international style bridge or disaster 070301 publications... · 2007. 3. 1. · the term...

Journal of Environmental Technology 1(2) 2002 102 - 114

1.0 IntroductionThe term ‘International Style’ was coined

to denote the modern style in architecture. It firstcame into existence in Central Europe in the1920s and had its classical period in the 1930sand the late 1940s. This impersonal style suitedthe development of the early 20th century. Cubesand groups of cubes were very characteristic ofthe 1930s. This uniform style spread fastbecause of easy travelling, and the well illustratedcheap printing and technical press. The years1930-50 witnessed a spectacular change froma style of pioneer countries to a style succeedingwith works all over the world. In Nigeria it startedin the 1930s and became popular in the 1950sand the 1960s.

The International Style was able toinfluence Nigerian architecture mainly throughthe change from personal to impersonal client.In the case of high-rise buildings, governmentparastatals, firms and universities were suitedto this impersonal and universal style. Initiallybuildings in this tradition were designed on purelyfunctional lines. This was however misused andled to monotonous architecture particularlyrecognisable in low-cost housing schemes inNigeria. The belief that form would follow of itsown accord often led to low aesthetic value ofthe buildings. Architects eventually realised that

it is not enough to design efficiently functioningbuildings and precisely calculated structures butthat special attention should also be paid to formand elevation.

This presentation is not about progressby genuine transformations of tradition but rathera story of a style imposed on cultural tradition bythe desire for modernity. The International Styleis not the only existing style but it is a dominatingstyle represented by about thirty percent ofbuildings in Nigeria (Prucnal-Ogunsote, 1993).

2.0 Brief History of the InternationalStyle in NigeriaIn Nigeria motifs of the modern move-

ment such as the flat roof or clean forms becamepopular by the late 1930s. The first modernhouses were built in Ikoyi, Lagos even beforethe Second World War. Among the first modernhouses in Lagos can be found Godwin andHopwood Building (1958) and ArchitectureHouse (1958) by Olumuyiwa and Associates.However the most prestigious were the first tallbuildings including National House, Co-op Bank,Independence House (1960) and the 17 storeyWestern House (1960). See Figure 1.

This style was able to satisfy the Nigerianconsumer in one important way. It was basically

The International Style in Nigeria:Technological and Cultural Bridge - or Disaster?

B. Prucnal-Ogunsote Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure

AbstractThis paper critically assesses contemporary modern Nigerian architecture, and in particular

the International Style. It presents the International Style as a style dominating the urban landscapein Nigeria. This is a style with its history reaching pre-independence time and its peak-period in theseventies and early eighties. This impersonal style has its own distinct characteristics. It is bestrepresented by buildings with simple geometrical forms often with exposed parapet walls, with thefree plan as a preferred option. It uses the flat roof and curtain walls. The buildings are devoid ofdecorations. They have little regard for Nigerian culture or climate. Its trends are: High-Trop, PureModern and Low Trop. The style has both the positive and the negative impact on the environment.Despite the positive fact of producing remarkable landmarks in Nigeria the paper concludes thatimported technologies in the long run do not promote the progress of the indigenous building sector.This exclusive architecture is for the wealthy while the masses are left in poor conditions.

B. Prucnal-Ogunsote / Journal of Environ. Tech. 1(2) 2002 102 - 114 103

used as a symbol of progress. The buildings withasymmetrical composition, absence of mouldingsand large windows often in horizontal bandsbecame a part of the architectural landscape. Itwas immediately after the end of the civil warthat many of the famous indigenous practicesgot registered. These include Archcon Nigeria,

Egbor and Associates, Ella Waziri Associatesand Niger Consultants – all established in 1970.Others are Deji Oyenuga and Partners (1975),Mcanto Madubuko Associates and Towry-CokerAssociates – both established in 1976. The ‘OilBoom’ in the late seventies had indisputableinfluence on developments in Nigerian archi-tecture. At that time the competition and the racefor modernity was at its peak. The buildingindustry depended a lot on imported buildingmaterials and finishes. Buildings from that periodinclude Murtala Mohammed International Airportand National Arts Theatre, Iganmu, Lagos. SeeFigure 2.

