international organisations university of london

International organisationsJ. MeierhenrichIR2085, 2790085

2012

Undergraduate study in Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences

This is an extract from a subject guide for an undergraduate course offered as part of the University of London International Programmes in Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences. Materials for these programmes are developed by academics at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE).

For more information, see: www.londoninternational.ac.uk

This guide was prepared for the University of London International Programmes by:

J. Meierhenrich, Senior Lecturer, Department of International Relations, The London School of Economics and Political Science.

This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that due to pressure of work the author is unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or arising from, the guide. If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or unfavourable, please use the form at the back of this guide.

University of London International Programmes Publications Office Stewart House 32 Russell Square London WC1B 5DN United Kingdom

www.londoninternational.ac.uk

Published by: University of London

University of London 2012

The University of London asserts copyright over all material in this subject guide except where otherwise indicated. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Contents

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Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

Aims ............................................................................................................................ 1Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................ 1How to use this guide .................................................................................................... 2The purpose of the subject guide ................................................................................... 2Reading ........................................................................................................................ 3Activities ....................................................................................................................... 3Online study resources ................................................................................................... 3Syllabus ......................................................................................................................... 5Examination .................................................................................................................. 5Recommended study time .............................................................................................. 6List of abbreviations ...................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 1: The study of international organisations .............................................. 9

Aims and learning outcomes .......................................................................................... 9Essential reading ........................................................................................................... 9Further reading .............................................................................................................. 9Introduction ................................................................................................................ 10Concepts ..................................................................................................................... 10Questions .................................................................................................................... 13Theories ...................................................................................................................... 16Disciplines ................................................................................................................... 18A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 19Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 19

Part I: The theory of international organisations ................................................. 21

Chapter 2: Realism ............................................................................................... 23

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 23Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 23Further reading ............................................................................................................ 23Introduction ................................................................................................................ 24Classical realism, or the tragic view of international politics .......................................... 24From classical realism to structural realism ................................................................... 25The relative gains problem in international cooperation .............................................. 25The false promise of international institutions: John Mearsheimer ................................. 26Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 27A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 27Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 27

Chapter 3: Liberalism ........................................................................................... 29

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 29Essential reading ........................................................................................................ 29Further reading ............................................................................................................ 29Introduction ................................................................................................................ 30Classical liberalism, or the idealistic view of international politics .................................. 30From idealism to pluralism ........................................................................................... 31From pluralism to neo-liberal institutionalism ............................................................... 32Game theory of international institutions: Robert Keohane ........................................... 32

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Regime theory of international institutions: Stephen Krasner ......................................... 33Peace theory of international institutions: Bruce Russett .............................................. 34Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 35A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 35Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 35

Chapter 4: Constructivism .................................................................................... 37

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 37Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 37Further reading ............................................................................................................ 37Introduction ................................................................................................................ 38From rationalism to cognitivism.................................................................................... 39Social theory of international institutions: Michael Barnett and Martha Finnemore ........ 40Micro-processes of socialisation: Alastair Ian Johnston .................................................. 41Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 43A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 43Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 43

Part II: The history of international organisations ............................................... 45

Chapter 5: A history of international organisations ............................................. 47

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 47Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 47Further reading ............................................................................................................ 47Introduction ................................................................................................................ 48The origins of international organisations, 18151914 ................................................. 48The rise of international organisations, 19181945 ...................................................... 49The proliferation of international organisations, 1945present ..................................... 50Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 51A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 51Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 51

Part III: The practice of international organisations ............................................. 53

Chapter 6: The League of nations (1919) and the Un (1945) .............................. 55

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 55Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 55Further reading ............................................................................................................ 55Introduction ................................................................................................................ 56Institutional origins of the League of Nations ............................................................... 56How the League of Nations worked ............................................................................. 58Institutional effects of the League of Nations ............................................................... 59Institutional origins of the United Nations ................................................................... 62How the UN works ...................................................................................................... 63Institutional effects of the UN ...................................................................................... 64Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 66A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 66Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 67

Chapter 7: The IMF (1945) and the World Bank (1945) ........................................ 69

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 69Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 69Further reading ............................................................................................................ 69Introduction ................................................................................................................ 70Institutional origins of the IMF .................................................................................... 70

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How the IMF works ..................................................................................................... 71Institutional effects of the IMF ..................................................................................... 72Institutional origins of the World Bank ......................................................................... 74How the World Bank works ......................................................................................... 75Institutional effects of the World Bank .......................................................................... 76Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 78A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 78Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 78

Chapter 8: GATT (1947) and the World Trade Organization (1995) ...................... 79

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 79Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 79Further reading ............................................................................................................ 79Introduction ................................................................................................................ 80Institutional origins of GATT ........................................................................................ 80How GATT worked ....................................................................................................... 81Institutional effects of GATT ......................................................................................... 83Institutional origins of the WTO .................................................................................... 83How the WTO works .................................................................................................... 84Institutional effects of the WTO .................................................................................... 85Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 87A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 87Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 87

Chapter 9: nATO (1952) and the OSCE (1995) ...................................................... 89

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 89Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 89Further reading ............................................................................................................ 89Introduction ................................................................................................................ 90Institutional origins of NATO ....................................................................................... 90How NATO works ........................................................................................................ 92Institutional effects of NATO ........................................................................................ 93Institutional origins of the OSCE .................................................................................. 94How the OSCE works ................................................................................................... 95Institutional effects of the OSCE ................................................................................... 96Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 98A reminder of your learning outcomes .......................................................................... 98Sample examination questions ..................................................................................... 98

Chapter 10: European Communities (1957) and the EU (1992) ............................ 99

Aims and learning outcomes ........................................................................................ 99Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 99Further reading ............................................................................................................ 99Introduction .............................................................................................................. 100Institutional origins of the EC .................................................................................... 100How the EC worked ................................................................................................... 103Institutional effects of the EC ..................................................................................... 105Institutional origins of the EU ..................................................................................... 106How the EU works ..................................................................................................... 108Institutional effects of the EU ..................................................................................... 110Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 112A reminder of your learning outcomes ........................................................................ 112Sample examination questions ................................................................................... 113


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Chapter 11: The Organisation of African Unity (1963) and the African Union (2002) .......................................................................................... 115

