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Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 1
Interviews as method of data collection used in
qualitative research
Cassino, 13th May 2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD
INEFC Lleida
Intensive Program
Developing Citizenship
for Active Cities in Europe (DC4ACE)
Content
I. Introduction
II. Types of research interview
III. Training of the interviewer
IV. Practical issues before doing the interview
V. Carrying out an interview
VI. After the interview
VII. Ethical issues
VIII. Some examples
IX. Summarising. Key points
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 2
What possibilities for doing research do you see in this
picture?
Quantitative vs Qualitative research
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 3
Most qualitative approaches have:
A focus on natural settings
An interest in meanings, perspectives and understandings
An emphasis on process
Observation (participant, non-participant): field notes, reflexive journals. Interviews (semi-structured, unstructured) Documentary analysis
The main methods employed in qualitative research:
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 4
Observation Interviews (semi-structured, unstructured) Documentary analysis
The main methods employed in qualitative research:
Purpose of the qualitative research interview
• To describe and know the meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects. (Kvale,1996)
• Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. (McNamara,1999)
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 5
Some characteristics of qualitative research interviews
• A far more personal form of research than
questionnaires.
• The interviewer works directly with the respondent.
• The interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.
• They are time consuming.
• The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and he/she has to be well trained in how to respond to any problems .
Types of research interviews I
Unstructured
Semi-structured
Qualitative data
Quantitative data Structured
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 6
Types of research interviews II : Unstructured interviews
Do not reflect any reconceived theories or ideas and are performed with little or no organisation.
May simply start with an opening question and then progress upon the initial response.
Very time-consuming and can be difficult to manage, and to participate in.
Types of research interviews III: Semi-structured interviews
A key feature is in the partial pre-planning of the questions.
Still allow for replication of the interviews with others, but are less controlled.
A lot of qualitative research uses semi-structured material.
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 7
Training of the interviewer I
Training is crucial to control the quality of the result.
Organize and rehearse!
Training of the interviewer II
Describe the entire study.
Interviewer needs to know the many ways that they can inadvertently bias the results.
Understand why it is important that they not bias the study.
Take into account practical issues before doing the interview
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 8
Practical issues before doing the interview
Before the interview....
Familiar with the interviewee’s setting
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 9
Before the interview…
Good tape recorder and microphone
Before the interview...
Choose a quite and private place
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 10
Before the interview…
Prepare yourself and rehearse!
Criteria of a qualified interviewer
(Kvale, 1996)
Carrying out an interview
1. Introducing the research
2. Starting the interview
3. Developing rapport
4. During the interview. Some tips
5. Kind of questions
6. Questions to avoid
7. Types of topics
8. Ending the interview
9. After the interview
10. Ethical issues
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 11
1. Introducing the research
1. Introducing the research
Choose a setting with the least distraction. Explain : • The purpose of the interview • Why the participant has been chosen • The expected duration of the interview • Explain the format of the interview
Address terms of confidentiality: • Use the information sheet • Explanation of how the information is confidential • The use of notes or tape recorder, written or
documented oral .
Provide contact information of the interviewer. Allow interviewee to clarify any doubts about the
interview. Prepare a method for recording data, e.g., take
notes, tape recorder…
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 12
2. Starting the interview
2. Starting the interview I
Gradually, unhurried, relaxing…using open-ended questions. Warm-up.
Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.
Although you should have some pre-planned questions, you must also allow questions to flow naturally, based on information provided by the respondent.
Do not insist upon asking specific questions in a specific order.
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 13
3. Developing rapport
3. Developing rapport
Be aware of the situation and culture of the respondent
Be polite
Don’t judge
Trust and respect
Safe and comfortable environment
(Silverman, 2006)
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 14
4. During the interview. Some tips
4. During the interview. Some tips I
Appear interested in what he/she is saying.
Avoid “yes/no” and leading questions.
Before asking about controversial matters or opinion, first ask about some facts.
Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future.
The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 15
4. During the interview. Some tips II
Ask one question at a time.
Attempt to remain as neutral as possible.
Encourage responses.
Be careful about the appearance when note taking.
Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
Don’t lose control of the interview.
Lead the interview
4. During the interview. Some tips III
Use probing questions as:
Would you give an example?
Can you elaborate on that idea?
Would you explain that further?
I’m not sure I understand what you are saying…
Is there anything else?
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 16
4. During the interview. Some tips IV
Try to interpret what you are
hearing, and seek clarity and a deeper understanding from the respondent.
Remain conversational but remember your role is primarily a listener.
There should be smooth transitions from one topic to the next.
Do not force or push the pace unnecessarily, or ‘put words into the participant’s mouth’.