The foreign influence was strong becausethe manpower was not sufficient in Nigeria andbecause there were many foreign architects. Ina few instances, the designs were sent abroad.It was then justified economically but nowstrongly criticised. From the mid-1980s theeconomy has been very poor. Architects had tocut down the cost of buildings and simplicity of

Figure 1: Independence House, Lagos, by Federal Ministry of Works, 1960 (left) and Western House,Lagos, by Nickson and Borys, 1960 (right). Source: Postcard by SANANDA.

Figure 2: National Arts Theatre, Iganmu, Lagosby Techno-Export. Source: Author’s sketch.

104 B. Prucnal-Ogunsote / Journal of Environ. Tech. 1(2) 2002 102 - 114

buildings was maintained due to the costconstraints.

3.0 Characteristics of the InternationalStyle in NigeriaThe International Style in Nigeria is

categorised as High-Trop, Pure Modern and Low-Trop trends (Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2001a). They allhave common characteristics. The trendsrepresent buildings that can be constructedanywhere in the world, often with disregard toclimate and social conditions.

High–Trop represents buildings usinghigh technologies, reflective glass and centralair-conditioning. They are usually tall buildingsoften designed as glass boxes or very elegantstructures and extremely expensive. Thebuildings here depend on imported technologies.

Pure Modern is mainly the architecturecreated by architects of the older generation whowere trained in modern ideas. Their architectureoften represents an idealistic approach.

Figure 3: Bookshop at University of Ibadan,Ibadan, by Design Group Nigeria, 1960s. Source:Author’s sketch.

Figure 4: Niger House and C.S.S. Bookshop, Lagos by Godwin Hopwood. Source: Postcard byJolufeso Pictures.


Low-Trop represents housing for the low-income group with lack of good aesthetic andlow standard of living. It is presented not as ahelpless situation but rather as the mostchallenging area for architects. The majorcharacteristics of the International Style in Nigeriaare examined below.

3.1 Free planIn this style there is a tendency to use

the free plan as in IMB Building and BrokingHouse. Also in the Mobil Building there are bigopen spaces for the offices. The load bearingpillars permit any arrangement of the partitionwalls but generally the internal arrangements arevery simple. They explore the ideas of simplicityand functionality.

3.2 Use of pure geometrical formsThe buildings are characterised by

monotonous cubic general shapes. Examplesare Bookshop at University of Ibadan (Figure 3);National Oil and Chemical Marketing CompanyBuilding (Eagle House) and C.S.S. BookshopHouse (Figure 4).

Figure 5: IBRU Building, Apapa, Lagos, by Femi Majekodunmi Associates. Source: Femi MajekodunmiAssociates Brochure.

Figure 6: Kashim Ibrahim Library at ABU in Zariaby Egbor and Associates. Source: Author’s sketch.


and also most of the time propose a flat roof.Technically a flat roof is a bad solution oftenresulting in leakages. Similarly problematic arethe internal gutters that often develop leakages.This combined with the poor maintenance cultureled often to crisis situations.

To close the composition a parapet wallwas used in the National Oil and ChemicalMarketing Company Building (Eagle House), inthe Benue State Secretariat, Cabinet Office andin the Bookshop at University of Ibadan. In theeighties architects still maintained the cube-likeshape of a building but sometimes had thecourage to add a roof. Chellarams Building inLagos has a small pyramid as a roof while theparapet wall is also more stylish (Figure 7).1

3.4 Curtain wallsThe new approach of making the eleva-

tion independent of the structure of the buildingwas frequently exhibited by the use of curtainwalls as in IMB Building (Figure 8) or Broking

Figure 7: K. Chellarams Building, Marina, Lagosby James Cubitt & Partners. Source: Author’ssketch.

Figure 8: IMB (International Merchant Bank),Victoria Island, Lagos by Inchscape Architects,1985. Source: Author’s sketch.

Figure 9: First Bank Headquarters, Marina,Lagos by Ronald Ward & Associates, 1982/83.Source: Author’s sketch.

There are also instances where thebuilding form consists of combinations ofpolygonal shapes like in Broking House or IBRUBuilding (Figure 5). Most often the plan is simpleand consists of a single square or rectangle oftenwith a projected entrance as in Kashim IbrahimLibrary (Figure 6), Faculty of Health Sciences atObafemi Awolowo University in Ife or Manage-ment House in Lagos. Sometimes it is a simplesemi-cylinder with a combination of rectangularshapes that is used as in the former FederalSecretariat, Lagos.

