interviewing techniques for research by jayadeva de silva

Jayadeva de Silva (Humantalents International)

Interviewing Techniques for ResearchJayadeva de Silva .M.Sc, FIPM, FITD

On the surface, an interview simply consists of two people talking together about some topic which is of interest to them both. There are, in fact, a number of important differences between interviewing someone and having a normal conversation with them as the following set of comparisons make clear.

A conversation generally lacks an explicitly mentioned purpose. A conversation generally lacks an explicitly mentioned purpose. An interview always has an explicitly mentioned purpose. There are unspoken rules that you should avoid repeating yourself.An interview always has an explicitly mentioned purpose.

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Repetition of questions enables one to check that the information is reliable and can reveal new information.

In a conversation both participants can ask questions. In an interview questioning is largely restricted to the interviewer. Both interest and ignorance are likely to be expressed only by the interviewer. Interviewing requires that all implicit knowledge from a respondent is brought out into the open and made explicit. Answers should always be as detailed as possible.

Interviews differ in the extent to which they are structured. At one end of the continuum is the most structured form of interview, in which the questioning process is tightly organised: at the other is the wholly unstructured form.Research students are expected to have a sound knowledge of the following

Types of interview:StructuredSemi-structuredUnstructuredOne-to-one interviewsConversational interviewsSmall-group interviews (focus groups)E-mail and telephone interviews

Structured InterviewStructured interviews consist of the interviewer asking each respondent the same questions with the same precise wording and sequence of questions. The precise form and direction of the questioning is determined in advance of the interview. No interpretation of meaning should be offered, No deviation from the order of questions on the interview schedule,No further probing of answers should be made.Deviation from the schedule throws doubt upon the reliability of the investigation.

Structured interviews are the nearest type of interview to a questionnaire, in its most extreme form, it would consist simply of an interviewer reading through a prepared list of questions, and writing down the respondent's answers. The questions may even be phrased in such a way that a limited range of responses can be elicited.

For example: Do you think that health services in this area are excellent, good, average or poor?

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In these cases answers may be coded and subjected to quantitative analysis. Structured interviews are generally quicker to do but they reveal considerably less data than unstructured interviews.

Structure Interviews are used:If the direction of your inquiry is perfectly clear from the outsetIf you only need obtain answers to a set of questions which you can formulate in advanceUsually used in large scale interview-based surveys, e.g. market research

Structured Interviews – Conditions for UsageIt is much harder for the interview to be deflected from the topic in hand.Speedy administration, it provides a relatively quick and easy way of obtaining datais economical with the interviewer's time. Respondents may feel more ready to participate given low time/effort commitmentInterviewers need not have all the skills and experience required for unstructured procedures as there is no need to try to think of the next question to ask. Interviews can be replicated. Data is more objectively verifiable. Results can be reviewed (compared and analysed) by other researchers. Results are more generalisable. and there is reduction of interpersonal bias factors.

Disadvantages and Limitations of structured InterviewParticipant limited to a structured response.Data obtained can be trivialNarrow range and quality of information gathered, respondents cannot express complexities and subtleties of an issue.Interviewer is prevented from following any new directions for the inquiryDoes not engage participant on a personal level and therefore may feel more like an interrogation than an interviewSocial desirability bias - Most people want to present a favourable impression of themselves to other people, and this may lead them to distort their answers to personal questions.

Unstructured InterviewsUnstructured interviews have very little structure at all. The interviewer goes into the interview with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics in great detail, sometimes as few as one or two. The respondent takes over more of the direction of the interviewThere is no set wording to questions and the researcher may explain the question quite fully. The interviewer decides what questions to ask

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from moment to moment and frames the questions on the basis of the information volunteered by the informant.