5. Kind of questions
KIND OF
QUESTIONS
INTRODUCING
QUESTIONS
FOLLOW-UP
QUESTIONS PROBING
QUESTIONS
SPECIFYING
QUESTIONS
DIRECT
QUESTIONS
INDIRECT
QUESTIONS
SILENCE
INTERPRETING
QUESTIONS
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 17
6. Questions to avoid
Biased questions.
Double-barrelled questions.
Questions that do not directly relate to what you want to find out.
Confusing or complicated questions.
7. Types of topics in questions
ASKING
ABOUT
VALUES
AND
BELIEFS
BEHAVIOUR
EMOTIONS
FEELINGS
SENSORY RELATIONSHIPS
KNOWLEDGE
DEMOGRAFICS
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 18
7. Types of topics in questions
Behaviors -what a person has done or is doing.
Opinions/values -what a person thinks about the topic.
Feelings -what a person feels rather than what a person thinks.
Knowledge -to get facts about the topic.
Sensory -what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled.
Background/demographics -standard background questions, such as age, education, etc.
8. Ending the interview
Finish on time if possible, but try to make sure everything has been covered sufficiently.
Arrange with the participant when you will review the transcript material.
Thank the participant for their valuable time.
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 19
9. After the interview
Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.
Make any notes on your written notes.
Write down any observations made during the interview
10. Ethical issues
Bloom and Crabtree (2006) consider four ethical issues related to the interview process:
1. Reducing the risk of unanticipated harm;
2. Protecting the interviewee’s information;
3. Effectively informing interviewees about the nature of the study
4. Reducing the risk of exploitation.
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 20
Interview schedule/guide
The “shopping list” in unstructured interviews (adapted from Gibbs, 2011):
1. Decide on research topic
2. Create a list of research questions.
3. Generate list of issues that people can talk about that relate to these questions*
4. Put topics in logical order and like topics together.
5. Use comprehensive language
6. Avoid leading questions
*An example of list of themes
For city Council staff respondents:
- Respondents’ training and role in council.
- How their Council work with community groups.
- Barriers to meeting community concerns related to active transportation.
- Effective strategies and ideas for how the health sector can get involve in advocacy of active transportation.
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 21
For ciclying advocates:
About their advocacy group
Motivations for involvement
How their groups work with council
Barriers for council in meeting their request
Ideas for how the health sector could get involved in advocacy
*An example of list of themes
Some examples
A bad and a good interview. Following Gibbs’s (2011) advises and Kvale’s list of qualification criteria.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9t-_hYjAKww
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 22
Kvale’s list of qualification criteria of an interviewer (Kvale, 1996)
Knowledgeable: is thoroughly familiar with the
focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.
Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.
Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.
Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.
Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.
Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.
Steering: knows what he/she wants to find out.
Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said, for example, dealing with inconsistencies in interviewees’ replies.
Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said.
Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees’ statements, but without imposing meaning on them.
Balanced: does not talk too much, which may make the interviewee passive, and does not talk too little, which may result in the interviewee feeling he or she is not talking along the right lines.
Ethically sensitive: is sensitive to the ethical dimension of interviewing, ensuring the interviewee appreciates what the research is about, its purposes, and that his or her answers will be treated confidentially
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9t-_hYjAKww
Kvale’s list of qualification criteria of an interviewer
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 23
Summarising. Key points
Interviewing in qualitative research is typically of the unstructured or semistructured kind.
Qualitative interviewing is meant to be flexible and to seek out the world views of research participants.
If an interview guide is employed, it should not be too structured in its application and should allow some flexibility in the asking of questions.
The qualitative interview should be tape-recorded and then transcribed.
As with ethnographic research, investigations using qualitative interviews tend not to employ random sampling to select participants.
References
• Campion, M.A., Campion, J.E., & Hudson, J.P., Jr. (1994) “Structured Interviewing: A Note on Incremental Validty and Alternative Question Types”,Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 998-1002.
• Dicicco-Bloom B, Crabtree BF. (2006) The qualitative research interview. Med Educ. 40(4):314-21.
• Foddy, Willam (1993). Constructing Questions for Interviews, Cambridge University Press.
• Gill, P, Stewart, K, Treasure, E and Chadwick, B (2008) Methods of data collection
• in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British dental journal, volume 204 no. 6 .
• Groat, L & Wang, D (1996). Architectural Research Methods, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Kvale, S. (1996) Interviews An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing, Sage Publications
• McNamara, C. (1999) General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews, Minnesota.
• Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction, 3rd Edition. London: Sage.
Intensive Program DC4AC. Cassino,
13rd May 2014
14/05/2014
Prof. Eloisa Lorente-Catalán, PhD 24
THANKS FOR
YOUR ATTENTION