3.3 Parapet wall and flat roofThe parapet wall is often used to enhance

the modern look of a building. In this stylearchitects “hide” the roof behind the parapet wall


House. Such buildings with mullions and in-fillpanels or tinted glass windows are difficult tomaintain. The external surfaces have to bewashed periodically and also the air conditioningcost increases due to lack of sufficient insulationresulting from the characteristics of the materialsused. It is also characterised by structuralhonesty and clarity expressed by big glasssurfaces as in glazed buildings such as First BankHeadquarters (Figure 9). The surface is oftenvery plain and sometimes with regular andmonotonous rhythm of mouldings as in Inde-pendence House, or in IBWA House, Lagos(Figure 10).

3.5 OrnamentationThe Modern Movement with its most

representative International Style rejecteddecoration. Architects followed the Miesianformula for tall buildings and Le Corbusier’sconcepts of impersonal style.

Architects of the older generation inNigeria were educated in the mainstream ofModern Movement and they rejected decoration.The architecture of Deji Oyenuga is devoid ofcosmetics. Arc. Egbor’s buildings are chara-cterised by simple solutions with no use ofdecoration. Arc. Oluwole Olumuyiwa preferredthe simplicity of forms. His buildings demonstratehis belief that the form of buildings should not bemeaningless (Management House, Eko HolidayInn, Figure 11). Similarly Ella Waziri Associates’designs are simple and no ornaments ordecorations are used (buildings at BayeroUniversity in Kano). In this trend decoration isconsidered an apology in architecture. Otherexamples are the earlier works of Fola Alade,Habitat Associates, Design Group Nigeria andGodwin Hopwood. Generally these architects donot like much decoration. They prefer to workwith the form of the building. However it soonbecame obvious especially in the United Statesthat this impersonal style can lead to crime andto vandalization of housing estates (Venturi,1977). Nigerian architects then started exploringmore original and individual approaches thatresulted in a regionally-sensitive Modernarchitecture of their own referred to as The NewWest African Style and the Regional Trend(Prucnal-Ogunsote 2001a; Prucnal-Ogunsote2001b).

3.6 Disregard for climate and socialconditionsBuildings in this style usually do not

respect local conditions concerning weather andculture. They often depend entirely on artificialmeans of cooling. They are not appropriatebecause of the constant power failures and highmaintenance cost (IMB Building, IBRU Building,Chellarams). High-Trop buildings depend onimported technologies and this makes them veryexpensive. Buildings stay unoccupied for longperiods due to high rent. The buildings useimported finishes that are now difficult to replacewhen damaged. The limited maintenance effortsare rather ineffective due to lack of substitutesin the country.

Figure 10: IBWA House, Victoria IslandProfessional Centre, Lagos by Modulor Group.Source: Author’s sketch.

Figure 11: Eko Hotel (Eko Holiday Inn) VictoriaIsland, Lagos by Oluwole Olumuyiwa andAssociates in collaboration with Americans.Source: Author’s sketch.


4.0 The International Style as aTechnological and Cultural BridgeThe International Style was able to satisfy

the people’s desire for modernity and itundoubtedly influenced Nigerian architecture bythe technological advancements it brought along.Nigeria like the rest of the world looked up to theWestern countries which became a yard stick ofglobal progress. The International Style in Nigeriamade a very big impact on the townscape ofevery city especially through its High-Trop trend

Figure 12: The Panorama of Marina, Lagos in the mid eighties. Source: Postcard by Elizabeth SerikiCards.

Figure 14: Headquarters for Mobil Oil and MobilProducing Company (Mobil Building) in Lagosby James Cubitt and Partners, 1991. Source:Author’s sketch.

Figure 13: Senate Building at UNILAG in Lagosby James Cubitt and Partners. Source: Author’ssketch.


with sleek and extra-modern buildings and thePure Modern trend. Pure Modern also representsthe idealistic architecture of pioneer architectsin Nigeria transforming the new ideas of modernarchitecture into the Nigerian reality.

4.1 High-Trop as a technologicalbridgeThe publications of famous architectural

critics like Charles Jencks, Nikolaus Pevsner,Patric Nuttgens or Kenneth Frampton do notanalyse the International Style in third worldcountries including Nigeria. On the contrary –there are remarkable modern buildings in Nigeria.

