intraglacial

3Studio C , Semester 1, 2014Future Now

Lucas Koleits

The year is 2045, and 70% of the planets accessible mineral resources have been exhausted. Economic pressure pushes mankind to search for the last unexploited mineral reserves on Earth, located kilometers beneath the Antarctic ice cap. Over the past 50 years, escalation of resource consumption has been paralleled by societys concern for the environment. Originally protected under the Madrid Protocol, Antarctica was opened to mining in 2041 under the condition that the pristine surface remained unaltered. Mining corporations tunnel deep into the ice caps, creating an interglacial network of spaces to reach remote mineral reserves. Subjected to subzero temperatures, isolated from sunlight; with no direct access to the surface and constantly unpredictable shifting surroundings, this is Intra-Glacial.

4Contents

Research

Site

Environment

Geology

Optical Phenomena

Antarctic Treaty system

Design Development

Intra-glacial network

Ice model

Network section

Thick 2D

Section callouts

Casting model

Mining Machinery

Appendix

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23

37

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133

153

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5Site research

6Antarctica has only been occupied for around 100 years, and even then, in no truly permanent capacity. Before the 1900s, there were a handful of whaling stations established on sub-Ant-arctic islands, which eventually led to claims of the continent by countries such as Russia and Norway. Now there are hundreds of stations on the Antarctic continent, and islands around the Antarctic Peninsula. These range from small, temporary stations to large operations of more than 2000 people.

Stations are operated by a variety of countries, and each antarctic program utilises a different approach to living in Antarctica. The US, Russia, Australia, UK, Argentina, Chile, India, China, Japan, Korea and New Zealand have the largest Antarctic operations, and the greatest pres-ence on the continent.

Antarctic Stations

7

Antar

ctic Cir

cle 66

33 44

Fossil Bluff (UK)6/0

Luis Caravajal (Chile)30/0

Rothera Station (UK)130/22

San Martin (Argentina)20/20

Vernadsky Station (Ukraine)24/12

Palmer Station (USA)43/12

Brown Station (Argentina)18/0

Gabriel Gonzalez (Chile)9/0

Mechior (Argentina)36/0

Primavera Station (Argentina)18/0

Matienzo Station (Argentina)15/0

Marambio Station (Argentina)150/55

Johann Gregor Mendel (Czech Republic) 20/0

Esperanza Station (Argentina)90/55Bernando (Chile)

44/16

Petrel Station (Argentina)55/0

Deception Station (Argentina)65/0Gabriel de Castilla (Spain)25/0

Guillermo Mann (Chile)6/0

Juan Carlos I (Spain)25/0Ohridsk Station (Bulgaria)36/0

Camara Staion (Argentina)36/0

Maldonaldo Station (Ecuador)22/0

Arturo Prat Station (Chile)15/9

Risopatron Station (Chile)8/0

Bellingshausen (Russia)38/25

Great Wall Station (China)40/14

Eduardo Montalva (Chile)161/80

King Sejong (Korea)70/18

Carlini Station (Argentina)100/20

Artigas Station (Uraguay)60/9

Arctowski Station (Poland)40/12

Comadante Ferraz (Brazil)40/12

Machu Picchu Station (Peru)28/0

PALMER LAND

ANTARCTIC PENINSULA

8The pole of Inaccessibility is considered to be the most remote place on earth. It is located on top of the antarctic ice cap, over 1000 km from the nearest open water. It was here that the Soviet antarctic expedition set up a weather monitoring station in 1958. This base suffered in the coldest average temperatures of any location on earth, and was abandoned after less than a year of operation due to the dangers of isolation. The base consisted of a communications hut, electrical hut, and accommodation for four people. Atop the accommodation hut held a bust of Lenin, facing towards Moscow.When the station was abandoned, nothing was taken. This is not uncommon once antarctic stations outlive their use or become too dangerous to operate. The cost of dismantling the sta-tions and moving the remains far outweighs their worth. The result is a collection of hauntingly eerie abandoned stations, such as Oasis base (Soviet), Shackletons hut, Ross hut, Grytviken whaling station, and many more. The station at the Pole of Inaccessibility is one of the prime examples, although the snowfall over the antarctic ice cap is quickly consuming the structures. Today, not much more than the bust of Lenin can be seen at the site.

Abandoned Stations

9Abandoned Russian station, Prydz Bay, Antarctica

10

The largest antarctic station is the American operated McMurdo station, located on the coast of the Ross sea. This station operates more like a small town than a research station, with up to 2,500 personnel calling this site home over the summer period. It is also a base of opera-tions for many research expeditions and transport operations in Antarctica.

Ensuring that McMurdo has all the resources to function requires a mammoth logistical effort. The first efforts to resupply such a large station were referred to as Operation Deep freeze and involved the use of ice breaker fleets to move food, equipment and fuel onto the continent. Today US Coastguard icebreaker, along with C-17 and Hercules LC-130 planes are utilised to ensure the annual operation Deep freeze is a success.

Operation Deep freeze

11

Hercules LC-130 landing on a skiway at McMurdo station (Source: www.antarctica,gov,au

12

The Australian Antarctic Division uses the vessel Aurora Australis to resupply its four main stations, Casey, Mawson, Davis and Macquarie Island. As well as a resupply vessel, the Aurora is used as a personnel carrier and open water research vessel. It has a limited ice breaking ability, which can lead to problems when resupplying stations that are often frozen in by sea ice year round.

Vital to the operation of science, resupply and rescue in Antarctica is the helicopter resources. AS350 BA Squirrel helicopters are used for science, ship to shore resupply as well as search and rescue and recreational operations. They are vital to the efficient operation of projects in extreme conditions.

The use of helicopters and other aircraft such as twin otter and basler craft can be supple-mented by ground vehicles as well. Hagglunds vehicles are common, due to their versatility in extreme cold and icy conditions. Russian stations use large Snowcat vehicles for long journeys across the icecap to resupply landlocked stations.