Aims and learning outcomes ...................................................................................... 115Essential reading ....................................................................................................... 115Further reading .......................................................................................................... 115Introduction .............................................................................................................. 116Institutional origins of the OAU ................................................................................. 116How the OAU worked ................................................................................................ 118Institutional effects of the OAU .................................................................................. 118Institutional origins of the AU .................................................................................... 120How the AU works ..................................................................................................... 121Institutional effects of the AU ..................................................................................... 122Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 124A reminder of your learning outcomes ........................................................................ 124Sample examination questions ................................................................................... 124

Chapter 12: The ICYT (1993), the ICTR (1994) and the ICC (2002) ..................... 125

Aims and learning outcomes ...................................................................................... 125Essential reading ....................................................................................................... 125Further reading .......................................................................................................... 125Introduction .............................................................................................................. 126Institutional origins of the ICTY and ICTR .................................................................. 126How the ICTY and ICTR work ..................................................................................... 128Institutional effects of the ICTY and ICTR ................................................................... 129Institutional origins of the ICC ................................................................................... 132How the ICC works.................................................................................................... 134Institutional effects of the ICC .................................................................................... 136Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 136A reminder of your learning outcomes ........................................................................ 137Sample examination questions ................................................................................... 137

Chapter 13: Conclusion....................................................................................... 139

Aims and learning outcomes ..................................................................................... 139Essential reading ....................................................................................................... 139Further reading .......................................................................................................... 139Introduction .............................................................................................................. 140How do international organisations matter? Theoretical conclusions ........................... 140How do international organisations matter? Empirical conclusions ............................. 142Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 143A reminder of your learning outcomes ........................................................................ 143Sample examination questions ................................................................................... 143

Appendix 1: Sample examination paper ............................................................ 145

Appendix 2: Bibliography ................................................................................... 147

Introduction

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Introduction

This study of international organisations, a 200 course, builds on the foundations laid by 11 Introduction to international relations. It offers a comprehensive introduction to the theory, history, and practice of international organisations. Through an in-depth and interdisciplinary examination of these frequently misunderstood international institutions, the course introduces students to key themes in the field of international relations. The international organisations we will discuss in this course range from the League of Nations to the United Nations, from the World Bank to the World Trade Organization, from the European Union to the African Union, from the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to the International Criminal Court.

The course is designed to equip you with the analytical tools necessary for making sense of the evolution of the international system from the nineteenth century to the present, and for accurately and critically assessing the role of international organisations therein. The subject guides disciplinary ambit ranges from anthropology to economics, from history to law and from political science to sociology.

Against the background of diverse disciplinary approaches, it acquaints you with key themes and essential readings concerning the study of international organisations. By tracing the changing forms and functions of multilateralism across space and time, the guide provides students with an accessible and comprehensive overview of one of the most important and policy-relevant fields of study in international relations.

Aims The course and this subject guide aim to give you an understanding of the major theoretical and empirical aspects of the role of international organisations in international politics, including, inter alia, their impact on:

the practice of international cooperation and conflict

the maintenance of international peace and security

the management of international economic relations

the promotion of international environmental standards

the prosecution of international crimes

related matters of concern to international society.

Learning outcomesAt the end of this course, and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you should be able to:

demonstrate you have thoroughly understood the core literature on international organisations

engage with this literature critically by developing your own argumentation

explain the main theoretical approaches and empirical issues in the study of international organisations

write clearly, effectively and critically about these issues.


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How to use this guideThe subject guide is organised into three parts and 13 chapters. Each of the parts is devoted to a major theme in the study of international organisations, namely the theory, history and practice of these institutions, respectively. For it is imperative that students in the social sciences, including international relations, excel at both theoretical and empirical reasoning. And when it comes to the latter, it is indispensable that you acquire a solid appreciation of international organisations, then and now. For we will only be able to imagine institutional futures if we comprehend institutional pasts.

Part I is dedicated to the theory of international organisations. Comprising three chapters, it provides an overview of contending bodies of thought, namely:

realism (including neo-realism)

liberalism (including neo-liberal institutionalism)

constructivism.

Each chapter explicates the major tenets of the intellectual perspective with which it is concerned, with particular reference to the contributions of major scholars, ranging from John Mearsheimer to Robert Keohane, and from Ernst Haas to Michael Barnett and Martha Finnemore.

Part II consists of one chapter and is concerned with the history of international organisations. It offers a brief history from 1815 to the present.

Part III covers the practice of international organisations. Grounded in the theoretical and historical foundations laid in Chapters 15, Chapters 612 turn to the contemporary law and politics of select international organisations. The focus is on sets of major international organisations. Each of the chapters provides an analysis of institutional origins, effects and futures. Moreover, you will find a concise overview of the institutions and procedures that make each international organisation work.

Unless otherwise stated, all websites in this subject guide were accessed in April 2012. We cannot guarantee, however, that they will stay current and you may need to perform an internet search to find the relevant pages.

Parts IIII are framed by introductory and concluding chapters that preview and review, respectively, the study of international organisations.

The purpose of the subject guideThe purpose of this subject guide is to provide an overview of the key concepts, questions, theories, disciplines and methodologies relevant to the study of international organisations. It should be read alongside not instead of the books, chapters and articles assigned as Essential reading. It is through the diligent and regular preparation of these materials that you will acquire an improved understanding of the nature and operation of international organisations. As such, the subject guide offers a convenient entry point into the subject matter, but no more than that. It offers some food for thought and an intellectual framework within which you can organise your studies. It must be complemented with insights derived directly from the scholarly literature.

Turning from the subject guide as a whole to its constituent parts, each chapter is organised in an identical manner. After setting out its particular aims and learning outcomes, it proceeds to set out the reading materials relevant to the topic in question.

Introduction

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ReadingEach chapter generally lists two categories of reading: Essential reading and Further reading. All listings under the rubric of the former are mandatory and indispensable for making sense of the topic in question. They are listed in order of importance and should be read carefully and in their entirety. All readings listed under the latter rubric are optional and are listed alphabetically at the start of each chapter. Further readings are resources for you to consult in order for you to further your interest or deepen or broaden your knowledge of the topic in question. To help you read extensively, you have free access to the VLE and University of London Online Library (see below).

There is a full bibliography for this course in an appendix at the end of the guide.

Essential readingThe following three introductory texts are recommended for purchase.

Hurd, Ian International Organizations: Politics, Law, Practice. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011) [ISBN 9780521147378].

Armstrong, David, Lorna Lloyd and John Redmond International Organisation in World Politics. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004) third edition [ISBN 9781403903037].

Karns, Margaret P. and Karen A. Mingst International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance. (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2010) second edition [ISBN 9781588266989].

