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International Journal of Vocational Education and Training

Volume 17, Number 2 ©The International Vocational Education and Training Association

Editorial Staff

Editor: Davison M. Mupinga

Associate Editor: Jennifer Schneider

Typesetter: Christine Brooks

Editorial Board

Abouhakr Badawi • Kuwait

Curtis R. Finch • USA

Jim Gleeson • Ireland

Johanna L. Lasonen • Finland

Richard W. Moore • USA

Stamatis N. Paleocrassas • Greece

Sterling Saddler • USA

Anatoli Tchaban • Switzerland

Jeanette Daines • USA

Daniel L. Gilbert • USA

Phil Glenwright • Hong Kong

Doo H. Lim • USA

Ramlee B. Mustapha • Malaysia

Maria G. Rodriguez-Calcagno • USA

Jan N. Streumer • Netherlands

Kenneth S. Volk • Hong Kong

Past Journal Editors

Dennis R. Herschbach • Volumes 1-3

Alexander F. Thompson • Volumes 4 and 5(1)

Magnus M. B. Ross • Volume 5(2)

Curtis R. Finch • Volume 6(1)

Dennis R. Herschbach • Volume 6(2)

Clifton P. Campbell and Ernest W. Brewer • Volume 7

Ernest W. Brewer and Clifton P. Campbell • Volume 8

Ernest W. Brewer • Volumes 9-16

Davison M. Mupinga • Volume 17

Even though space does not permit us to include the names of many others who contributed

their valuable time and talent in service to the Journal, we do thank them as well. Since 1993,

they have served as associate editors; co-editors; guest, style, copy, and managing editors;

managing reviewers; members of the editorial board; regional editors; and publishers.

The International Journal of Vocational Education and Training is the official refereed

publication of the International Vocational Education and Training Association (IVETA). It is

published bi-annually and sent to members and subscribers. Regular individual membership

dues are US $60.00 per year. For subscription information, change of address, or to purchase

additional copies of the journal, contact Barbara Ann Herrmann, Executive Secretariat,

IVETA, 186 Wedgewood Drive, Mahtomedi, MN 55115. Phone her at 651-770-6719 or email

her at [email protected].

ISSN: 1075-2455


Volume 17, Number 2 ©The International Vocational Education and Training Association

President: Klaus W. Sodemann, German Agency for Technical Cooperation, Riyadh, Saudi

Arabia

President-Elect: Abel Modungwa, Botswana Training Authority (BOTA), Gaborone,

Botswana

Immediate Past President: David Fretwell, Scarcliffe Associates, Paso Robles, CA, USA

General Secretary: Isaac T. Goodine, World Bank Group Speakers Bureau, Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada

Executive Secretariat: Barbara Ann Herrmann, Educational Consultant, Mahtomedi,

MN, USA

Regional Vice-Presidents

Africa Patrick Nkanza

Technical Education

Vocational Entepreneurship

Training Authority (TEVETA)

Bird Cage Walk, Long Acres

Lusaka Zambia

Tel: +260 211 251040

Fax: +260 211 253382

East Asia & The Pacific Carmel Thompson

Southern Cross International

Learning Institute

21 Worley Drive

Gilston Queensland 4211

Australia

Tel: +61 7 5527 2001

Fax: +61 7 5527 2551

southernxconnection@

bigpond.com

East Europe & Central Asia Olga Oleynikova

Center for VET Studies

3, bld. 1, Goncharnaya str

office 43

109240 Moscow, Russia

Tel: +7 495 580 92 80

Fax: +7 495 698 09 82

[email protected]

Europe Allan M. Lawrence

International Business

Development

Walsall College, St Pauls

Campus

Walsall

West Midlands WS1 1WY

United Kingdom

Tel: +44 1922 657132

Fax: +44 1922 651121

alawrence@walsallcollege.

ac.uk

Latin America & Caribbean Regina De Galhardi

International Labor

Organization (ILO)

Darwin Nurn 31

Col. Anzures Darwin 11590

Mexico

Tel: +5255 5250 3224

Fax: +5255 5250 8892

[email protected]