The interview might begin with the interviewer saying: I'd like to hear your views on

_________& when the flow of ideas in answer to that first question comes to an end the researcher may ask further questions to obtain clarification of some points

Relatively natural conversation here produces:Richer, fuller more genuine, more realistic information on interviewee's own terms;enables capture of respondent's construction or unique perspective (interviewees can talk in their own terms)Not constrained by fixed-answer questions which produce rather narrow information.Interview questions can be adapted to context, interviewee's style and thoughts, and the general flow of answers.Interviewer is allowing the respondent's answers to influence the questioning process.Much more flexible approach to interviewingRelaxed, more informed and involved respondent.

Disadvantages and Limitations of Unstructured Interviews – Not standardized. differences in procedure could make data comparison less fair and reliable. Difficulties in analysis of wide variety of qualitative information.May not be generalisable, and are not amenable to statistical analysis to test hypothesesAre costly in time, both for participants and researcher, and therefore may have to be limited in number undertaken during a study;Interviewers may lack some of the skills necessary to conduct interviews successfully - Should be able to make an interview seem natural, be sensitive to non-verbal cues, and they have well-developed listening skills.May be subject to biases (invalidity and unreliability), both because participants may not tell the truth or may hide aspects of their experiences, and because the interviewer may have an unintended influence on what participants say.

Semi-structured interviews:Combine the advantages of structured and unstructured interviews and still follow the same order of presentation and the same wording for the main questions in the interview schedule.

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Allow the interviewer the freedom to elaborate on the original response or to follow a line of inquiry introduced by the interviewee.

An example would be:Interviewer: “Has changes in Company policy changed your work?Interviewee: Absolutely! The workload has increased for a start.Interviewer: In what way has it increased?

Different kinds of questions can be used to expand answers and to discuss some topics in more detail

Descriptive questions:Prompt the respondent to give a general account of ‘what happened’ or ‘what it feels like to....’ anecdotes, life histories etc.

Structural questions:Prompt respondent to identify structures and meanings to use to make sense of the world (e.g. what does it mean to your life to suffer from AIDS?)

Contrast questions:Allows the respondent to make comparisons between events and experiences (e.g. Did you prefer being in that company or the other?)

Evaluative questions:Are about the respondent’s feelings about someone or something. (E.g. did you feel afraid when the HIV test was taken?)

Semi structured interviews tend to work well when the interviewer has already identified a number of aspects he wants to be sure of addressing. The interviewer can decide in advance what areas to cover but is open and receptive to unexpected information from the interviewee. This can be particularly important if a limited time is available for each interview and the interviewer wants to be sure that the key issues will be covered.

Semi-structured Interviews – Conditions for UsageThe semi-structured interview has the advantages of the structural approach (the form and direction of the questioning is determined in advance), but more flexibility in the interview allows the interviewer to select aspects of the discourse to follow up.

Richer and thicker data is obtained by semi-structured interviewsExplanations of wording can be offered when required.

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Allows for analysis in a variety of ways because it is compatible with many methods of data analysis Easier to arrange than other forms of data collection (fewer logistical difficulties to arrange a series of semi-structured interviews with a small number of participants)

Disadvantages and Limitations of Semi-structured Interviews The advantages of the semi-structured interview are finely balanced against disadvantages of weak reliability.Still places limits on what is asked and expected of the researchers.Still not fully conversational and therefore might only be appropriate in market research rather then trying to glean information about a personal or traumatic event.Data analysis is time consuming

One-to-One InterviewsThis is the most common method of interview. An interview conducted by one person to another. The interviewer will sit down with the participant and try and build a relationship through the course of the interview. This addresses the concerns of focus group situations.In general, one-to-one interviews allow a relationship to be built between interviewer and participant. This permits the interviewer to establish a good rapport with the respondent.

This may allow:The interviewer to collect richer data.Participants to divulge personal information.Richer data as only one person is responding.Recording and transcription of data, however, is usually relatively straightforward.