Logistics

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The AAD resupply vessel, the Aurora Australis, parked in sea ice at Davis station, 2011

14

AS350 BA Squirrel chopper on science operation, Ellis narrows, 2012

15

Rush snowcat fuel transport, Progress station, 2012

16

Science is the reason we occupy Antarctica.

Antarctica is a near pristine ecosystem, that has been barely impacted upon by human occu-pation. Research about how local and global human driven processes are affecting Antarctica is being conducted at many stations around the continent.

The few areas of Antarctica which are ice free have very little soil, so most of the geology is exposed, which makes it of particular interest to geologists. The glacial processes of the conti-nent have created a great variation in the types of rocks found exposed, and can give clues to the sort of geology found underneath the ice.

Being such an isolated, extreme location, Antarctica is also the site of many psychological and medical research, much centered around long term isolation and travel, conditions that would be experienced during space travel.

Science in the Antarctic

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Marine science sample collection, Ellis narrows, 2011

18

Davis station portable marine experimental laboratory, 2011

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Elephant seal tracking device attached to a juvenile, Davis station, 2012

20

The atmospheric conditions are the clearest in the world, which makes Antarctica is best location for LIDAR (Light detecting and ranging equipment) investigations of our atmosphere. A LIDAR generates a strong laser, projecting it into the sky. Extremely sensitive photon detectors on the ground can detect the small amount of back scatter from certain parts of the atmosphere, giving us information about the conditions of the upper atmosphere.

LIDAR

21

Aurora over Davis station, with LIDAR in background, 2012

22

LIDAR laser room, Davis station, Source: www.antarctica.gov.au

23

Environment

24

Antarctica experiences the highest wind speeds on earth. This is due to the effects of katabatic wind systems. Katabatic winds occur when supercooled air slides off the sloped contours of the Antarctic ice cap. At very cold temperatures, the air is denser than other air on the sur-face, and moves quickly to the lowest point. This means great masses of cold air moves across the ice cap of Antarctica, reaching speeds of 327 km/ hour. These winds can be extremely dangerous for people working on the continent, and can combine with heavy snowfall to create intense blizzards.

Katabatic Winds

25

Satellite photograph of katabatic winds flowing off continent (source: www.antarctica.gov.au)

26

Between summer and winter, the ocean surrounding Antarctica goes through radical chang-es. The ocean freezes over, creating ice that can reach thicknesses of around 2-3m. This allows for research stations and airfields to be built temporarily. In 2010, the Antarctic winter produced 19.47 million square kilometers of sea ice, which is one of the highest amounts ever recorded. This means the continent effectively double its surface area in a matter of months. As summer arrives, the sea ice begins to weaken, and eventually will break up, disperse and melt. But this process can take months, with chunks of sea ice being shuffled around by tides and currents around the coast of the continent. These ice floes can be incredibly dangerous for people operating on the water, as a sudden change in tides can send millions of tons of ice in your direction with the potential of isolating you from base and or crushing your craft.

Sea Ice

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200

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Changes is sea ice coverage from summer to winter seasons.

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Icebergs form as a result of glacial ice flowing off the Antarctic continent, into the Southern Ocean. The glacial ice begins to break apart or calve, forming icebergs. Due to the immense scale of glaciers and ice shelves in Antarctica, this region produces by far the largest icebergs in the world. The largest iceberg ever recorded, named B-15, calved from the Ross ice shelf in March, 2000. It was 295 kilometers long and 37 kilometers wide, or roughly 11,000 square kilometers, which makes it larger than the island of Jamaica.

Icebergs come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, colours and textures, due to differing conditions during their formation. Jade icebergs are a particularly rare form of iceberg, which have a green-blue opaque appearance. These icebergs form as a result of glacial meltwater flowing to the base of an ice shelf, close to the interface with the sea floor. There the freshwater freezes rapidly, trapping large amounts of minerals, soil and algae from the sea floor. Thousands of years later, the ice shelf may calve and deposit a Jade iceberg.

Icebergs

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Satellite photograph of iceberg B-15, 2000. (Source: wikicommons)

30

Medium sized iceberg grounded 7km off Davis station, 2012

31

Jade iceberg, grounded approximately 9 km off Davis station.

32

The south magnetic pole is the point where the earths magnetic field meets the surface. It is currently migrating at a rate of roughly 10km per year towards north north west, but can fluctuate by up to 80 km each day. Recently, this rate has sped up to 50km per year, and this has taken the pole off the coast of Antarctica, heading for Western Australia. At this rate of movement, and at this current direction, the south magnetic pole may be located close to Perth in the year 2098. Scientists believe that this increased fluctuation of the magnetic pole may be a sign of an imminent flip of the magnetic poles, with the south pole suddenly becoming the north pole and vice versa. This had occurred before, 780,000 years ago, and scientist speculate that it could happen again in the next millennium.

The magnetic south and north poles are the points where our magnetosphere intersects with the surface of our earth. The magnetosphere, the magnetic field that is generated by our planets core, protects us from a variety of charged particles an bursts of cosmic radiation from the sun and outer space. This protection is altered at the north and south magnetic poles, which allow some charged particles to enter our atmosphere (See Aurora Australis).

Changes in the magnetic pole will affect aurora activity around the globe. The closer one is to a magnetic pole, the more aurora activity you will experience, which can include disruptions to ground based communications equipment, as well as disruptions to communications satellites.

Wandering South Magnetic Pole

33

MagnetosphereMagnetosphere

South Magnetic Pole

Charged Particles

Diagram of the Earths magnetosphere.