The International Style with its High-Tropand Pure Modern trends is actually responsiblefor the general look of Nigerian cities with manycorporate and institutional buildings. Seepanorama of Lagos from the early eighties(Figure 12). High-Trop introduced moderntechniques with the use of lighter metals and newconstruction methods to Nigeria. This archi-tecture expressed the spirit of the times, and ispresented on some selected examples below.

The architects James Cubitt and Partners,established in 1957, gained their popularity mainlythrough Chellarams Building and Senate buildingat UNILAG, both in Lagos (Figure 13). The

architects are idealistic with their approach oftrying to attain a perfect result. One of theirachievements is the Mobil Building in Lagos(Figure 14). The characteristic features are thefour towers at each “corner” of the building. Veryattractive is the sky light, which is placeddiagonally over the square atrium, which is onlyslightly smaller than the size of ChellaramsBuilding itself. The architects experimented onthe site by constructing some portions of thebuilding in search of the best effects. Theastonishing effects are not only the results ofgood ideas but also of very demanding work. Thisbuilding demonstrates that high-tech could belocally obtained by employing the imagination,by experimenting and by strict supervision.

In case of Broking House in Ibadan(Figure 15) the building demonstrates that thequality depends both on the client and thearchitect. The client Femi Johnson had a desireto have such a building which can be called hismonument. Many people know the building asFemi Johnson House. The site for the buildingwas very small, only 60m x 30m. The structureunderneath is remarkable, there are two and ahalf floors for parking and utilities. The structurebasically depends on the pillars. The externalglazed curtain walls are hung from suspendedslabs. While the building is so luxurious outsideit is almost ordinary inside. It is designed withthe idea of open spaces. If the floor is notoccupied it is left with no partitions which areassembled when the need arises. The officeareas and corridor are then provided. Mostsuccessful is the design of the elevation of thebuilding on the ground and first floor level. In theNigerian context it still appears as a building morefor the future than for the current economicsituation. The users complained of the high costof maintenance, for there are three generatorsand central air conditioning. In conclusion thebuilding stands as a technological bridge. Itproves that Nigeria can produce sleek modernstructures and that the maintenance can also beeffective.

The Bank of the North Headquarters inKano by Ella Waziri is the tallest building in theNorth.2 It has a strategic position - it is at theentrance to the city coming from the South. Itcloses a vista of the main road and is well seeneven from a long distance. The main structureseems to be separated from the base. It appearsunexpectedly light as if able to turn round its axis.

Figure 15: Broking House, Ibadan by DesignGroup Nigeria, 1983. Source: Author’s sketch.


The verticality of the building is enhanced throughcontrasting elements running across andreaching the very top of the building. It enhancesthe light appearance of the solid indeed structure.The sculptural elements on the very top form akind of object pointing to the sky. High qualitymaterials and good finishes add to the aestheticsof this building which is basically an officebuilding. Without the use of high-tech this buildingwould not have been possible. There arenegative sides of this development, however.Often problematic is the relevance of suchbuildings to the Nigerian culture.

4.2 Pure Modern Trend as a culturalbridgeIn the case of the Pure Modern trend it

embraces the bulk of the works of such pioneerarchitects as Onafowokan, Olumuyiwa, VaughanRichards, Fry Drew, Design Group Nigeria orGodwin Hopwood to mention just a few. The PureModern trend stands as a cultural bridge becauseof the way the modern ideas spread and thearchitects came up with very original ideas whiletapping from the world culture.

Some of the young architects (foreigners)who were behind the first modern buildings cameto Nigeria as to an unknown exotic country. AllNigerians practising were also educated abroad.They came with all the hopes and dreams thenew generation had about modern architecture.The way they interpreted architecture had someidealistic approach like in the case of Manage-ment House by Olumuyiwa. There, it is only byworking and reworking that the idea of a brainwas embodied in architectural form. In this design

Figure 16: BCCI Head Office, 28 Okpare Avenue,Enugu by Mcanto Madubuko Associates. Source:Researcher’s Photograph.

most characteristic is the concept of the brainpresented as a box suspended in space. Despiteall difficulties the architect pronounced it in anarchitectural form and as a result the uniquefloating feeling was achieved. It can be easilyperceived from the atrium. One can sense aparticularly important space celebrated in anunusual but pleasant manner. The building looksvery ordinary from the outside.

