CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

1

Kinnaur, the land of Gods, fairy tales and fantasies, is one of the twelve

districts of Himachal Pradesh in Indian Western Himalaya, with an area of 6401

sq km covering about 11.5% area of the State. Kinnaur which stretches from N

latitude 31°05′50″ and 32°05′15″ and E longitude 77°45′ and 79°00′35″, shares

its international boundary on east side with Tibet. It is bounded by the districts of

Lahaul-Spiti in the North, Kullu in the North West, Shimla in the South West and

the state of Uttrakhand in the South (see: Maps 1a, b, 2). Earlier Kinnaur formed

the Chini Tehsil of Mahasu district and came into being as an independent

district on 1st May, 1960 with administrative headquarter at Reckong Peo. The

district is divided into three sub-divisions, Pooh, Kalpa and Nichar; five tehsils

and one sub-tehsil. There are 77 villages in the district and almost no urban

centre. One can enter Kinnaur district at village Chaura (Fig. 1). Kalpa is one of

the biggest and beautiful village of Kinnaur. Sumdo is the last village and

Charang is the highest village of Kinnaur.

Kinnaur is a tribal and hilly district with altitude ranging from 1600m to

more than 6800m which presents an intricate mosaic of lush green valleys,

mountain ranges, orchards, vineyards, snow-clad peaks, cold desert mountains

and with a number of rivers. The district has a number of valleys - Sutlej Valley

(1600-3500m), Hangrang or Spiti Valley (2000-4500m), Ropa or Shiasu or

Sangam Valley (2100-4500m), Bhaba or Wangpo Valley (1800-4500m), Tidong

Valley (2200-4800m), Baspa or Sangla Valley (1800-4800m), Kalpa Valley

(1800-3000m) and Ganjul Valley (2000-3200m). Among these, the Sutlej Valley

is the largest and broadest, extending in North East to South West for about 140

km along the river Sutlej. Upper parts of Sutlej Valley present bare rocky terrain

and high mountain peaks with glaciers and snowfields while the lower parts are

greener (Figs. 2-5). The Hangrang Valley is the second largest valley and is

situated on the uppermost part of the district and has been carved out by Spiti

river. The valley is quite dry with scanty precipitation and very less vegetation

(Figs. 6-11). Ropa Valley, Tidong Valley, Bhaba or Wangpo Valley and Ganjul

Valley lies in the zone of scanty rainfall and suffer from cold arid conditions

(Figs. 12-17). The Baspa or Sangla Valley is the most charming valley which

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offers the visitors the breathtaking view of captivating lush green orchards in the

lap of majestic mountains covered with pure and dazzling white snow (Figs. 18-

21). The Kalpa Valley which is situated at the feet of the Kinner Kailash peak,

has pine forests on both sides (Figs. 22-23). Besides, there are some other minor

valleys in Kinnaur such as, the Gyanthing or Nesang, the Pejur or Lippa, the

Mulgoon and the Yula. Kinnaur holds three of world’s greatest mountain ranges-

the Zanskar Range, the Greater Himalayas, and the Dhauladhar Range. The

Zanskar mountains form the international frontier between Kinnaur and Tibet.

Leo-Pargial (6771m), Mani Rang (6593m), Kinner Kailash (6437m) and Shri

Khand Mahadev (5227m) are the major peaks of Kinnaur. Among these, Kinner

Kailash with massive snow clad mountains is regarded as one of the mythical

homes of Lord Shiva. The district has some very important rivers, namely Sutlej,

Spiti or Lee, Baspa and Ropa (Figs. 24-28). Sutlej is the principal river of the

district which originates in the vicinity of Mansarover Lake in Tibet and enters

India through Kinnaur district near Shipki La and divides it into two equal parts.

The river Spiti or Lee runs between Lahaul and Spiti and meets the Sutlej at the

place of Khab, locally called the ‘Sangam’ of two rivers (Fig. 29). The Baspa

river, another feeder of Sutlej rises through Dhuladhar mountains of Himalaya

meets the Sutlej at Karchham. The Ropa river separates the districts of Kinnaur

and Lahaul-Spiti, and surrenders itself into the Sutlej river near Shiasu village.

Besides, there are many other small streams which fall into the Sutlej river, such

as Mulgoon, Yula, Yulang, Pojur/Taiti, Kashang, Wanger and Tirung. Kinnaur

has a beautiful Nako lake located at the village Nako in Hangrang Valley (Fig.

30) and other two small lakes, Sorang and Tomchho situated in Nichar and Pooh

tehsils, respectively. Nichar tehsil has a number of hot springs in Nathpa,

Joktiaring hamlet and Tapri villages.