Middle East & North Africa Saleh Al Amr

Technical and Vocational

Training Corporation (TVTC)

P.O. Box 7823

Riyadh 11472

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Tel: +966 55 322 3400

Fax: +966 1 4039722

[email protected]

North America Robert (Bob) E. Norton

Center on Education and

Training for Employment

The Ohio State University

1900 Kenny Road

Columbus, Ohio 43212 USA

Tel: 614-292-8481

Fax: 614-292-1260

[email protected]

South Asia Pramod Kumar Shrivastava

Indo German Institute of

Advanced Technology, IGIAT

D. No. 38-22-29 Industrial

Estate

Kancharapalem,

Visakhapatnam 530007-A.P.

India

Tel: 91-891-3258788,

6528786, +91-9246646001

(M)

[email protected];

pkshrivastava @hotmail.com

mailto:[email protected]


Volume 17, Number 2

Table of Contents

Message from the Editor 5

The Effect of Organizational Learning Climate on Self-Directed Learning

Yongho Park 7

Education Service Agency Audits: Reinforcing the Need for

Systematic Evaluation

Frederick M. Nafukho, Carroll M. Graham, and Kit Kacirek 19

Partnerships with Industry for Efficient and Effective Implementation

of TVET

Jeongwoo Lee 39

Perceptions of College Students: The Relevance of Academic Programs

to Current Jobs

Mabel C.P.O. Okojie, Tinukwa Okojie-Boulder, and James Boulder 57

Examining Stakeholder Perspectives on Integrating Open-Source

and Freeware Technologies into Educational Programs

Jeremy Dickerson and J. Burton Browning 72

Reforming TVET Teachers’ Professional Development in Greece:

A Needs-Based Policy

Stamatis Paleocrassas, Kostas Tsiantis, Vassilis Dimitropoulos,

Stavros Pagkalos, Giorgios Pavlidis, Alexis Nikolopoulos, and

Xenia Tsaliagou 84

Preferred Learning Styles of Working Adults

Betsy Orr, Dale E. Thompson, Terri D. Owens, and

Cecelia Thompson 101

China’s Vocational Education: An Insider’s View in Light of Western

Vocational Education

Victor C. X. Wang 108

Call for Papers 121

Publication Guidelines 122

Articles do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the International Vocational Education

and Training Association or the Journal’s editorial staff, and no endorsement by the association or

editorial staff should be inferred.

As a refereed journal, the International Journal of Vocational Education and Training

depends on qualified individuals to serve as manuscript reveiwers. We send feature

article manuscripts to three reviewers. So as not to overwork our reviewers, we need

some of you to join us for a one-year term.

If you have a record of publications, research experience, and an interest in gaining

additional practice in the use of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological

Association, please submit your vita to Dr. Davison M. Mupinga, Editor, International

Journal of Vocational Education and Training, School of Teaching, Learning, and

Curriculum Studies, College of Education, Health and Human Services, Kent State

University, P.O. Box 5190, 316 White Hall, Kent, OH 44242-0001, USA, Email:

[email protected].

Message From the Editor

Once again, this International Journal of Vocational Education and Training

(IJVET) touches on current and relevant technical and vocational education and

training (TVET) issues. I am indebted to a number of people for their help in the

production of this journal, specifically the reviewers, authors, and editorial staff

whose input is always valuable and critical to the success of this journal. Readers are

reminded that articles published in this journal come from all over the world, and as

such some authors do not speak English as a first language. While great care has

been taken to correct the verbiage, there may be some errors that went unnoticed.

Readers should also note that articles in IJVET do not necessarily reflect the position

or policy of IVETA or the Journal’s editorial staff or reviewers.

While this issue does not address all the pressing issues in TVET, what it does,

and does well, is address a selection of timely issues. Aspects covered in this issue

are: the effect of organizational learning climate on self-directed learning; the need

for systematic evaluation; the importance of partnerships between TVET institutions

and industry; the relevance of college courses to employment; stakeholders’

perspectives on integrating information and communication technologies into

educational programs; reforming TVET professional development policies in light

of the 21st century pedagogical developments; learning styles of working adults and

a glimpse of vocational education in other countries, namely in China, and Greece.