Mcanto Madubuko Associates designedBCCI Head Office in Enugu in a way that phaseconstruction was made possible. In this buildingthe architects used curved concrete surfacesexternally. This structure also incorporates anexternal sit out on the roof of the lower portion ofthe building. It is meant for outdoor recreation(Figure 16). Arc. Madubuko still believes that formmust follow function.

In conclusion the Pure Modern Trendstands as a cultural bridge because the modernideas interpreted by Nigerian masters wereincorporated in Nigerian townscape (Figure 17)and brought a modern look to the cities. Thereare however problems to be overcome here suchas the lack of a maintenance culture.

5.0 The International Style as aCultural DisasterIn the sixties and the seventies the

International Style in Nigeria was at its peak. Thisdominating style brought along a sense ofmodernity. On the other hand the universal andanonymous architecture lacked relevance to localtraditions and it is also behind the low standardsof housing estates due to monotonous designs.

5.1 Low-Trop as a cultural disasterThe Low-Trop trend represents the

architecture of the masses, the architecture ofdraughtsmen, and low income estates remini-scent of monotonous housing estates in EasternEurope. Very disastrous are the rentableresidential apartments commonly referred to as“face me, I face you”. The family unit is usuallycontained in two-room apartments (room andparlour) while the service areas with the kitchens,toilets and laundry areas are located at the rearof the corridor (Izomoh, 1997). It is a fact thatthe landlord is able to maximise his profit whilesuch conditions limit privacy and are climatolo-gically not advisable. Generally conditions ofliving are poor. They were never that poor in thetraditional settings which catered for material and


spiritual needs and was sensitive to themicroclimate of a given region.

The design and orientation of the familyhouses and rentable blocks of flats are influencedby the shape of the plots and the position of themain access roads. The architectural designs ofsuch buildings are handled too often bydraughtsmen and other allied professionals inthe building industry. The designs are often notfunctional.

The way of life among the people of thirdworld countries is constantly changing. Smallfamily model contrasting with the extended familyis just one example of modern way of life. It isalso embodied in architecture and in people’sdesire for Western architecture. Importedtechnologies do not help in solving housingproblems. They are affordable only for the elite,and in some cases for big administrative bodiessuch as parastatals, governments, et cetera.Affordability is a very important factor in case ofincreasing demand for housing. Here the cost of

housing construction is still too high while it canbe reduced by use of available local buildingmaterials and changes in techniques.

In Nigeria there are researches going insearch of local building materials and newtechniques. There is however a problem ofpropagating these findings. Adesina (1985, pp.278-285) demonstrated a good example ofconstructing three different experimental modelsof low cost houses. They were three to four timescheaper than houses where the contractor usedconventional construction methods. There aregood efforts made as in the case of The NigerianBuilding and Road Research Institute (NBRRI,1997) or in the case of the low-cost row prototypehouse designed and built by Prof. Olusanya inLagos. There are other problems related tosecurity issues. People tend to build very highfences which are of low artistic value andconstitute ugly elements in the urban landscapeand in addition reduce the street ventilation. The

Figure 17: City Centre, Lagos. Source: Postcard printed in Great Britain by J. Arthur Dixon for LeventisStores Limited, Nigeria.


Building Location Architect

Architecture House Lagos Olumuyiwa and Associates (1958)

Bank of the North Headquarters Kano Ella Waziri Associates

BCCI Head Office Enugu Mcanto Madubuko Associates (1st phase1978 / 2nd phase 1984)

Benue State Secretariat, CabinetOffice Makurdi Archcon Nigeria

Broking House (Femi Johnson House) Ibadan Design Group Nigeria (1983)

Buildings at Bayero University Kano Ella Waziri Associates

C.S.S. Bookshop House Broad Street, Lagos Godwin Hopwood (1965)

Eko Hotel (Eko Holiday Inn) Victoria Island, Lagos Oluwole Olumuyiwa and Associates incollaboration with Americans

Faculty of Health Sciences Obafemi AwolowoUniversity, Ile-Ife Deji Oyenuga and Partners

Federal Secretariat Lagos Fola Alade/ Federal Ministry of Works

First Bank Headquarters Marina, Lagos Ronald Ward Architects (1982/83)

Godwin and Hopwood Building Boyle Street, Lagos Godwin Hopwood (1958)