34

Antar

ctic Cir

cle 66

33 44

ROSS SEA

WILKES LAND

TERRE ADELIE

GEORGE V LAND

OATES LAND

1610

16601710

1760

1810

1890

1910

1990

2010

Tracking of the south magnetic pole location over the past 400 years

35

Climate change is having a varied impact on the environment of Antarctica. Some areas, such as the Antarctic peninsula, are being highly impacted by deglaciation and temperature in-crease. However, East Antarctica is seeing a net increase in terrestrial and sea ice mass and a slight decrease in temperature. This is due to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, a strong deep oceanic current circling the continent. This creates a stable, very cold environment over East Antarctica. Predictions of the effects of climate change show that the Antarctic Peninsula will be at risk of significant ice loss and warming, as will isolated parts of East Antarctica.

Climate Change

36

Predicted change in ice coverage by 2050 (Blue indicates a net gain, red a net loss)

Predicted change in surface temperature by 2050 (Blue indicates a decrease, red an increase)

37

Geology

38

Antarcticas ice sheet contains roughly 26.5 million cubic kilometers of ice, and at some points is over 3800m deep. This amounts to around 24 million tonnes of weight pushing down on the antarctic continent. If the entire antarctic ice cap were to melt, the continent would experience a glacial isostatic adjustment. The crust has an elastic upheaval once the weight of the ice has been removed. After the initial elastic reaction, magma in the mantle beneath the crust will begin a slow viscous flow, further pushing the continent upwards.

This process takes tens of thousands of years to occur, and is currently occurring in parts of Northern Europe and North America. These regions are elevating due to relief from the last glaciation period. The upward movement in some areas, such as parts of Sweden and Finland, can be at a rate of almost 1cm per year. Is is expected for this process to take at least anoth-er 10,000 years to complete, with the resulting change in elevation potentially reaching an increase of several hundred meters.

NASAs operation ice bridge and the Bedmap 2 project sets out to model the antarctic conti-nent free of ice. In this scenario, parts of the continent would be under sea level. But we must consider the unprecedented glacial isostatic adjustment that would result from the loss of Antarcticas ice.

Continental Compression

39

Ice Sheet

Continental Crust

The process of elastic reaction from relief of continental compression from the ice cap.

40

Currently any kind of activity to do with mineral exploitation, such as surveying for oil, or drilling is banned my the 1991 Madrid Protocol. However, some scientists speculate that Antarctica may be incredibly resource rich. Even though mineral surveying is banned, and only 1% of the geology of the continent is exposed, there are signs of antimony, chromium, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, tin, uranium, zinc, cobalt, manganese, oil and coal and diamonds present in different areas. The theory of continental drift also suggests a mineral rich Antarctica.180 million years ago, South America, Africa and Australia were connected to Antarctica forming the super continent Gondwana. Resource rich areas within these continents may correspond to areas in the antarctic as well.

Despite the possibility of large mineral reserves in the antarctic, the biggest obstacle, along with legislation, is the extreme environment in which these minerals are found. Much of these reserves are found under ice caps kilometers thick. The oil reserves identified under the ocean off the continent are surrounded by extremely large icebergs that scour the sea floor to great depth, potentially damaging any sea floor installations.

The economic potential of Antarctica is a politically charged topic; many countries have been very vocal about thinly veiled attempts at mineral surveying in the past, but in this current climate, and with the Madrid protocol up for review in 2041, this will become an increasingly relevant issue.

Minerals in the Antarctic

41

Antarctica

Australia

India

Africa

South America

Gondwana, 180 million years ago

Antarctica Peninsula

Known mineral reserves

Projected mineral reserves

Projected mineral deposits from the configuration of super continent Gondwana

42

Cu, Te, Ti

U

Fe

Fe

Mb

Mn

Mb

Ni, Cr, Co

Au, Ag

Cu

CuZn, Pb, Coal

Oil

Currently identified mineral deposits in Antarctica

43

The icecap of Antarctica is constantly moving. As snow falls towards the center of the continent, gradually hardening and compressing to ice, the weight begins to push the ice beneath it outwards, towards the ocean. This results in a constantly shifting landscape, with some parts of the ice cap moving at speeds of up to 10 metres each year.

This process gives rise to the generation of crevasse fields, glaciers and the calving of icebergs once the ice reaches the coast. It is the strongest process influencing the physical environment of both the surface and sub-glacial environment of Antarctica.

Glacial Movement

44

-47

Dome Fuji3786 m

ENDERBY LAND

KEMP LAND

PRINCE CHARLES MOUNTAINSGlacial flow of the ice cap occurs towards the edge of the continent,

45

A glacial moraine in the Vestfold hills, Antarctica, 2012

46

Aerial photograph of glacial movement across the surface of Antarctica

47

Optical Phenomena

48

The aurora is caused by charged particles carried by solar wind being directed towards the magnetic poles by the earths magnetic field. These particles collide with oxygen and nitrogen atoms in our atmosphere, which release energy in the form of light, creating an aurora. 2013 was an unprecedented year for auroras due to high solar flare activity. The increased amount of charged particles heading towards earth due to a solar flare can overload the electronics on satellites orbiting the earth.

Antarctic skies are the clearest in the world, so scientists at Davis station take advantage and use a LIDAR (Light Detecting and Ranging instrument) to take measurements of different parts of our atmosphere by shining a very powerful laser into the sky and carefully measuring the back scatter.

The Aurora Australis

49

+

-

+

+

+

-

-

-React with Oxygen - Green and Red Light

React with Nitrogen- Green and Blue Light

Charged particlesMagnetic Field Line

Physics behind the aurora

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Aurora over Davis bay, 2011

51

Aurora at Davis station, 2012

52

Aurora time lapse, 25/02/2012, Davis Station

53

If one was to stand at sea level and stare across the ocean towards the horizon, they would see roughly 5 kilometers before the curvature of the earth hid the rest behind the horizon. This can vary for different locations, depending on the elevation and the topography of the area. But in Antarctica, the uniquely uniform topography of the ice cap greatly increases the distance to the horizon. This creates the illusion of an indeterminate, even infinite horizon.