These articles provide readers with food for thought and current TVET practices in

other countries.

We have all seen and experienced the impact of the latest gizmos in social and

educational settings, now is the time to find out how these impact the teaching and

learning of TVET. The spring 2010 issue is devoted to the role of information and

communication technologies in TVET. And so, keep an eye out for the next issue.

Davison M. Mupinga

IJVET Editor

84 International Journal of Vocational Education and Training Vol. 17 No. 2

Reforming TVET Teachers’ Professional Development in Greece:

A Needs-Based Policy

Stamatis Paleocrassas Kostas Tsiantis Vice President, Higher School Professor, Technological of Pedagogical and Educational Institute of Technological Education, Greece Athens, Greece

Vassilis Dimitropoulos Stavros Pagkalo School Adviser, Electrical School Adviser, Electircal Engineers TVET Teachers, Technology TVET Teachers, Greece Greece

Giorgos Pavlidis Alexis Nikolopoulos School Adviser, Civil Works Principal and Teacher, and Applied Arts TVET Electrical and Automation Teachers, Greece Technology, Greece

Xenia TsaliagouSecondary Education Teacher, Greece

Abstract

In view of 21st century pedagogical developments, school-to-work transitions and teacher professionalism, what should be the policy framework for the pro-fessional development of technical-vocational education and training (TVET) teachers? This was the purpose of this project, which was commissioned by Organization for the In-service Training of Teachers (OEPEK). TVET teachers and vocational education officers responded to a survey pertaining to continu-ing in-service training (CT): design philosophy, content, models and modes, teacher-trainer qualifications and selection, certification and validation. The findings were conceptualized into a CT policy framework proposal, which re-flects a more flexible mode with emphasis on instructional effectiveness, use of teacher-trainers qualified in adult learning, accelerated school-based, intro-

84

Reforming TVET Teachers’ Professional Development in Greece 85

duction of labor market components in programs, and incentive-driven and competency-based CT certification.

Introduction

As a principal vehicle towards professional development at the international level, pre-service and continuing in-service training (CT) of technical-voca-tional education and training (TVET) teachers, strongly depends on the na-tional model of their basic training and on their initial technical qualifications. It also depends on the national model and articulation of the TVET compo-nents in the education system. Countries that deliver vocational skills through apprenticeship schemes often recruit experienced professionals from industry and enterprises who in turn attend a pre-service course in pedagogy and edu-cational technology in order to qualify as teachers in apprenticeship schools. Countries with a school-based TVET system mostly recruit university gradu-ates with or without work experience. These teachers in turn enroll in pedagogy training programs to become certified as TVET teachers. In-between these two schemes is the comprehensive model, where prospective TVET teachers ac-quire qualifications in teacher colleges or universities through a unified cur-riculum that integrates technical knowledge and pedagogic components. These colleges may enroll only experienced professional workers (e.g., University of Flensburg, in Germany) or fresh graduates of upper secondary education (Higher School of Pedagogical and Technical Education, in Greece). Independently of the model of basic training, reforming the professional development of TVET teachers in the 21st century faces new challenges that reflect developments in specialized pedagogy, school-to-work transitions, and strong demands to raise the status of teachers and trainers (European Union Council, 2000). Loucks and Horsley (1996) defined staff development as opportunities of-fered to educators so that they may develop knowledge skills, approaches and dispositions to improve their effectiveness in their classrooms and organiza-tions. The glossary used by the Centre for Educational Research and Innova-tion (CERI) suggests that staff development (and by extension, professional development) is any activity that develops an individual’s skills, knowledge, expertise and other characteristics as a teacher/ educator. These include per-sonal study and reflection as well as formal courses. Pedagogy developments in technical instruction respond to the criticism of-ten leveled at technical education teachers and practitioners, especially by em-ployers, that they lack up-to-date and relevant industry experience or knowl-edge and that they are sometimes unfamiliar with the range of technological advances and ways of working occurring in modern workplaces (Loveder,