IBRU Building Apapa, Lagos Femi Majekodunmi Associates

IBWA House Victoria Island, Lagos Modulor Group

IMB (International Merchant Bank) Victoria Island, Lagos Inchscape Architects (1985)

Independence House Lagos Federal Ministry of Works (1960)

K. Chellarams Building Marina, Lagos James Cubitt and Partners (1985)

Kashim Ibrahim Library Ahmadu BelloUniversity, Zaria Egbor and Associates

Management House Idowu Taylor Street,Victoria Island, Lagos Oluwole Olumuyiwa and Associates

Mobil Building Lagos James Cubitt and Partners (1991)

NAL Towers (NAL Merchant BankHeadquarters) Lagos Femi Majekodunmi Associates

National Arts Theatre Iganmu, Lagos Techno-Export (Bulgarian Architects)

NET Building Marina, Lagos Nickson & Borys

Senate Building UNILAG, Lagos James Cubitt and Partners

University Bookshop University of Ibadan,Ibadan Design Group Nigeria (1960)

Western House Lagos Nickson and Borys (1960)

Table 1: Details of buildings in the International Style referenced in the paper.


expectation from the architects here is to makethis architecture more humane.

5.2 Fire hazards in tall buildingsThe height of buildings in Nigeria is very

limited compared to other skyscrapers in theworld. The tallest buildings in the world, thePatronahs Towers in Malaysia are a spectacular452m tall. Nigerian buildings can not alsocompare to the collapsed World Trade Centrebefore the crash of the hijacked planes into eachof the towers which caused about three thousanddeaths. Despite the limited height of tall buildings,Nigeria also experienced its horrors when NETBuilding in Lagos (Figure 18) and Cocoa Housein Ibadan were set ablaze. In the event of firefighting, tall buildings are much more dangerousin developing countries. Here the degree of

Figure 18: NET Building, Marina, Lagos byNickson & Borys. Source: Author’s sketch.

damage is even greater due to lack of requiredequipment and skilled personnel.

6.0 ConclusionThe International Style in Nigeria has a

very rich history starting from the thirties with itspeak in the late seventies and early eighties. It ischaracterised by the free floor plan, use of puregeometrical forms, parapet walls, flat roofs andthe use of curtain walls. Its buildings have littleregard for climate and social conditions. SeeTable 1.

This paper has revealed the positive andthe negative sides of this architecture. Thepositive is the fact that it forms a cultural andtechnological bridge by linking this developingcountry with the more advanced ones by meansof modern technologies and exchange of ideas.It also satisfies the desire for modernity.

The disaster lies in the lowered standardof living due to non-affordability of decentdwelling units by the common man compared tothe traditional settings. The buildings are unsatis-factory climatologically and depend on mecha-nical means of ventilation and artificial lightdespite the ever-present NEPA failures.

The tall buildings although generallyadmired are not suitable for the country becauseof the maintenance costs and uncontrollable firehazards. The imported technologies in the longrun do not promote progress because theysuppress the development of the local industry.

Notes

1. The roof design of this building alsoplaces it in the Post Modern Trend.

2. The plan of the building – the NorthernKnot also places it in the Post ModernTrend.

ReferencesAdesina S. O. and Utgikar (1985). Materials and

Construction Techniques for Low CostHousing in Nigeria. In: Onibokun, P.Housing in Nigeria. (A Book of Readings).NISER, Ibadan, pp. 265-276.

Curtis, W. (1989). Contemporary Transforma-tions in Modern Architecture. In: Archi-tectural Record. June, pp. 108-117.

Frampton, K. (1992). Modern Architecture. ACritical History. Thames and Hudson,London.


NBRRI (1997). Spotlight: The Nigerian Buildingand Road Research Institute, Lagos. In:Housing Today, July/August, Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 10 - 17.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993). A Study of ModernTrends in Some Aspects of Architecture inNigeria. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University,Zaria.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001a). Classification ofNigerian Architecture. In: AARCHESJournal. Vol. 1, No. 6., pp. 48 – 56.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001b). Portraying NationalArchitecture in Modern Buildings. Paperpresented during AARCHES Conference,Akure, September, 15 pp.

Uzor (2001). Tragedy as Thousands Die:Pentagon, WTC Razed, Four HijackedPlanes Crashed. In: This Day. September12, p 1,4-6.

Venturi, R. (1977). Complexity and Contradi-ction in Architecture. The ArchitecturalPress Ltd., London.

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