Any consideration of biocontrol should be preceded by intensive monitoring of herbivore populations. The only organisms now under consideration are for the control ofEurasian milfoil. Generalized vertebrate herbivores, such as grass carp, would jeopardize the present plant communities' value for food and cover for native organisms and is potentially not permitted by government agencies.

Educational programs and other preventative measures are recommended to assure that stakeholder expectations equal realistic plant management goals. Such programs can help prevent further introductions of noxious plants such as curley leaved and sago pondweeds (P. crispus, P. pectinatus), and should be considered. These same strategies may minimize the chances of introducing exotic zooplankton (e.g., spiny water-fleas [Bythotrephes cederstroemi]), zoobenthos (e. g., zebra mussels [Dreissena polymorpha]) and fish (nekton) (e.g., alewives [Alosa pseudoharengus]), all ofwhich are present in nearby Oneida Lake and could create serious problems. Techniques vary from sinlple signage at launch sites to boat washing facilities and boat registration schemes.

Changes in the distributions of emergent plants along the shores and increasing layers of mud over sandy bottoms are indicative of gradual increases in nutrient enrichment. Long-term planning should involve land use regulations to minimize nutrient (phosphorus) runoff from the watershed from compacted surfaces (roofs, paved roads and driveways, patios, etc.) near the lake, its tributaries, and septic systems. Sewage problems are not documented, but homes with small setbacks from shorelines on sandy soils are indicative ofhigh nutrient loading potential. Plants can't flourish without nutrients.

We stand ready to assist with whatever follow up monitoring, education or other activity the Panther Lake Association or Oswego County Planning Department desire.

232

REFERENCES

Anon. 1990. Diet for a small lake: A New Yorker's guide to lake management. NYSDEC and NYS Federation ofLake Associations.

Borman, S., R. Korth and 1. Temte. 1997. Through the looking glass: A field guide to aquatic plants. Wisconsin Lakes Partnership, Merrill, Wisconsin.

Gagnani, 1. P. and W. N. Harman. 1987. The Chironomidae ofOtsego lake with keys to the immature stages of the Subfamilies Tanypodinae and Diamesinae (Diptera)

Fassett, N. C. 1972. A manuel ofaquatic plants. Univ. Wisconsin Press. Madison. 405 pp.

Hohenstein, B.R., G. Gallinger and S. A Kishbaugh. 1997. 1996 interpretive summary: New York citizens statewide lake assessment program (CSLAP), Panther Lake. NYSDEC Div. of Water.

Hutchinson, G. E., 1957. A treatise on limnology, Vol. III. Aquatic macrophytes and attached algae. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.

Johnson, R. L., E. M. Gross and N. G. Hairston, Jr. 1998. Decline of the invasive submersed macrophyte Myriophyllum spicatum (Haloragaceae) associated with herbivory by larvae of Acentria ephemerella (Lepidoptera). Aquatic Ecology 31 :273-282.

Panther Lake Assn. Undated. Bathymetric map of Panther Lake

Petreszyn, 1. M. 1990. Oswego County aquatic vegetation management program, 1990 Countywide assessment. Report No.1: 1-50.

Sheldon, S. P. 1997. Investigations on the potential use of an aquatic weevil to control Eurasian watermilfoil. Journal of Lake and Reservoir Management. 13(1):79-88.

Vertucci, F. A, W. N. Harman and 1. H. Peverly. 1981. The ecology of the aquatic macrophytes ofRat Cove, Otsego Lake, NY. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Occas. Pap. 8:1-210. SUNY Oneonta.

Wetzel, R. G. 1983. Limnology. 2nd Ed. Saunders. Philadelphia.

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