The climate of Kinnaur which is governed by its unique geographical

location, altitude and topography, varies in different parts of the district. The

district has two distinct climate zones, the wet and the arid. The weather here can

be divided into four types, spring (March-April), summer (May-September),

autumn (September-November) and winter (December-March). Most of the

precipitation is received in the form of snow during October to May in parts of

Introduction

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upper Kinnaur. During this period the district remains totally cut off from the rest

of the area. The higher peaks of Kinnaur are completely covered with snow

throughout the year. The rainfall is neither uniform nor heavy, it decreases

rapidly from Southwest to Northwest. The Sutlej Valley has the highest annual

rainfall of 1750mm and Pooh has the lowest of 400mm. On the basis of rainfall,

Kinnaur has been divided into three precipitation zones; moist zone, semi-arid

zone and arid zone. In the lower portion of Kinnaur, June is the warmest month

while in the upper portion July and August are the warmest months. The summer

temperature ranges from 13°C to 22°C and in October it is 3°C to 4°C. The

winter is often rigorous, and in some parts there is no moving out of the homes

because of heavy snow and strong winds. The tribal areas of Kinnaur shivered

under intense cold wave conditions with the minimum temperature during

winters dipping to -20°C. The relative humidity starts increasing from the month

of May.

Geomorphologically, the district has been sub-divided into fluvial terrain,

fluvio-glacial terrain, alpines/meadows and rocky terrain (GOI, 2008).

Depending upon the morphological and physio-chemical characteristics, soils in

the district can be grouped into three major types. Type-I soil is coarse loamy and

mixed in nature which developed from granites, highly metamorphosed gneisses

and schist, and occurs on moderate slopings to steep lands. Such soils are well

drained with rapid permeability. Natural vegetation exists in these soils and

various crops are cultivated according to the suitability. Type-II soil is fine

loamy, mixed and frigid in nature which developed on parent material consisting

of granite-gneiss and mica schist on steep to very steep slopes at an altitude of

about 3000m. These soils mainly consist of grazing lands supporting alpine

grasses. Type-III soil includes Sangla, Spello, Kalpa, Leo, Rocky I, Rocky II and

Scree series.

Like other hilly areas, the economy of Kinnaur is mainly dependent upon

horticulture, agriculture and animal husbandry. Due to its unique climatic

conditions the area is best suited for cultivation of apple, almond, apricot, pear,

walnut, peaches and grapes (Figs. 31, 32). Sarda melon or Afghan melon is being

grown in the district which is the only locality in India where it can be

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successfully grown because of its similar climatic requirements. There is also a

great scope for cultivation of potatoes, rajmah, peas, tomatoes, cabbage,

cauliflower, exotic vegetables and pistachio nut. Chilgoza, almond, and apricot

are famous for their quality throughout the country. Sangla Valley is the home of

some rare herbs and spices including the exotic black cumin seed called ‘Kala

Zira’ and Saffron. The grain grown for local consumption is called ‘Ogla’

(Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) and is grounded to make flour for basic

preparations. Main agricultural crops of the district are maize, paddy, wheat,

barley, peas and potato. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra at Reckong Peo, Kinnaur (Dr.

Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, Nauni), Mountain

Agriculture Research and Extension Centre at Sangla (Fig. 33) and one Research

substation at Leo (Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi

Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur) serve important scientific extension centers

providing agriculture information to the local farmers of the tribal district.

The people of Kinnaur are traditionally referred as ‘Kinners’ or

‘Kinnauras’ (Figs. 34, 35). Kinnaur is home to some of India’s oldest traditions

and legends. The people of Kinnaur have strong religious beliefs and follow

Buddhism and Hinduism. As per 2011 census, Kinnaur is the second smallest

district of Himachal Pradesh by population (84298 persons) with a density of 13

persons per sq km. The population of the district is composed of four distinct

classes of Kanets (Rajput), Domangs (blacksmiths), Ores (carpenters) and

Chamangs (Kolis). Culture of Kinnaur is tribal and polyandry system is still

prevalent in most parts of the district. The Kinnaur society is divided into two

broad occupational groups - peasants and the artisans which are represented by

Kanets (Rajputs) and Scheduled Castes. The Kinnaur district may be classified

into three territorial units including lower, middle and upper Kinnaur. The people

of lower Kinnaur are mostly Hindus and Mediterranean physical type. The

people of middle Kinnaur are of mixed racial strain and are Buddhists as well as

Hindus. Some have marked Mongoloid and others have Mediterranean features.