Detailed reading references in this subject guide refer to the editions of the set textbooks listed above. New editions of one or more of these textbooks may have been published by the time you study this course. You can use a more recent edition of any of the books; use the detailed chapter and section headings and the index to identify relevant readings. Also check the virtual learning environment (VLE) regularly for updated guidance on readings.

ActivitiesEach chapter of this subject guide contains several learning activities. These activities are designed to aid you in the comprehension and retention of the theoretical and empirical information. The nature of the activities varies. Some of them highlight additional, particularly salient resources; others demand independent study.

At the conclusion of each chapter, the guide summarises in the form of a reminder the chief learning outcomes that you are expected to have reached. The inclusion of Sample examination questions is intended to facilitate appropriate preparation for the written examination. As part of your studies, you are strongly encouraged to attempt to answer at least one of the questions per chapter under timed examination conditions. Answers should be around 1,500 words in length, and you should strive for originality, soundness and clarity of argument and evidence, as discussed below.

Online study resourcesIn addition to the subject guide and the Essential reading, it is crucial that you take advantage of the study resources that are available online for this course, including the VLE and the Online Library.


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You can access the VLE, the Online Library and your University of London email account via the Student Portal at: http://my.londoninternational.ac.uk

You should have received your login details for the Student Portal with your official offer, which was emailed to the address that you gave on your application form. You have probably already logged in to the Student Portal in order to register. As soon as you registered, you will automatically have been granted access to the VLE, Online Library and your fully functional University of London email account.

If you forget your login details at any point, please email [email protected] quoting your student number.

The VLEThe VLE, which complements this subject guide, has been designed to enhance your learning experience, providing additional support and a sense of community. It forms an important part of your study experience with the University of London and you should access it regularly.

The VLE provides a range of resources for EMFSS courses.

Self-testing activities. Doing these allows you to test your own understanding of subject material.

Electronic study materials. The printed materials that you receive from the University of London are available to download, including updated reading lists and references.

Past examination papers and Examiners commentaries. These provide advice on how each examination question might best be answered.

A student discussion forum. This is an open space for you to discuss interests and experiences, seek support from your peers, work collaboratively to solve problems and discuss subject material.

Videos. There are recorded academic introductions to the subject, interviews and debates and, for some courses, audio-visual tutorials and conclusions.

Recorded lectures. For some courses, where appropriate, the sessions from previous years study weekends have been recorded and made available.

Study skills. Expert advice on preparing for examinations and developing your digital literacy skills.

Feedback forms.

Some of these resources are available for certain courses only, but we are expanding our provision all the time and you should check the VLE regularly for updates.

Making use of the Online LibraryThe Online Library contains a huge array of journal articles and other resources to help you read widely and extensively.

To access the majority of resources via the Online Library you will either need to use your University of London Student Portal login details, or you will be required to register and use an Athens login: http://tinyurl.com/ollathens

The easiest way to locate relevant content and journal articles in the Online Library is to use the Summon search engine.

If you are having trouble finding an article listed in a reading list, try removing any punctuation from the title, such as single quotation marks, question marks and colons.

Introduction

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For further advice, please see the online help pages: www.external.shl.lon.ac.uk/summon/about.php

SyllabusAs stated in the Regulations, the course seeks to give students an understanding of the major theoretical and empirical aspects of the role of international organisations in international politics, including, inter alia, their impact on the practice of international cooperation and conflict, the maintenance of international peace and security, the management of international economic relations, the promotion of international environmental standards, the prosecution of international crimes, and related matters of concern to international society.

Origins of international organisations: why do IOs such as the Organization of American States emerge?

Development of international organisations: what goes on within IOs such as the United Nations?

Effects of international organisations: what difference do IOs such as the International Monetary Fund make?

Pathologies of international organisations: when do IOs such as the European Union go wrong?

ExaminationImportant: the information and advice given here are based on the examination structure used at the time this guide was written. Please note that subject guides may be used for several years. Because of this we strongly advise you to always check both the current Regulations for relevant information about the examination, and the VLE where you should be advised of any forthcoming changes. You should also carefully check the rubric/instructions on the paper you actually sit and follow those instructions.

This course is assessed by a three-hour unseen written examination. As part of the examination, which accounts for 100 per cent of the grade, students are required to answer four out of 12 questions. The appendix contains a Sample examination paper. In order to test for deep acquisition of knowledge, you are expected to integrate theory and history and bring empirical evidence to bear on the examination questions you choose. Several criteria are applied in the evaluation of examination answers. First-class essays will excel in terms of all of the following criteria:

1. Originality of argument: How unexpected is the claim advanced?

2. Use of literature: Has relevant scholarship been digested and put to good use?

3. Soundness of analysis: Is the inquiry comprehensive and logically consistent and addressing the posed question?

4. Organisation of evidence: Have argument and evidence been introduced and presented in a compelling manner?

5. Validity of findings: Does the argument remain valid when applied empirically?

6. Clarity of presentation: Are grammar, punctuation and references flawless?

You are strongly advised to consult past examination papers as well as Examiners commentaries as part of your examination preparation. The


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latter in particular contain valuable information about how to approach the examination. Both sets of documents can be found on the VLE.

Remember, it is important to check the VLE for:

up-to-date information on examination and assessment arrangements for this course

where available, past examination papers and Examiners commentaries for the course which give advice on how each question might best be answered.

Recommended study timeThe Strategies for success subject guide gives information for students about courses and study time. Generally, a typical course requires six to eight hours study per week as a minimum.

List of abbreviationsASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

AU African Union

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States

COE Council of Europe

CSCE Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe

DPA Department of Political Affairs, United Nations

DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Affairs, United Nations

EC European Community

ECCC Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

ECOMOG Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group

ECOSOC United Nations Economic and Social Council

ECOWAS Economic Council of West African States

ECHR European Convention on Human Rights

E-10 Elected 10 Members of the UNSC

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

G-7 Group of Finance Ministers of 7 Industrialised Countries

G-8 Group of Heads of Government of 7 Industrialised Countries and Russia

G-77 Group of 77 Developing Countries

G-20 Group of 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of 19 Countries and EU

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

ICC International Criminal Court

ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICJ International Court of Justice

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

Introduction

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ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

ILO International Labour Organization

IMF International Monetary Fund

IMO International Maritime Organization

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

ITU International Telecommunication Union

MERCOSUR Common Market for the Southern Hemisphere

NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement

NAM Non-aligned Movement

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

OAS Organization of American States

OAU Organisation of African Unity

OHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

P-5 Permanent Five Members of the UNSC

R2P Responsibility to Protect (or Rtop)

SADC Southern African Development Community

SCSL Special Court for Sierra Leone

TEU Treaty on European Union

UIA Union of International Associations

UNCTAD United Nations Commission on Trade and Development

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNGA United Nations General Assembly

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund

UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

UNSC United Nations Security Council

UPU Universal Postal Union

WEU Western European Union

WFP World Food Programme

WHO World Health Organization

WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WTO World Trade Organization

Notes


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Chapter 1: The study of international organisations

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Aims and learning outcomesThe aim of this chapter is to elaborate what it means to study international organisations from a scholarly perspective. It explores the nature of internationalorganisationsandthechallengesinvolvedinmakingsenseof them.