If you combine this with other optical phenomena, such as ice fog (the rapid condensation of water over very cold surfaces) and the fata morgana, the edge of the horizon is all but impos-sible to determine, disappearing somewhere in the haze between white ice and blue sky. This makes visual navigation impossible on the Antarctic ice cap.

The Infinite Horizon

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Curvature of the Earth

Antarctic Ice Sheet

5 kilometres

8 + kilometres

Curvature of the Earth

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Photograph taken on the edge of the Antarctic ice cap, 2012

57

The Antarctic Treaty System

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The countries coloured in blue are nations that maintain bases in Antarctica. The darker the blue, the more involved the country is in Antarctic politics. The Antarctic treaty system, first instated in 1959, created a unique, unprecedented political situation on the continent.

Antarctic Politics

59

Hobart

Christchurch

Cape Town

Punta Arenas

Ushuaia

60

The Antarctic Treaty of 1959 froze all territorial claims on the antarctic continent. At the time, there were 7 nations with claims to territory in Antarctica. Australia claimed the largest proportion, with roughly 42% of the continent. The UK, Argentina and Chile have disputing claims in the Antarctic Peninsula region, while there is a significant amount of unclaimed territory over Marie Byrd Land in West Antarctica.

The treaty left this claims in a suspended state, where no nation can make a new claim while the treaty is in effect, while countries can nominate the right to claim in the future (the US and Russia reserve this right). But while the treaty is in effect, claims are not officially recognised and are not considered sovereign territory of the claimants.

Territorial Claims

61

Disputed Territories

Australian Claim

Australian Claim

French Claim

New Zealand Claim

Norwegian Claim

Unclaimed Territory

Chilean Claim

UK Claim

Argentinian Claim

62

Antarctic Treaty

1960 - Original signatories:United Kingdom, South Africa, Belgium, Japan, USA, Norway,

France, New Zealand and Russia

M a d r i d Protocol

Proposed in 1991, placed into effect in 1998. Open to review

in 2041.

1987-1991 Greenpeace protests against mineral exploitation in the Antarctic

Concerns for NUCLEAR WAR

UN resolution calls for equitable sharing of Antarctic mineral resources

Article 7: Any activity realting to mineral resources, other than scientific research, shall be prohibited.

Article 1: Antarctica to be used only for peaceful purposes, no military activity

Article 2: Protection of the freedom of scientific investigation

Article 7: No Military Activity on the continent

Article 5: No Nuclear detonation

Article 4: Territorial Claims

4.1 No prior claims to territory will be renounced4.2 Nations can reserve the right to claim territory4.3 No acts while the treaty is in place constitute a territorial claim

Australia and France refuse to sign, CRAMRA does not get ratified.

2041Madrid

Protocol due for review...

2001 - Russia sends a ship to the Antarctic to survey potential mineral

deposits

The Cold War

1957/58 - International Geophysical Year. Unprecedented international scientific co-operation

CRAMRA - Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activity, allows mineral prospecting


63

Antarctic Treaty

1960 - Original signatories:United Kingdom, South Africa, Belgium, Japan, USA, Norway,

France, New Zealand and Russia

M a d r i d Protocol

Proposed in 1991, placed into effect in 1998. Open to review

in 2041.

1987-1991 Greenpeace protests against mineral exploitation in the Antarctic

Concerns for NUCLEAR WAR

UN resolution calls for equitable sharing of Antarctic mineral resources

Article 7: Any activity realting to mineral resources, other than scientific research, shall be prohibited.

Article 1: Antarctica to be used only for peaceful purposes, no military activity

Article 2: Protection of the freedom of scientific investigation

Article 7: No Military Activity on the continent

Article 5: No Nuclear detonation

Article 4: Territorial Claims

4.1 No prior claims to territory will be renounced4.2 Nations can reserve the right to claim territory4.3 No acts while the treaty is in place constitute a territorial claim

Australia and France refuse to sign, CRAMRA does not get ratified.

2041Madrid

Protocol due for review...

2001 - Russia sends a ship to the Antarctic to survey potential mineral

deposits

The Cold War

1957/58 - International Geophysical Year. Unprecedented international scientific co-operation

CRAMRA - Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activity, allows mineral prospecting


65

The Madrid Protocol of 1991 was one of the most influential pieces of legislation that has shaped the way we interact with Antarctica today. While the Antarctic Treaty proclaimed the continent as a reserve for science, the Madrid protocol explicitly banned the mining of mineral resources to ensure the environment remained pristine.

This was set for a period of 50 years, and in 2041, when the Madrid Protocol is up for review, we have to make a decision about the future of the continent. It is forecast that by the year 2041, many natural resource reserves will be completely depleted in other parts of the world. There could be intense economic pressure to begin mining in Antarctica in 2041.

Political Time line

66

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002 UN backs the Antarctic Treatly System1998 The Madrid Protocol

comes into effect

1991 The Madrid Protocol, banning mineral exploitation in Antarctica is signed

1987 - 1991 Greenpeace protests in the Antarctic

1985 UN charter for equitable division of Antarctic mineral resources

1983 China and India sign the Antarctic Treaty

1972 Convention for the conservation of Antarctic Seals

1964 Measures of Flora & Fauna Act

1960 - 61 Antarctic Treaty is signed by Uk, South Africa, Belgium, Japan, USA, Norway, France, NZ, and Russia

1957-58 International Geophysical year

1988 CRAMRA convention is tabled

1990 Vostok ice drilling commences

2001 Russia sends a mineral surveying ship to Antarctica

1989 Australia and France refuse to sign CRAMRA

67

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002 UN backs the Antarctic Treatly System1998 The Madrid Protocol

comes into effect

1991 The Madrid Protocol, banning mineral exploitation in Antarctica is signed

1987 - 1991 Greenpeace protests in the Antarctic

1985 UN charter for equitable division of Antarctic mineral resources

1983 China and India sign the Antarctic Treaty

1972 Convention for the conservation of Antarctic Seals

1964 Measures of Flora & Fauna Act

1960 - 61 Antarctic Treaty is signed by Uk, South Africa, Belgium, Japan, USA, Norway, France, NZ, and Russia