The people of upper Kinnaur extending up to international border with Tibet are

Mongoloids and follow Mahayana Buddhist religion.

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The people of district dress mostly woollen clothes. Their clothings are

well suited to the climate and are artistic too in its own distinctive way. Head

dress of men and women is a round woollen cap called ‘thepang’ which is

generally of light grey or of white colour with a colour velvet band on the outer

fold. Men wear ‘Chamn Kurti’ (woollen shirts), ‘Chhuba’ (long woollen coat

somewhat resembling an Achkan) with sleeveless woollen jacket and ‘Churidhar

pajama’. Women wear a choli (full sleeved blouse) and wrap up a woollen shawl

like garment called ‘Dohru’. Beautifully coloured shawls usually draped over the

shoulders. The exclusive and unique ‘Kinnauri shawls’ represents the religious

and mythological background of Himachal Pradesh and are known for their

traditional designs and patterns. These shawls are exclusively manufactured in

Kinnaur, highly priced and are very popular in the domestic as well as

international markets. The traditional footwears worn by the ‘Kinnauras’ are

made of wool and goat hairs with sole of goat hide. Ornaments are generally

made of silver and include mool, trimani kantaie, kandoch chalim, shanglavang,

digra, tamach, laung, dhaglu, etc. Kinnauri dialect, called ‘Homskad’, is the

mother tongue of nearly seventy five percent population. There are different

dialects spoken by various sections of population i.e. Sangnaur (Sangnaur village

of tehsil Pooh), Tibetan (Nasang, Kune and Charang adjoining Tibet), Jangiam

(Jangi, Lippa and Asrang villages of tehsil Moorang), Shumccho (Kanam,

Labrang, Spello, Shiaso, Tailing and Rushkalang villages of tehsil Pooh),

Kinnauri-Jangram mixture (Rakchham and Chittkul of tehsil Sangla) and Hindi

and English (educated people of Sangla Valley, Kalpa Valley and other parts).

Kinnauras celebrate a number of fairs and festivals in different months of

the year. Famous fairs include Lavi (October/November) and Phul Yatra

(November), and the festivals namely, Baisakhi or Beash (April), Dakhraini

(July), Lossar (October), Phagul or Shuskal (February/March), Tribal

(October/November) and Sazo (January). The Kinnauras are very fond of music,

dance and singing. There are a number of beautiful temples and monasteries in

Kinnaur. Various temples in Kinnaur are, Badri Narayan Temple (Batseri),

Brelengi Gompa (Brelengi near Reckong Peo), Chandika Temple (Kothi),

Chango Temple (Chango), Charang Temple (Charang), Durga Temple (Ropa),

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Namgia Buddhist Temple (Namgia) and Narayan Nagini Temple (Chini). The

important monasteries of the district include Rarang Monastery (Rarang), Lippa

Monastery (Jangi) and Kanam Monastery (Kanam). Moorang fort (Moorang) and

Kamru fort (Kamru) are the historical places of the district.

The staple food is wheat, rice, ogla, phafra, kuth and barley. Besides

these, kankani, cheena, maize, chollair and bathu are also taken. Pulses (peas,

black peas, mash and rajmash) and vegetables (cabbage, turnips, peas, beans,

pumpkin, potato, okra, tomato and wild green vegetables leaves) are most

commonly consumed. Taking salted tea called cha in the morning and evening is

very popular among the Kinnauras which is usually taken along with sattu made

of parched barley flour. The people are non-vegetarian and relish goat and ram’s

meat. Taking of alcoholic drinks in their day to day life and also on the

ceremonial or festive occasions is quite common. Alcohol is made of fruits like

grapes, apple and pear.

Kinnaur has two extreme topographies. Some mountains hold dense rich

vegetation, while the higher reaches are akin to barren cold deserts. Portions of

Kinnaur situated high in the Himalaya, support sparse vegetation and consists

primarily of hardy grasses. Alpine species such as juniper, pine, fir, cypress, and

rhododendron are found at elevations between 3500m and 5000m, primarily in

Middle Kinnaur. At lower altitudes (1600-2800m), temperate-climate trees are

found which include oaks, chestnut, walnut, peaches, maples, birch, alder,

magnolia and apricots. Kinnaur is extra famous for its chilgozas (pine nut), finest

apples and local wine, ‘Anguri’.

Yaks and Dzos are reared by the local farmers in the higher areas.