By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings and activities, you should be able to:

describe what international organisations are

distinguish international institutions from international organisations

outline the difference between the description and the study of international organisations, namely, the difference between journalistic and academic writings.

Essential readingHurd, Ian, International Organizations: Politics, Law, Practice. (Cambridge:

CambridgeUniversityPress,2011),pp.114.

Ruggie, John Gerard Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an Institution, International Organization,46(3)(Summer1992),pp.56198.

Hollis, Martin and Steve Smith Explaining and Understanding International Relations. (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1991),pp.4591.

Further readingArcher, Clive International Organizations. (London: Routledge, 2001) third

edition.Armstrong, David, Lorna Lloyd and John Redmond International Organisation

in World Politics. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004) third edition. Avant, Deborah D., Martha Finnemore and Susan K. Sell (eds) Who Governs the

Globe? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).Barnett, Michael and Raymond Duvall (eds) Power in Global Governance.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).Claude, Inis Swords into Plowshares: The Progress and Problems of International

Organization. (New York: Random House, [1956] 1971) fourth edition.Duffield, John What Are International Institutions? International Studies

Review,9(1)(Spring2007),pp.122.Fawcett, Louise and Andrew Hurrell (eds) Regionalism in World Politics:

Regional Organization and International Order. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).

Karns, Margaret P. and Karen A. Mingst International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance. (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2010) second edition.

Kratochwil, Friedrich V. and John G. Ruggie International Organization: A State of the Art on an Art of the State, International Organization, 40(4) Autumn1986),pp.75375.

Martin, Lisa and Beth Simmons (eds) International Institutions: An International Organization Reader. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001).

Mattli, Walter and Ngaire Woods (eds) The Politics of Global Regulation. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2009).


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Rittberger, Volker, Bernhard Zangl and Andreas Kruck International Organization. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2012) second edition.

Rochester, J. Martin The Rise and Fall of International Organization as a Field of Study, International Organization, 40(4) (September 1986), pp.777813.

Ruggie, John Gerard (ed.) Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Practice of an Institutional Form. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).

Zartman, I. William and Saadia Touval (eds) International Cooperation: The Extents and Limits of Multilateralism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

IntroductionThis chapter provides an overview of the rise and fall and rebirth of international organisations as a sub-field of study in the field of international relations. The discussion proceeds under four separate headings:

1. concepts

2. questions

3. theories

4. disciplines.

It will quickly become apparent that the meaning of international organisations is in the eye of the beholder, for scholars of different persuasions and disciplines have contending and even irreconcilable views of whether international organisations matter in international politics, and of the conditions under which they might. In passing, the chapter introduces a working definition of international organisations, distinguishing the concept from that of international institutions. Related concepts to be discussed include unilateralism, bilateralism and multilateralism, as well as cooperation.

In response to the complexity of the subject matter, this chapter makes a case for the triangulation of insights from the theory, history and practice of international organisations. This notwithstanding, the principal basis of this intellectual endeavour is the social sciences.

ConceptsFor those not familiar with them, the notion of the social sciences frequently is awe-inspiring. In this context an anecdote comes to mind that involves National Public Radio or NPR, the influential US non-profit radio network (Hechter and Horne, 2003: 3). At one point, a journalist at this American equivalent of the BBC was wondering how rocket scientists expressed the idea that something may be difficult but It isnt rocket science. In order to find out, the NPR journalist did what journalists do best: he asked around. The first stop, naturally, were the rocket scientists. How did they convey that something was demanding but not beyond their natural grasp? The rocket scientists that the NPR reporter interviewed responded that they often said that something may be difficult, but it isnt theoretical physics. Naturally, the reporter proceeded to interview a theoretical physicist. The theoretical physicist responded that he and his colleagues often said that something may be difficult, but it isnt social science.

The purpose of this anecdote is to drive home the point that social phenomenaareusuallystaggeringlycomplexcomplexenoughtointimidate a theoretical physicist. And international organisations are


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among the most complex of these phenomena. Put differently, newcomers to the study of international organisations should not feel discouraged if it takes them a few weeks to wrap their heads around some of the terminology and rather abstract ideas that are germane to the academic literature in international relations and related fields of study. It is normal to feel temporarily disoriented during the transition from journalism to academia in the study of international organisations. This being so, this guide is designed to help you meet the challenge. Let us start with concepts.

Concepts are the building blocks of any serious undertaking in the social sciences. As imagined constructs of abstract thought, concepts refer to a general idea or notion that corresponds to some set of entities and which names, often by way of simplification, the defining attributes or essential features of the set. Examples of much-debated concepts include democracy, liberalism, freedom and development. As such, concepts form the basis of theory development, and they also influence the selection of units of analysis, what is often referred to as cases, in the methodology of the social sciences. What, then, are we to make of the concept of international organisations?

The question is far from trivial, for before we can make claims about their role(s) and utility in international politics, we must make sure that we are talking about the same phenomenon. Otherwise our findings mightnotbecomparableliketheproverbialapplesandoranges.Or,as Elinor Ostrom (1986: 4), a recent Nobel Laureate in Economics, once put it: No scientific field can advance far if the participants do not share a common understanding of key terms. The conceptual imperative applies to students as much as it does to scholars. An examination answer that fails to carefully clarify the terms it uses, will be wanting from the outset. Having established the importance of concepts, we shall now look at a few definitions of the concept of international organisation. The point is not to adopt one or another of these definitions, but to be aware of the varied conceptual landscape, and the challenges involved in defining the essence of the phenomenon at the heart of this subject guide.