2005). Technical instruction in the United States underwent a significant trans-formation in this aspect, when older concepts of specific skill preparation were replaced by a broader concept of work preparation, emphasizing curriculum integration, and the learning of technical and academic skills of higher order (Herschbach, 1998). The issue of school-to-work transition has also been reexamined, in view of global restructuring of the economies. An Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Conference on Preparing Youth for the 21st Century: The Transition from Education to the Labour Market, produced a BIAC Statement, which determined the characteristics of the 21st labor mar-ket as follows (OECD, 1999):

New profiles are more dynamic and require a broader spectrum of abilities.• Individuals tend to cover multiple work duties during their career. • Workplaces apply ever more often, flexible work contents and schemes.• Modern communications technology allows flexible work time scheduling • and non-traditional work places. Enterprises operate with less hierarchy and require greater individual re-• sponsibilities.

The message to education and educators is clear. The learning process can-not go on emphasizing only knowledge content, but it must also promote the development of critical higher-order skills, which facilitate life-long self-up-dating and upgrading of knowledge, inside and outside the work place. It has been suggested that the contemporary teacher, besides teaching subject mat-ter, must prepare his/her students for a “Protean career,” which requires the individual to develop employability and “meta-skills” (Hall & Moss, 1998). Another important issue that is seriously considered when reforming the basic and in-service training of TVET teachers is the emergence of strong de-mands to raise the status of teachers and trainers. The modern TVET teacher is considered to be a professional educator (Elliott, 1991). A comparative re-view of the basic and in-service training of TVET teachers in Europe (EURO-PROF) suggested a reform that views the TVET teacher as a ‘manager of learn-ing’ (Attwell, 1999). The professional TVET teacher was the object of a study undertaken by the Ministry of Education of Quebec, Canada (Gouvernement du Quebec, 2002). The study explored issues pertaining to the basic training cycle and examined the competency-based model, aiming to develop peda-gogy skills according to the contextual learning instructional method. In view of these developments, several reforms on TVET teacher prepa-ration were undertaken globally at the start of the 21st century. The Austra-lians reviewed the whole philosophy and procedure of in-service training for TVET teachers in an extensive study by National Center for Vocational Educa-tion Research (NCVER) (2001). Examining the role of staff development for


teachers in vocational training led the researchers to five critical reform issues (NCVER, 2001):

Staff development needs to take a balanced approach that recognizes the le-• gitimate demand of compliances, the organizational needs of the provider, and the professional and personal needs of teachers.Staff development planning needs to take into account the increasingly dif-• ferentiated nature of the workforce with special attention paid to the rela-tive participation rates of staff in different modes of employment.Staff development delivery is a complex, multi-layered task and needs to • be appropriately planned, implemented and critically evaluated against in-tended outcomes.Staff development needs to be made available in more diverse ways, taking • into account input from target groups in both planning and delivery and considering findings on effective staff development.VTET teachers need to be aware of the increasing expectation that they • will take greater responsibility for their own technical currency, pedagogi-cal expertise, and the need to be informed and thus articulate with regard to contemporary developments in the VTET sector.

Following this review, reforming TVET staff development in Australia was based on the initiative “reforming the future” by Australian National Training Authority (ΑΝΤΑ), which in turn raised the following issues (Grady, Hensley, & Haertsch, 2003):

How to develop sustainable cooperatives with industry and the local com-• munity.How to improve the quality of teaching and learning through lesson de-• sign.How to use new ways of learning, which allow students to select a style of • learning.How to use action learning and objective and authentic assessment in the • framework of individual learning plans.