1957-58 International Geophysical year

1988 CRAMRA convention is tabled

1990 Vostok ice drilling commences

2001 Russia sends a mineral surveying ship to Antarctica

1989 Australia and France refuse to sign CRAMRA

68

2010 2020 20302040

2050

2048 Platinum reserves expire

2046 Natural Gas reserves expire

2041 Madrid Protocol reviewed

2040 Nickel reserves expire

2038 Antimony reserves expire

2035 Copper reserves expire

2032 Tin, Uranium and Oil reserves expire

2029 Chromium reserves expire

2026 Hafnium reserves expire

2023 Gold, Sivler and Lead reserves expire

2021 Titanium reserves expire

2019 Zinc reserves expire

2014

2012 Russian drilling reaches Lake Vostok

69

2010 2020 20302040

2050

2048 Platinum reserves expire

2046 Natural Gas reserves expire

2041 Madrid Protocol reviewed

2040 Nickel reserves expire

2038 Antimony reserves expire

2035 Copper reserves expire

2032 Tin, Uranium and Oil reserves expire

2029 Chromium reserves expire

2026 Hafnium reserves expire

2023 Gold, Sivler and Lead reserves expire

2021 Titanium reserves expire

2019 Zinc reserves expire

2014

2012 Russian drilling reaches Lake Vostok

70

At current rates of consumption, much of the worlds mineral reserves will be depleted before the year 2041. The graphic opposite shows the countries which are a greatest producers of minerals in 2014. Perhaps is it no coincidence that each of these nations are heavily involved in Antarctic politics. Australia has the largest territorial claim, Chile has a disputed claim but several operating stations, Russia and the US reserve the right to claim territory, but still are the most active nations on the continent. India and China, as they continue to develop their homelands, are aggressively increasing their presence in Antarctica.

Mineral Consumption

71

[5000]

[5700]

CuAuFeZnUOil

CuAuFeZnUOil

CuAuFeZnUOil

is equivalent to 100,000 metric tonnes / 100,000 L oil production per year. Source: www.usgs.com

The worlds greatest mineral producers for copper, gold, iron, zinc, uranium and oil.

73

To allow mining in Antarctica while still maintaining a pristine environment, tunnels are carved out of the ice to reach valuable minerals. Not only will minerals need to be extracted, but there is a need for machinery, personnel and resources to be moved in and out of this sub glacial network.

An intra-glacial network

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Cargo Transport

Former Mine Site

Safety Chamber

Open Pit Mine

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FeTi

Ni

Co

Cu

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Mn

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AuDruzhnaya Mine Entrance

Casey Mine Entrance

Hailey Mine Entrance

Syowa Mine Entrance

McMurdo Mine Entrance

Druzhnaya Mine Entrance

Casey Mine Entrance


Syowa Mine Entrance



Casey Mine Entrance


Syowa Mine Entrance


Antarctica, Today Antarctica, 2045Construction of the rst subglacial mine begins at McMurdo StationMineral suveying reveals reserves of Platnium and Palladium under the ice cap in the Oates Land region of Antarcitca

Antarctica, 2052The McMurdo Subglacial Mine (MSM) extends to nearby platinum and palladium reserves.Signifcant surveying of geology beneath the ice sheet reveals signicant mineral reservesSubglacial mines begin constrcution at Casey station, Hailey Base, Syowa Station and Druzhnaya station.West Antarctica shows rst signs of geological destabilisation due to deglaciation

Antarctica, 2114MSM greatly expands scope, as does the Casey, Syowa, Hailey and Druzhnaya Mines. Mineral deposits in central east antarctica accurately mapped for the rst timeWest Antarctica is classied unsafe for mining operations due to continental instability.

Antarctica, 2164Subglacial mines greatly extend to reach some of the central east antarctic mineral reserves. Competition between Russians, Americans and Chinese for the access to Rare Earth Metals in Central and West Antarctica. Illegal mining operations in West Antarctica begin.

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Ag

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PdPt

PdPt

Mn

Au

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FeTi

Ni

Co

Cu

Cu

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Zn

Pb

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Mb

Fe

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Mn

Mn

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PbPb

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TiFe

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MbAu

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AuDruzhnaya Mine Entrance

Casey Mine Entrance


Syowa Mine Entrance



Casey Mine Entrance


Syowa Mine Entrance



Casey Mine Entrance


Syowa Mine Entrance


Antarctica, Today Antarctica, 2045Construction of the rst subglacial mine begins at McMurdo StationMineral suveying reveals reserves of Platnium and Palladium under the ice cap in the Oates Land region of Antarcitca

Antarctica, 2052The McMurdo Subglacial Mine (MSM) extends to nearby platinum and palladium reserves.Signifcant surveying of geology beneath the ice sheet reveals signicant mineral reservesSubglacial mines begin constrcution at Casey station, Hailey Base, Syowa Station and Druzhnaya station.West Antarctica shows rst signs of geological destabilisation due to deglaciation

Antarctica, 2114MSM greatly expands scope, as does the Casey, Syowa, Hailey and Druzhnaya Mines. Mineral deposits in central east antarctica accurately mapped for the rst timeWest Antarctica is classied unsafe for mining operations due to continental instability.

Antarctica, 2164Subglacial mines greatly extend to reach some of the central east antarctic mineral reserves. Competition between Russians, Americans and Chinese for the access to Rare Earth Metals in Central and West Antarctica. Illegal mining operations in West Antarctica begin.