In 1970, Michael Wallace and David Singer proffered this definition:

[An international organization] must consist of at least two qualified members of the international system [and have been] created by a formal instrument of agreement between the governments of national states [In addition,] [t]he organization must hold more or less regular plenary sessions at intervals not greater than a decade [and have a permanent secretariat with a permanent headquarters and which performs ongoing tasks].

Already 14 years earlier, in 1956, Inis Claude, arguably the founding father of the systematic study of international organisations, had introduced this conceptualisation:

International organization [in the singular] is a process; international organizations [in the plural] are representative aspects of the phase of that process which has been reached at a given time.

Crucially, Claudes distinction brings us to an important concept, namely that of multilateralism, that is related to that of international organisation, but not identical to it. Here is a nominal definition by Robert Keohane, an eminent scholar of international relations whose work will be featured prominently in Chapter 3 of the subject guide below:


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[Multilateralism] is the practice of co-ordinating national policies in groups of three or more states.

Another scholar, John Ruggie (1992), as the assigned article makes clear, takes issue with this definition. Although Ruggies classic article is conceptually and theoretically demanding, it is not just of academic significance. Incidentally, Ruggie, like several other leading scholars of international relations, has oscillated between theory and practice. In addition to having made major contributions to international relations theory (notably to what we will encounter as constructivism in Chapter 4), Ruggie has served in the higher echelons of the United Nations system. Now at Harvard University, and formerly at Columbia University, Ruggie, between 1997 and 2001, served as UN Assistant Secretary-General and chief advisor for strategic planning to Kofi Annan, then UN Secretary-General. Since 2005, Ruggie has been the Secretary-Generals Special Representative on human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises. Why is such biographical information worth mentioning? It is worth mentioning to highlight that the academic study of international organisations is neither divorced from nor irrelevant, as some claim, to the practice of multilateralism in the international system. But let us get back to the task at hand and introduce a useful working definition adapted from Clive Archer (2001: 33) who defines international organisations as:

formal, continuous structures established by agreement between members from two or more sovereign states with the aim of pursuing the common interest of membership.

The advantage of this definition is its explicit focus on the formal characteristics of international organisations that Wallace and Singer had already emphasised thirty years earlier. This brings us usefully to the question of how the concepts of international organisations and international institutions relate to one another. Although in current affairs and journalistic parlance the two terms are used synonymously, in the study of international organisations a marked conceptual difference exists. This distinction will become ever clearer in the theoretical and empirical chapters to come. At this point, a basic differentiation will suffice. For the purpose of this subject guide, the concept of international institutions connotes, following John Duffield (2007: 7):

relatively stable sets of related constitutive, regulative, and procedural norms and rules that pertain to the international system, the actors in the system (including states as well as nonstate entities), and their activities.

The contrast between this definition and virtually all of the aforementioned definitions of international organisations is stark. The conceptual difference can be put more simply than in Duffields words. To avoid confusion, students may want to think of international institutions as (some of) the rules of game in international politics, consisting of the formal legal rules (such as international law) and the informal social norms (such as international ethics) that govern individual behaviour and structure social interactions among states and other actors on the international stage. By this token, students will want to conceive of international organisations as formal instantiations of certain aspects of international institutions that come with attributes such as buildings and bureaucracies and budgets. International organisations thus refer to those groups of people and the governance they create in an effort to coordinate collective action for the pursuit of specific international public or private


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or mixed goods. By way of example, an international organisation such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the principal judicial organ of the UN, can be seen as a formal expression of the operation of international law, one of several international institutions in the international system. Whereas international law is a rather amorphous set of related constitutive, regulative and procedural norms and rules, the ICJ is a very concrete brick-and-mortar organisation, composed of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms of office by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council, and headquartered in the imposing Peace Palace on Carnegieplein in The Hague.

The distinction between international institutions and international organisations goes back loosely to yet another Nobel Laureate in Economics, Douglass North, who spent several decades coming to terms with the significance of domestic institutions. Incidentally, it was for this important and pathbreaking body of work that he was awarded the Swedish Academys coveted prize.

Activity

What is the conceptual distinction between international institutions and international organisations?

QuestionsHaving established that concepts matter in the study of international organisations, it is useful to elaborate further on how exactly they matter. In a most basic sense, it is impossible to ask real-world questions about social phenomena without putting a label on them. What kinds of questions are pressing when it comes to international organisations? Why should we care about them in the first place? Three answers come to mind: ubiquity, centrality and pathology.

First, international organisations make for an important subject of study because they simply are everywhere. Take the allegations over corruption in the higher ranks of FIFA, the world football association, that came to a head in 2011. FIFA is an international organisation. As is the International Olympic Committee, the IOC, which every four years organises the Olympic Games. Both FIFA and IOC are private international organisations, better known as non-intergovernmental organisations (INGOs), of which more in Chapter 8, when the subject guide turns to the classification of international organisations. The point is that international organisations exist above and beyond the handful of public international organisations (IGOs) that regularly make the news, such as the UN, the IMF, the World Bank or the WTO. There are far more international organisations than there are sovereign states in the international system. The Union of International Associations (UIA), publisher of the Yearbook of International Organizations, in 2010 came up with a total figure of 63,397, of which it classified 7,554 as IGOs.1 According to the UIA, all of the international organisations on its roster combined convened a staggering 316,534 international meetings in the reporting period 200910.2 In short, internationalorganisationsareubiquitousnotaninsignificantreason to study them.

Second, international organisations make for an important subject of study because they are central to many facets of international life. Talking about sovereign states, for example, it is difficult to get by as a polity in the international system without being accredited by the UN. For what some have called juridical statehood (Jackson and Rosberg, 1982) is

1 Union of International Associations, Yearbook of International Organizations 20102011, Volume 5 (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2010), p.35, Figure 2.9. The figure breaks down as follows: 7,544 IGOs and 55,853 INGOs. Needless to say, the precise number of international associations depends on the method of classification and counting used. The UIA is working with a rather broad definition.