One-to-One Interviews – LimitationsIf a rapport cannot be established, then the quality of data will be severely diminished.Difficult to conduct well - Good interviewers are able to make an interview seem natural, they are sensitive to non-verbal cues, and they have well-developed listening skills.Researcher has to keep their subjectivity in check or report/reflect on it accuratelyThese can be time consuming and expensive.

Conversational InterviewsA conversational interview takes the form of a discussion (no predetermined set of questions). It is loosely guided by the interviewer but also allows the participant free range in the general direction that the conversation takes.

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Gives maximum flexibility to be able to pursue questioning in whatever direction appears to be appropriate.The participant is encouraged to do most of the talking.This interview style is chosen by the interviewer mainly because they can get more information from people because they tend to be more honest and open because it is a relaxed atmosphere.Requires an interviewer knowledgeable and experienced in the content area and strong in interpersonal skills, since he or she will have considerable discretion in directing the interview.Can be used in a wide range of settings, but often used in humanistic based therapy interviews.

Conversational Interviews – StrengthsConversational interview is highly individualized and relevant to the individual.Conversational interviews are useful in that they are a more natural way of gaining data from participants and have a greater ecological validity than more formal interviews.Likely to produce information or insights that the interviewer could not have anticipated.

Conversational Interviews – LimitationsNot standardized.Since different information is collected from different people, they do tend to present more material that may not be relevant to the researchers’ aims. This kind of interview is not systematic or comprehensive, and it can be very difficult and time-consuming to analyse the dataParticipant can take control of the interview if the researcher does not have proper training or experience.Candidates may also question ethics of the conversational approach.

Small (Focus) Group InterviewsSmall group interviews usually involve a limited number of participants in one session and are often focused upon a topic.

Focus groups can be:homogenous (share features) or heterogeneous (are different)pre-existing (friends or colleagues) or newFocus groups are further characterized by the presence of a moderator and the use of a discussion guide.The moderator should stimulate discussion among group members – encouraged participants to express views on each topic as well / respond the other participants.

Small (Focus) Group Interviews – Characteristics

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The recommended size of a group is of 6 – 10 people.Smaller than this limits the amount of information gained.More than this makes it difficult for everyone to participate.Several focus groups should be run in any research project. It would be wrong to rely on the views of just one group.The members of each focus group should have something in common, characteristics important to the topic of investigation.Focus groups are usually specially pre formed groups.Qualitative information (feelings, perceptions and opinions).The researchers require a range of skills: groups skills in facilitating and moderating, listening, observing and analysing.

Small (Focus) Group Interviews – Conditions for UsageSmall Group Interviews can be useful when:The research aim is to produce data from several people who are often together in a common situation or task.It is possible to identify a number of individuals who share a common factorLimited resources prevent more than a small number of interviews being undertaken.Triangulation is desired in focus groups due to the large size of the groups, usually ranging from 6-10. Since such interviews are in large groups, observation of the participants could be helpful in understanding and evaluating his or her actions and replies

Small (Focus) Group Interviews – AdvantagesSmall group interviews can encourage more openness and more free and complex information when respondents stimulate ideas from each other.Relatively quick and convenient method to collect data from several individuals simultaneouslyResearcher can ask for clarificationProvides a setting that is natural, so it can be argued that it has higher ecological validity than the one-to-one interview.High face validity

Small (Focus) Group Interviews – LimitationsThe group may be subject to factors which will limit the insight gained.The members may be reluctant to participate or not interact well with each otherthe presence of others may inhibit some individuals.A mood of “keeping your mouths shut” may infect some groups.Recorded group interviews for groups are not easy – data collection and analysis is time consuming.

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Pre existing purpose of the group can lead to the group having a particular bias which limits their potential for providing information.Not appropriate for all research questions, e.g. – sensitive matters

E-mail and Telephone Interviews

Email interviewsE mail interviews may be used when conducting an interview in person, or contacting via telephone, is inappropriate due to location, schedule conflict, or different time zones.

Telephone interview:Interviewers make phone calls to contact people

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interviewing techniques for research by jayadeva de silva

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