Scattered populations of the Himalayan black bear and small ponies are also

found. Three famous wild life sanctuaries, namely Lipa-Asrang Sanctuary,

Rakchham-Chittkul Sanctuary and Rupi-Bhaba Sanctuary have various wild

animal species which include Himalayan Black Bear, Brown Bear, Musk Deer,

Goral, Ibex, Leopard, Blue Sheep, Red Fox, Himalayan Tahr, Yak, Monal and

Himalayan Snowcock.

Kinnaur consists of lush green valleys, orchards, vineyards, snow-clad

peaks, cold desert mountains, bare rocks, steep sandy slopes with rock gravels,

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and oppressive and inhospitable conditions which include freezing temperature,

dry arid weather, strong winds and low precipitation. As a consequence of harsh

climatic conditions prevailing in the region, plants tend to become prostrate,

thick, hairy, bushy, hardy, sturdy, mat and cushion forming and spiny with long

roots and small succulent or woolly leaves. The area is quite rich in plant

diversity which includes plenty of flowering plants of dry alpine and temperate

zones, and a few gymnosperms and pteridophytes. Due to different terrain and

harsh climatic conditions prevailing in the area, only some taxonomical surveys

have been made by Nair (1977), Chowdhary and Wadhwa (1984) and Murti

(2001) for “Flora of Bhashahr Himalaya”, “Flora of Himachal Pradesh” and

“Flora of Cold Deserts of Western Himalayas” respectively which include the

floristic diversity of this area. Seth and Negi (2004a, b, c) have made

contributions towards the Pteridophytic flora of Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh. Due

to high floral diversity, Kinnaur is also well explored for its medicinal and

aromatic plants wealth by various workers including Chauhan (1988, 1989a, b, c,

1990, 1992, 1995, 1999, 2003), Chauhan and Khosla (1988), Chauhan and Negi

(1988), Bahar (2002), Negi and Bhalla (2002), Negi and Subramani (2002),

Sagar et al. (2005), Dutt and Negi (2007), Negi et al. (2007), and Rawat and

Kharwal (2011).

Vegetation of Kinnaur district is influenced by altitudinal ranges, climate

and more significantly by the soil texture and rainfall. Also the vegetation of area

is under considerable pressure due to construction of Hydroelectric Projects and

roads, clearing of forests for agricultural and horticultural purposes, over-

exploitation for medicinal plants and grazing by domestic animals and by natural

disasters which include windstorms, landslides, etc. The plants of the area which

are exposed to extreme cold stress conditions and high incidence of UV rays

expected to show a considerable amount of genetic diversity in the form of

intraspecific polyploids, aneuploids, hybrids, apomicts, structural heterozygotes,

and taxa with B-chromosomes and various meiotic irregularities.

All the above mentioned contributions pertain to floristic diversity and

ethnobotany of medicinally and economically important species of the region but

no attempt has been made to explore the cytomorphological diversity in the flora

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of Kinnaur district. Thus it becomes essential to carry out intensive and extensive

cytomorphological studies to have an assessment of genetic variability in the

plant resources of Kinnaur region. Keeping in view the paucity of cytological

information on the plants of Kinnaur and the importance of cytomorphological

studies, the present problem has been undertaken to explore the

cytomorphological diversity in the Dicotyledonous plants.

The objectives of the present studies have been -

1. to carry out extensive cytomorphological surveys on population basis

covering the different regions of Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh,

2. to determine the chromosome number and to study in detail the meiotic

course, microsporogenesis and pollen fertility for each species,

3. to collect information with respect to flowering and fruiting period for each

species which might be useful for future breeding programmes,

4. to record morphological variation wherever exist and to correlate these with

cytological characteristics,

5. to carry out cytological analysis in the species with intraspecific

morphological and chromosomal diversity,

6. to understand the various cytological processes operative in the evolution of

plants growing under extreme cold conditions, and

7. to record the ethnobotanical information about the use of various species by

the local people of the study area.

During the collection trips, field notes on the floristic constituents of

different localities of the district were also taken. A generalized account on the

vegetation of the area based on these surveys is given separately under

‘Vegetation’. The purpose has been to study the distribution pattern of species

covered presently. The present study involves extensive surveys in a vast area,

where some localities are not easily accessible and could not be visited due to

limited public conveyance. Also in many species, flowering occurs for a very

short duration and materials for male meiotic studies could not be obtained. In

spite of all these limitations and drawbacks, attempts have been made to cover

the species on population basis from different localities. The present work

includes cytomorphological studies on 206 taxa belonging to 200 species.

Map 1a: The map depicted the geographic location of Himachal Pradesh in India. Map 1b : The map depicted the district Kinnaur in the Himachal Pradesh.

1b 1a

Map 2 : The map depicted the various localities in the district Kinnaur of Himachal Pradesh.

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