2 Joel Fischer, International Meeting Statistics for the Year 2010, Union of International Associations, Press Release, June 2011, available at www.uia.be/sites/uia.be/files/documents/statistics/press/press11.pdf


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bestowed exclusively in the iconic building on New York Citys East River. Without the imprimatur of the world body, no state will rest easily. Empirical statehood, as it were, is necessary for survival in international politics, but is generally not sufficient for success. The case of Palestine is a case in point. In the spring of 2011, Palestinian representatives lobbied fiercely for a UN vote on Palestinian statehood in September of that year, preparing the submission of a resolution that would bring UN membership and thus international independence from and leverage vis--vis Israel. If we assume, for a moment, that states are the most important actors in the international system, and that the UN has a constitutive role in making these actors acceptable to international society, we would be hard-pressed to deny the centrality of at least this particular international organisation. Say what you like about the effectiveness of the UN system, it is undeniable that it does play an important role in international politics (as well as in the domestic politics of many countries). Consider also the UNs involvement in the context of state formation after state collapse under the umbrella of what has become known as international territorial administration. And numerous other international organisations have lent their helping hands and funds to these missions as well, from the IMF and World Bank to the EU and NATO, to name but a few.

Third, and perhaps less obvious, international organisations make for an important subject of study because most of them are marred, in one way or another, by various pathologies. The term is apt. First used by Karl Deutsch many decades ago, it made a return in recent years, when Michael Barnett and Martha Finnemore (1999) usefully re-introduced it into the study of international organisations. For it is regrettable but undeniable that there appears to be rather uncritical optimism about IO behavior that can be traced back to the so-called Wilsonianism (named after former US President Woodrow Wilson) that was born in the early twentieth century and which conceived of international organisations solely as promoters of peace and well-being. The strong wish of many liberal thinkers around the world to see the destructive power of states curbed by multilateralism often blinded them to the pathological aspects of international organisations. Surprisingly, scholars of international relations have largely failed to take seriously the study of IO dysfunction. Presumably, the fear that constructive criticism from the left could embolden destructive critics on the right (for example, US politicians favouring American isolationism over American internationalism) persuaded some scholars to forgo a serious engagement with international organisations and instead simply rehearse the well-worn moral defence of international organisations, which holds, drawing loosely on Immanuel Kants Perpetual Peace, that multilateralism qua nature is always preferable to unilateralism. As a result of this benign academic neglect of the dark sides of international organisations, neither scholars nor practitioners are sufficiently prepared for devising policies aimed at improving the effectiveness of international organisations in the twenty-first century. ForasBarnettandFinnemore(2004:345)notlongagoremindedus,international organisations are, first and foremost, bureaucracies. And bureaucracies everywhere are infamous for creating and implementing policies that defy rational logic, for acting in ways that are at odds with their stated mission, and for refusing requests of and turning their backs on those to whom they are officially responsible. In other words, the third reason for studying international organisations relates to the surprisingly perverse incentives to which they regularly give rise and the unintended consequences that they often produce.


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To be sure, focusing on the pathologies of international organisations is very different from endorsing invectives about the UN and related organisations coming from the likes of US Republican Senator Jesse Helms and John Bolton, the firebrand former US Ambassador to the UN. The former approach is about engagement with one of the most important set of regularities of international politics, the latter about disengagement. If we care about the comity of nations, it is indispensable and high time that scholars of international relations study international organisations more rigorously, meaningfully and comprehensively than they have for most of the last 50 years. The aim of this subject guide is to give you the tools necessary for beginning to doing so. So much for the reasons for studying international organisations. Once one has resolved to take them seriously, what is to be done? In answer, the remainder of the guide offers a brief overview of important topics of study and a series of illustrative questions from the academic literature to which subsequent chapters will return.

Four areas of inquiry can be profitably distinguished, namely those pertaining to the: authority, bureaucracy, efficacy and legitimacy of international organisations.

Questions regarding authority take issue with the relative significance and insignificance of multilateralism. They raise subsidiary questions about whether (and, if so, how) international organisations have an independent effect on international outcomes (i.e. as actors in their own right), or whether they are merely expressions of the power of states. An exemplary question would be What authority (if any) does the EU have in international politics? The debate over humanitarian intervention in Libya, and the strong disagreements among several leading EU member states, attests to the empirical significance of investigating the authority (or lack thereof) of international organisations. Related are questions pertaining to states compliance and non-compliance with the rules of international organisations. The case of the WTO and the performance of its Dispute Settlement Mechanism come to mind in the area of international trade.

Questions about bureaucracy, as already intimated, have more to do with the inner workings of international organisations, notably their institutional design and practices. A newer avenue of research has prioritised the exploration of organisational cultures within, for example, the World Bank (Sarfaty, 2009), IMF (Chwieroth, 2009), UN (Barnett), and the ICC (Meierhenrich, forthcoming). A conceivable question with an empirical referent comes to mind: How does bureaucratic organisation affect AU decision-making? Does it aid or undermine international cooperation? Why and when? Efficacy, as a third major area of inquiry, can be said to be concerned with illuminating the conditions under which, say, UN peacekeeping works and fails (Autesserre, 2010). Here the emphasis is on concrete questions of performance. Lastly, there are questions pertaining to legitimacy, that is, the ways in which international organisations are perceived by those within its reach. For a staple in political science research holds that for institutions to be effective they need to be perceived as legitimate. Whether this is empirically true for international organisations, and when, is a question not conclusively answered. By way of illustration, scholars of the IMF do wonder whether structural adjustment programmes, where they failed, were ineffective because they were deemed illegitimate, or whether they came to be seen as illegitimate because they proved ineffective. It goes without saying that the list of important research questions about international organisations is far from exhausted.


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TheoriesNow that we have a better sense of the kinds of questions worth asking in the study of international organisations, it is opportune to illustrate the role of theories in answering them. A key part of studying international organisations academically (as opposed to journalistically) is thinking about them in terms of explanations in which certain concepts become variables. The objective of many scholars in the social sciences, albeit not all, is to combine select variables into theories. Such theories are usually tested by deriving hypotheses from them and by measuring the validity of these hypotheses against empirical evidence. Since, as mentioned, this course is committed to theoretical reasoning as well as empirical reasoning, it is important to unpack these fundamental terms of the trade, what we might call the nature of explanation. Here is a simple visual representation of the relationships among several key terms. See Figure 1.1.