As mineral reserves are discovered across the continent, mine networks are constructed to reach them. The further we carve into the ice caps, the more resources we locate under the surface. This leads to the formation of an extensive network threading its way under the ice. With different nations exploiting these minerals, there stands to be competition as the resources begin to run out.

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The first network aimed to synthesise the needs of the occupants, and the efficient extraction of resources, into a spatial configuration. The method of tunnel boring, basic mine operation and off continent transport were considered here. This system did not completely isolate itself from the pristine surface. While disruptions to the surface were minimal, they were noticeable and were removed in later iterations of design.

First Design

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Tunnel boring method. The ice is first treated with calcium chloride solution, which begins the melting process and weak-ens the ice. The second stage involves a tunnel borer removing solid ice to create a tunnel.

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The open pit mine, processing plant, living quarters and transport marshaling areas are placed close together, yet in separate ice cham-bers to ensure the control of pollutants. There is direct ventilation to the surface, approximately 1200m above.

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The only evidence of these mines on the ice cap are the entrances to the ventilation shafts, which are dotted around the surface.

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The port area is the only entrance and exit to the mine network. To best disguise the infrastructure here, an enormous framework is designed to collect the snow blown off the continent by katabatic winds, which compact into ice. Over time, an enormous hollow iceberg will form over the port. This concept was further explored through ice models.

82

To explore the way ice behaves as a structure, a framework was constructed based on the geometry of an iceberg. This was then covered in muslin cloth, soaked in water and placed in a freezer. The structure was sprayed with water every 2-3 hours for 5 days. The result drove the aesthetic for spaces inside the network.

Ice model

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Icebergs, having formed from a solid sheet of ice breaking apart, have a unique geometry. Here, this geometry is mapped as reference for the construction for the ice model framework.

84

The frame is made of boxboard offcuts, glued into a triangular geometry that follows the mapping of iceberg structures.

85

The frame is covered in muslin to give the ice crystals a greater surface to attach to.

86

Ice development after 3 days.

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Ice development after 5 days.

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Interior of the ice model.

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To investigate the most effective way of creating space within a glacier, experiments were con-ducted to ascertain which was the most effective way of melting ice. Initially, sodium chloride (NaCl) was applied to ice slabs and the effect recorded. This process was slow and ceased once the salt was sufficiently diluted. Further investigation of chemicals showed that calcium chloride (CaCl

2) was far more effective in both melting speed and longevity of reaction. This

substance was selected as the mode of melting to be used in the sub glacial network.

Melting Experiments

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Ice melting after applying 5g of calcium carbonate

91

Resin cast of calcium chloride melt channels

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Resin cast of calcium chloride melting into an ice block

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The next step in the design process was to fully understand the requirements of the system. The objective is to extract ore from the Antarctic continent without destroying the pristine nature above the ice. The relationship between process was explored by laying out how these interact with each other and what sort of flow on effect may occur.

System Diagrams

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Mine Transport

Living Quarters

Scrubbers

Crushers

Resfuse Pits

Ventilation

Surface

Drilling Station

Distribution Nodes

Filtration Centres

Submarine Port

Export

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The first iteration of mapping relationships within the system

Mine

Transport Marshalling

Living Quarters

Scrubbers

Crushers

Resfuse Pits

Ventilation Shafts

From Surface

Drilling Station

Distribution Nodes

Filtration Centres

Submarine Port

Marine Outflow

Off Continent

Ore Product

Personnel and Equipment

Air Supply

Pollutants, Soil and Waste

Clean Water

Contaminated Water

Calcium Chloride Salts

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Proposed Systems SchemaicSubglacial Mining System, Antarctica

2062

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Mine Transport

Living Quarters

Scrubbers

Crushers

Resfuse Pits

Ventilation

Surface

Drilling Station

Distribution Nodes

Filtration Centres

Submarine Port

Export

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Mine

Transport Marshalling

Living Quarters

Scrubbers

Crushers

Resfuse Pits

Ventilation Shafts

From Surface

Drilling Station

Distribution Nodes

Filtration Centres

Submarine Port

Marine Outflow

Off Continent

Ore Product

Personnel and Equipment

Air Supply

Pollutants, Soil and Waste

Clean Water

Contaminated Water

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Proposed Systems SchemaicSubglacial Mining System, Antarctica

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The second iteration of system analysis.

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After mapping out the relationships within systems, analysis moved to three dimensional visu-alisations of the system to gain a greater understand of how they system will operate in space. After several iterations and experiments with tunnel volumes, connections and formats, a spa-tial configuration was selected that reflected the process of calcium chloride melting used to create these spaces.

3D Visualisations

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3d visualisations of a mining system contained within the ice.

Mine

Living quarters

Processing

Refuse pits

Tunnel melting

Transport node

Off-continent transport

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Tunnel melting

Living quarters

Processing

Refuse pits

Mine

Transport node

Off-continent transport

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Alternative tunnel shapes and sizes

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Volume experiments

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Mine site (open pit mine) volume experiment

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3d visualisation of a mining system contained within the ice.

Living quarters Processing

Refuse pits

Mine

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Off continent transport facility

104

Further volume experiments, referencing experiments with calcium chloride

105

Once the basic spatial configuration of the node was determined, the processes explored in the systems diagrams are integrated into the space. Features such as mining, ore crushing, processing, waste management, air purification and living conditions were integrated by de-signing in section. This also gave scale to the structure.

Network Section

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Elaborated volume experiment, color coded for different functions

Air filtration

Water purification

Waste managementTransport

Living quarters

Processing

Mine access

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The first section drawing

108

Living quarters area

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Processing areas

110

Mine entrance

111

Water filtration and power generation

112

Waste management

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To give the drawing more depth and definition, it was decided to construct a thick 2D drawing.