[A] Theory

[C] Measurement

Independent variable (as abstract concept)

Independent variable (as measurable concept)

Dependent variable(as abstract concept)

[B] Operationalisation

Dependent variable(as measurable concept)

Conjecture

Hypothesis

Figure 1.1: The nature of explanation

Variables are concepts with values, such as the likelihood of war or rate of compliance or power of international organisations. Social scientists often distinguish between dependent and independent variables. The former connotes a factor to be explained (sometimes called an explanandum in Latin), the latter a factor that does the explaining (sometimes called an explanans). This example will clarify matters: Some theorists of international relations believe that international organisations are causes of peace. In this example, peace is the dependent variable, and international organisations become the independent variable. A theory [A], then, is a somewhat formal, tentative conjecture about the relationship between a number of variables, including an independent variable (or more than one) and an independent variable (usually not more than one). In order to find out whether this conjecture holds true in the real world of international politics, it becomes necessary to derive specific hypotheses from the theory in question. This involves turning the abstract concepts at their heart into measurable concepts. This process is called operationalisation [B] and usually involves the development of indicators for the variables being measured. At its successful conclusion stands a hypothesis, which we can think of as a theory-based statement about the causal relationship that we expect to observe between the variables singled out for analysis. In our example, testing the empirical validity of the theoretical conjecture that international organisations are causes of peace can be accomplished by examining the hypothesis that densely democratic international organisations contribute to the resolution


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of international conflict. The testing of a hypothesis such as this involves the measurement [C] of indicator values. In the case at hand, this can be accomplished by comparing the incidence of militarised inter-state conflict among members of densely democratic international organisations to the propensity for conflict among members of other types of international organisations (see Pevehouse and Russett, 2006). The statement of the results of a process such as the one just described amounts to an explanation, hopefully a convincing one.

But the quest for explanation is not the only way to make sense of the role of international organisations in the international system. A contending perspective prioritises understanding over explanation. See Figure 1.2. What is the difference? In our daily lives, of course, we use the two terms interchangeably. Not so in the social sciences and neighbouring disciplines. There the two perspectives stand for two radically different ways of studying the world around; they represent rival intellectual traditions. The details of these philosophies need not concern us here. Yet it is important to have a broad sense of where they differ, and why. Absent that, it will be nigh impossible to fully comprehend the dense landscape that is the theory of international organisations.

Whereas explanation (favoured by most realist and liberal scholars of international relations) is about the application of the scientific method to questions of international organisations, understanding (favoured by most, but not all, constructivist scholars of international relations) is about the application of the hermeneutic method. Explanation has its origins in a philosophy of the social sciences known as positivism (as represented by such diverse scholars as the philosopher David Hume, the sociologist Auguste Comte and the philosophers Carl Gustav Hempel and Karl Popper). The emphasis of this intellectual tradition is on causality and the development of hypotheses and so-called covering laws. The singular method is deductive reasoning for the purpose of generalisation. The overarching goal of any explanation is an objective account of social action, international or otherwise.

Explanation Understanding

Origin Positivism Interpretivism

Concern Causality Constitution

Method Deduction Induction

Goal Generalisation Particularisation

Ideal Objectivity Subjectivity

Figure 1.2: Explanation and understanding

Understanding, by contrast, has its origins in the philosophy of the social sciences known as interpretivism (as practised by the likes of the sociologist Georg Simmel and the historian R.G. Collingwood). The emphasis of this intellectual tradition is on the constitution of actors and relations and the elaboration of meaning and stories. It pursues inductive reasoning for the purpose of particularisation. The overarching goal of any effort at understanding is a subjective account of social action. For the purpose of this subject guide, scholars intent on understanding international organisations will be content with producing an empathetic reading of, say, a given international organisation. An outstanding example is Michael Barnetts (2002) study of the goings-on at the UN Secretariat during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Barnetts sole objective was to make sense of international action and inaction from within the much-maligned international body. Another, more recent example is


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that of Sverine Autesserre (2010), who delved deep into the culture of peacekeeping of MONUC, the problematic UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Explanations of international organisations have very different ambitions. They are generally aimed at saying something that holds true above and beyond the context in which the research was carried out. A prominent example of this mode of proceeding is the work of many scholars developing what became known as regime theory of international institutions (e.g. Krasner, 1985). More recent examples include the work by Andrew Moravcsik on European integration (1998), and writings on delegation and agency in international organisations (Hawkins et al., 2006).

Such are the methodological differences between explanation and understanding in the study of international organisations. Martin Hollis and Steve Smith (1990: 87) summarise the principal difference neatly: To understand is to reproduce the order in the minds of the actors; to explain is to find causes in the scientific manner. As subsequent chapters demonstrate, scholarship that unites explanation and understanding often has a great deal more to offer to the study of international organisations than scholarship that favours one over the other. Often, the impetus for crossing theoretical and methodological boundaries comes from disciplines other than political science.

Activity

Read Stephen Van Evera, Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997) [ISBN 9780801484575], pp.748. Think about the promise and limits of different methodological approaches to the study of international organisations.

DisciplinesThe study of international organisations was at first chiefly the province of international lawyers. Leading perspectives from international law, as Clive Archer (2001: 128) writes, give particular consideration to the constitutions of international organizations, their legal personalities and institutional problems. Indeed, it was probably the Professor of Law at Edinburgh University, J. Lorimer, who first coined the expression international organization in 1867. Yet in the decades following the creation, in the mid-1940s, of the post-Second World War international order, the study of international organisations quickly became a staple of political science. Although scholarly interest has waxed and waned over the years, with international organisations as a topic moving to and from the cutting edge of international relations research, recent years have seen the emergence of sophisticated, empirically driven analyses never seen before. Even economists and sociologists have discovered formal international institutions, and an increasing number of anthropologists, too, are beginning to take seriously international organisations. The remainder will elucidate any and all of these contributions. But as encouraging as these developments are for the theory and practice of international organisations alike, it is important to be mindful of intellectual blindspots in the study of international organisations.

Activity

Generally speaking, how do the disciplines of anthropology, economics, history, law, political science and sociology differ?


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A reminder of your learning outcomesHaving completed this chapter, and the Essential reading and activities, you should be able to:

describe what international organisations are

distinguish international institutions from international organisations

outline the difference between the description and the study of international organisations, namely, the difference between journalistic and academic writings.

Sample examination questions1. What is multilateralism?

2. What is the purpose of studying international organisations?

3. What difference, if any, do epistemological differences make in the study of international organisations?

Notes


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Part I: The theory of international organisations

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Part I: The theory of international organisations

Notes


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Chapter 2: Realism

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Chapter 2: Realism

Aims and learning outcomesThe aim of this chapter is to elaborate what it means to study international organisations from a realist perspective. It explores the paradigm of realism in all its guises and explains why realists are sceptical about the significance of international organisations.

By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings and activities, you should be able to:

describe the key tenets of classical realism and structural realism (commonly known as neo-realism)

explain the sources of realisms lack of faith in the power of international organisations

outline the evolution of realist thinking about international organisations (IOs) over time.