This was achieved by layering several drawings over each other. This was done with 2mm clear

perspex, which not only gives an icy aesthetic, also allows for multiple layers of information to

be read at different depths. The previous section drawing was elaborated and edited in CAD

and Rhino. The images were hatched, etched and cut into layers of perspex, which were then

glued together an mounted in a frame. To highlight the details, strip led light were wired into the

base and directed through the perspex. The perspex refracts the light, picking up the details

in the model.

Thick 2D

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Processing area, layered

118

Living quarters area, layered

119

Mine entrance area, layered

120

Transports in section, layered

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The first two layers of perspex cuts

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Peeling the backing from some of the smaller details

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The panels are carefully cleaned and polished

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Checking for imperfections on the layers

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Gluing some of the finer details of the section

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Wiring up the circuit for the LED light strip

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Light traveling through the first few layers of perspex

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Final section model

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Processing detail of section

130

Transport detail of section

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Mine entrance detail of section

133

Section callouts

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The movement of equipment is achieved through the use of gantry cranes. These cranes are frozen into the ice and span across the main shaft. To transport large pieces of equipment, like this crusher, platforms are suspended from gantries. The most challenging aspect is loading and unloading the equipment. To assist with this process, spikes that are capable of heating up and securing themselves in the ice are used to stabilise the platform.

Transporting equipment

136

To melt a vertical shaft thought the ice, calcium chloride is used. A salt that is highly disruptive to ice crystal structure, calcium chloride can be deposited on the area where the shaft is to be constructed. As the ice melts, the water produced is removed by a heavy duty pump and transported away from the network node. By replenishing the calcium chloride and constantly removing the water, the shaft will continue to melt downwards acting under gravity.

Melting vertical shafts

138

The processed ore is moved from the network node to the tunnel system using heavy duty good lifts. From here, the containers of ore are transferred to snow cat trailers, and transport-ed through the network to the main submarine port. The conditions in the tunnel network are incredibly dangerous - toxic fumes and pollution from snow cats accumulate, making it essen-tial for workers to wear personal breathing apparatus.

Ore transport

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Snow cat rigs remove ore from the network, but return with essential provisions for the work-ers. These are stored in caverns melted adjacent to the goods lift, for easy storage. Insulated containers are moved into place using gantry cranes and stacked to maximise space efficiency. Food, communications equipment, mining gear, spare part and fuel are some of the provisions regularly supplied to the node. Due to the length of the journey to the node, it is impossible to transport fresh fruit an vegetables. The diet of the workers is supplemented by vegetables hydroponically grown in containers in the storage area.

Storage of provisions

142

Network nodes are constructed quickly, and out of cheap, easily accessible resources due to the short lifespan of the spaces. For accommodations, fiberglass shelters are used to provide basic insulation and shelter for workers. These are easily removed and reconstructed for re-use in other nodes in the future. The main living quarters houses the mess hall, the kitchens, food storage and a long area for social gathering of the workers. This is constructed from combining fiberglass panels from the smaller shelters to create a larger insulated shell around a steel frame structure.

Worker accommodations

144

Not all spaces in the node can be formed by melting a downward shaft. To create spaces for processing equipment, waste management operations and living spaces, hydraulic excavators are used to scrape away caverns in the ice. This is an ongoing process as operations in the node a constantly increasing. Working within the ice is extremely physically demanding, and workers need a specialised refuge from the sub-zero temperature working conditions.

Space making

146

One of the most challenging conditions to work in the node is the moisture from the constant melting processes. Processes of melting a freezing are constantly occurring around the node, with often destructive effects. Meltwater often infiltrates machinery, and if left to drop in tem-perature will damage vital components as the water freezes. To repair the machinery, the ice is removed my applying small amounts of calcium carbonate.

Machinery maintenance

148

Gantry cranes are vital to the operation of the network node. They are the first pieces of infra-structure to be installed, allowing the construction for the rest of the node. Gantries are uni-tised, and each piece is installed by first drilling holes in the ice. The gantry ends are placed into the holes, which are filled with water and allowed to freeze. Once the supports are connected, the centre piece is placed.

Gantry installation

150

Scrubber remove pollutants from the air within the node. Without these, the environment would quickly turn toxic. Filters need to be changed regularly to ensure efficient operation. The process of changing filters is dangerous; often scrubbers are located in hard to access parts of the node. Ice screws and cables are used to stabilise scaffolding used by workers to reach the suspended scrubbers.

Scrubber maintenance

153

Casting model

154

To properly represent the extensive network of tunnels under the ice, a scale model of the Sub glacial network was created by casting resin. Molds we made of clay, and coated in cling wrap for a clean removal, which had the added effect of providing an icy texture to the material. These casts were glues together, and suspended to create a three dimensional map of the sub glacial network throughout the ice cap.

Site Model

155

Tunnel molds are made in modeling clay

156

Cling wrap is gently teased into the molds, creating a barrier between the clay and the resin.

157

Clear casting resin is prepared by adding catalyst to form a 1% v/v solution

158

The prepared resin is poured into the tunnel casts, ensuring there is minimal spill over.

159

The resin is left in a dry place for 48 hours to ensure it has set sufficiently.

160

Once removed, the tunnel pieces are cut and glued together to form the tunnel network

161

Mining Machinery

162

Ore crushers are used to reduce the particle size of the extracted earth to assist in the separation of

the ore from the minerals. Mined ore will often go through many stages of crushing to ensure an opti-

mal grade for separation in the hydrocyclone. Larger particles of undesired material, known as slag, are

separated in this early process. Crushers can be fixed or mobile. In the sub glacial network, the crushers

have been made mobile to assist in the quick set up of network nodes.

Crushers

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16400

10120

7700

6030

2120

Transportable Ore Crusher

164

A staple piece of machinery in mining sites, hydraulic excavators can be put to many uses. This versatil-

ity is pushed to the limits in the sub glacial network, with excavators used for carving away ice to make

space for habitation, mineral movement, loading, deposition of calcium melting salts, and many more.

The extractors can be reduced in size and easily dismantled for transport through some of the smaller

tunnels in the network.

Hydraulic Excavators

165

11510

22740

11780

Hydraulic Extractor Zaxis200

166

Gantry cranes are used as the primary mode of transport of equipment and goods around the node site.

The triangular trusses of the cranes are unitized into 15 m spans for easy transport and installation.

Supports are drilled directly into the ice. A network of gantry cranes allows for the installation of most

other pieces of equipment, and removes the ore from the mine to the start of the processing system.

Gantry Cranes

167

15000

Gantry Crane

168

A smaller crane with a shorter span, these cranes are used in spaces too small or to awkward for

gantry cranes. They are secured into the ice using specialised thermal foundations. They are primarily

used to move product from one stage of the processing system to another, or to dispose of larger

pieces of refuse,

Loading Cranes

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3350

12500

Cumstomised Loading Crane SG56

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Scrubbers are heavy duty air filters, that are capable of removing dust, dirt, and pollutants. The product

removed from the air can be collected and disposed of in refuse pits. They are vital to the operation of

many underground mines, but are even more vital to the sub glacial network. Because of the lack of

ventilation in the site, the recycling of air is critical to the survival of the miners. Scrubbers are mounted

at the top of caverns in key positions to ensure the most effective filtration of air. However, in some

isolated parts of the network, the filtration is not sufficient and personal breathing apparatus is required.

Air Scrubbers

171

5980

Mine Air Scrubber

172

After the mined product has been crushed, and the first stage of the slag removed, the ore is run

through hydrocyclone, which uses water and centrifugal motion to separate the unwanted particles from

the particles of ore. This process uses much of the water produced from melting within the caverns.

The mined product goes through several iterations of separation to isolate a pure product ready for

packaging.

Hydrocyclones

173

570

2800

Hydrocyclone centrifugal sorting unit 303

174

Space is melted in the sub glacial network using calcium chloride, and the immense volumes of water

generated need to be handled within the site. Desalination units are used to remove the calcium chlo-

ride from the meltwater for reuse in creating more spaces and in other network nodes. Some of the

desalinated water is piped back into the system within the node, for use in hydrocyclones, coolant for

machinery, consumption and freezing of waste.

Desalination Units

175

.

.

15600

3900

Localised Micro-Desalination Unit

176

One of the biggest challenges in a sub glacial network node is moving large volumes of meltwater.

Large pumps are continually operating, creating a deafening noise throughout the space. These pumps

are positioned to remove water from the mine, from areas where melting is occurring, and to pump

desalinate water back into refuse pits to seal in waste.

Water Pumps

177

2050 6540

8820

High Volume Heavy Duty Water Pump

178

On site electricity generation is essential for the sub glacial network nodes. Diesel generators are the

most economical and transportable option. Easily maintained, and durable, the major drawback of using

these machines is the pollution created. To counter this, air scrubbers are installed next to the exhaust

outflows to ensure the most efficient filtration of air.

Generators

179

9450 3500

13800

12V Diesel Power Generator

180

Transformers are essential for the operation of the diverse array of machinery operating with in the

network node. They convert the 12V current from the generators to 240V for use in the living quarters,

and a variety of other voltages depending on the machinery being used.

Transformers

181

3975

14360

Heavy Duty Power Transformer

182

Hagglunds transports are Swedish-made vehicles specially adapted for use in icy conditions. Designed

with a towing capacity of 2 tonnes, Hagglunds are uses primarily for the transport of personnel. The

operational range is 250km, which means the Hagglunds needs to stop a fuel stations throughout the

network as it makes its way to the most distant nodes.

Hagglunds Transport

183

8010 7680

16010

Hagglunds BV206 Arctic Class

184

Snow cat vehicles are specialised for use in low temperature icy environments. The snow cat rig as

the primary transport vehicle for machinery and ore product through the sub glacial cavern network.

Diesel engines produce toxic quantities of carbon monoxide in the cavern network, and due to the lack of

scrubbers throughout the network, this makes the tunnels uninhabitable for humans.

Snowcat Rig

185

18830

9200 9330

Cumstomised Snowcat Rig IT44

186

Colloquially known as Apples and Melons (if expanded) these are used as emergency shelters on the

surface of Antarctica. They are made of fiberglass and spray on insulation, making them incredibly easy

to assemble and transport. These form the majority of housing in network nodes. The fiberglass panels

can be cumstomised and assembled into a larger structure, which forms the main living quarters of

the node, where workers eat, gather and socialise. These cabins are secured into the ice using thermal

foundations, that can be later heated for quick and easy removal from the ice, to be transported to an-

other node under construction.

Igloo Satellite Cabins

187

6700

Basic Igloo Satellite Cabin Apple

188

Expanded Igloo Satellite Cabin Melon

189

10700

4000

190

Appendix

191

Included here are some of the images used as reference for textures, atmosphere, spatial

organisation and aesthetics for the network node drawings. Unreferenced images indicate

personal photos.

Reference images

192

Melon survival shelter, Trajer ridge, 2012

193

Davis station after snowstorm, 2012

194

Apple and Melon survival shelters, near Ellis narrows, 2012

196 Bat river cave system, (source: www.cavepreserve.com)

198

Glacial ice cave (source: www.nps.gov)

199

Each Antarctic voyage has a specific commemorative patch. These are collected and treasured by expeditioners. This tradition is continued into future expeditions to the continent, both above and below the surface. The patch designed features both an Orca, symbolic of pristine environment the sub glacial network is designed to protect. The submarine signifies the mode of transport by which workers arrive to the net-work.

Commemorative Patch

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intraglacial

Documents

weather monitoring station

antarctic continent

antarctic program

antarctic ice cap

largest antarctic operations

soviet antarctic expedition

ice caps

temporary stations