Essential readingGrieco, Joseph M., Anarchy and the Limits of Cooperation: A Realist Critique

of the Newest Liberal Institutionalism, International Organization, 42(3) (Summer1988),pp.485507.

Mearsheimer, John J. The False Promise of International Institutions, International Security,19(3)(Winter1994/95),pp.7391.

Further readingBaldwin, David A. (ed.) Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary

Debate. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).Bull, Hedley The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics.

(Basingstoke: Palgrave, [1977] 2002) third edition.Buzan, Barry, Charles Jones and Richard Little The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism

to Structural Realism. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).Carr, E.H. The Twenty Years Crisis, 19191939: An Introduction to the Study of

International Relations. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, [1939] 2001) new edition.Doyle, Michael W. Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism.

(New York: Norton, 1997).Elman, Colin (ed.) Realism Reader. (London: Routledge, 2011).Gilpin, Robert War and Change in World Politics. (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1983).Gruber, Lloyd Ruling the World: Power Politics and the Rise of Supranational

Institutions. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000).Little, Richard The Balance of Power in International Relations: Metaphors,

Myths, and Models. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).Keohane, Robert O. (ed.) Neorealism and its Critics. (New York: Columbia

University Press, 1985). May, Ernest R., Richard Rosecrance and Zara Steiner (eds) History and

Neorealism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. (New York: Norton,

2002).Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace.

(Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill, [1948] 2005) seventh edition.Norrlof, Carla Americas Global Advantage: US Hegemony and International

Cooperation. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).


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Vasquez, John A. The Power of Power Politics: From Classical Realism to Neotraditionalism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

Walt, Stephen M. The Origins of Alliances. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987).

Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. (Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill, 2010).

IntroductionRealist approaches to international relations come in a variety of guises. What all of them have in common is the belief that international politics revolves in important ways around the acquisition and exercise of power. In what follows, I compare and contrast what the two major strands of the realist paradigm classical realism and structural realism (more frequently known as neo-realism) have to say about the nature and role of international organisations in the international system.

Classical realism, or the tragic view of international politics

The intellectual origins of the realist paradigm lay in the classical world. Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War in particular is commonly seen as the first depiction of power politics. More than a millennium later, Hans J. Morgenthau, a German migr, picked up and refurbished the ideas about the nature of international politics first articulated by Thucydides in the context of Athens war with Sparta over hegemony in theMediterraneanworldintheyears431404bc.

What united Thucydides and Morgenthau, and what, as we shall see, would come to separate them from present-day structural realists, was the belief that the origins of international power politics were to be sought in human nature. In fact, they believed that all politics, international and otherwise, was fraught with danger because of mans deeply ingrained distrust of the other. Thomas Hobbes, of course, came to a very similar conclusion in Leviathan, published in 1651, in which the English philosopher describes the state of nature as bellum omium contra omnes (war of all against all). Morgenthau, spurred on by Thucydides and Leviathan, not to mention his personal experience of the First and Second World Wars, embraced this tragic view of international politics. His publications and interventions, most notably Politics Among Nations (1948) amounted, at least at first, to a plea against the use of ethics in foreign policy, notably in US foreign policy. Morgenthau shared this scepticism of morality with another German migr, Henry Kissinger. Positions such as these are tragic in the sense that they conceive of international politics as a perennial struggle for survival. Because this struggle revolves centrally around fear and regularly results in suffering and pity, it becomes comprehensible why most classical realists subscribe to the Greek metaphor of tragedy when describing the nature of international politics.

And yet, Morgenthau, unlike structural realists, nevertheless appreciated the role of norms and values in the creation of international peace and security. From the outset, and this is sometimes overlooked, he emphasised the importance of mutual understanding, and of community, among nations for averting major war in the international system. Furthermore, as Richard Ned Lebow has recently shown, Morgenthau in his later life especially, altered his intellectual position somewhat and began to call for a principle of political organisation transcending the nation-state. All

Chapter 2: Realism

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of this is significant because it serves to highlight important theoretical differences between classical and structural realism, and the perspective of each on international organisations.

Activity

Why are classical realists so concerned with power?

From classical realism to structural realismThe impetus behind the invention of structural realism was two-fold: first, to move beyond the emphasis on human nature as the principal driving force of international politics; and, second, to introduce scientific rigour into the realist research programme by advancing an integrated theory of international politics. On both of these scores, Kenneth Waltz (1979) served as the pacemaker. He also differed with classical realists when it came to the relationship between domestic politics and international affairs. Whereas the former saw similarities across these spheres, Waltz insisted on the unique nature of international politics. The key tenets of structural realism can be summarised as follows. First, Waltz and his followers conceived of international politics as a struggle for power, wealth, or security. This sphere was dominated, and crucially shaped, by great powers. Structural realists, true to their name, believed the anarchic structure of the international system was the most important determinant of state behaviour. More specifically, in keeping with their emphasis on the centrality of great powers, these new-style realists argued that the nature of polarity in the international system was of crucial importance. Although structural realists disagree amongst themselves as to whether a bipolar or multipolar system is more conducive to international peace and security, and under what conditions this might be the case, they share the belief that the anarchic structure of the international system produces an uncertainty predicament, which, in turn, gives rise to a survival imperative.

Put differently, states fear for survival is not rooted in human nature, as classical realists believed, but has its origins in the institutional configuration of the international system. Due to this configuration, states can never be certain about the intentions of other states (and of their offensive capabilities). Structural realists assume that the sovereign-less international environment penalises any and all states that: fail to protect their vital national interests, or pursue national interests beyond their capabilities. Consequently, states (which are conceptualised as unitary-rational actors) aresaidtobeconstantlyengaginginmeansendscalculations.Relatedtothis, structural realists contend that states are sensitive to any erosion of their relative capabilities. It is not just about the maximisation of power, wealth, and security, say structural realists. Rather, states are very conscious of interest maximisation vis--vis other states. This brings us to the so-called relative gains problem in international cooperation.

The relative gains problem in international cooperationThe neo-realist scholar responsible for drawing attention, in the late 1980s, to the difference between relative gains and absolute gains was Joseph Grieco. In a very influential article, he called into question an article of faith on the part of liberal scholars of international relations the assumption that states, in their interactions with one another in the international system, are chiefly concerned about absolute gains. This view, argued Grieco, was both theoretically and empirically flawed. He


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showed that states not only worry about interest-maximisation as such, but about the maximisation of interests relative

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