In the United States of America, TVET teacher development emphasizes the model “the teacher as a learner,” in formal basic training curricula, in improving teaching, classroom management, and in developing cooperative skills (Szuminski, 2004). Sanford and McCaslin (2004), in a study for National Centre for Career and Technical Education (NCCTE), determined the following emphasis regarding in-service training of teachers in community colleges: analysis of learning characteristics of students, alternative teaching methods to face different learning styles, understanding teaching methods via internet and distance-learning techniques and methods. In Asia two new trends have emerged in Malaysia and India. Mustapha (2001) reported some staff development approaches, in the framework of in-service


training of TVET teachers in Malaysia. They include: teacher networking, ap-prenticeships in industry, knowledge and skills upgrading, and graduate studies. In India, Jain and Saxena (2002), reported approaches of periodic attachments in industry of young and experienced TVET teachers using technological equip-ment that is available in industry as the main in-service training strategy. UNESCO-ILO (2002), in the framework of their recommendations for TVET in the 21st century, beyond the traditional basic qualifications of teach-ers and trainers (special knowledge, pedagogy, and counseling), determined additional qualifications that relate to the following important issues:a) If the specialty sector requires primarily practical skills, teachers must

have significant experience in applying these skills.b) If the students must be prepared to fill middle level technical positions,

their teachers must possess significant knowledge that has been acquired preferably during the proper practice of a related work experience.

c) If the employment sector requires research and theoretical analysis, e.g. for an electrical specialty, teachers must have some foundation in research methods.

Regarding the in-service training of TVET teachers, it is recommended, inter alia, that they become familiar with the work environment, where their students may eventually be employed, as well as become able to deliver dis-tance individualized education and training (UNESCO-ILO, 2002). Regarding the deficit of work experience of TVET teachers, if local conditions prevent future teachers from receiving practical work experience in their training, the teacher-training institution should attempt to simulate workplace conditions as part of the curriculum (UNESCO-ILO, 2002). Finally, reforming the in-service training of TVET teachers in Greece is under consideration by the Organization for the In-service Training of Teach-ers (OEPEK). Towards this goal, after national bidding, OEPEK awarded to the authors the project to conduct a survey of TVET teacher-needs, expecting a recommendation for a reform framework conceptualized by the findings. The purpose of this paper is to report the findings of the survey and con-ceptualize them into a qualified policy framework for reforming TVET teacher in-service training, in view of contemporary global and national developments in pedagogy, school-to-work transitions and the emerging need for teacher pro-fessionalism.


Method

Survey Design

The scope of the study was to generate a cartography of views and attitudes of TVET teachers on their further training needs with intent to provide the nec-essary evidence for reforming provision of their continuing in-service training (CT). The survey also asked TVET officers to provide their views on the same subject. To this end, one objective of the survey was the comparison of views between teachers and officers with regard to gender, age, specialty, and school geographical location. The survey used two questionnaires. One addressed TVET teachers of dif-ferent vocational subjects in vocational lycea (EPAL), vocational schools (EPAS) and vocational laboratory centers (SEK). The other questionnaire addressed TVET officers (school advisers, regional education directors, school principals, and SEK directors). The second questionnaire was a synthesis of selected com-ponents of the first. The questions were grouped into the following inquires:

Personal data: gender, teaching experience, specialty, history of education 1. and further training, school region.Factors that shape the need for continuing in-service training.2. Factors that influence the teacher’s interest to attend an in-service training 3. program.The knowledge and skills that the teacher needs to master, in order to be 4. more effective.Objective factors that affect the teacher’s participation in an in-service 5. training program; location, time, and duration.The agents of delivery and qualification requirements of the teaching staff.6. Institutions and experts needed to design and develop in-service teacher 7. training programs.Delivery models and instructional techniques that are considered appropri-8. ate for the effectiveness of the training programs.Assessment/ certification of the trainees and the training program.9. Proposals on the need to institutionalize compulsory and /or optional in-10. service training with a periodic frequency.

Each questionnaire included three types of questions: open-ended, closed, and multiple-choice. The scales, which were used for the multiple-choice ques-tions, were nominal for questions pertaining to the special qualifications of the trainers of the teachers and Likert type (Brown, 1976) with four choices for the rest. The Likert scale had the following points: 1= Not at all, 2= Slightly, 3= Much, and 4= Very much. For some questions, the nature of which required statistical adjustment, the 4-point Likert scale was reduced to two points. The first point


grouped the answers “Not at all” and “Slightly”, which reflected a negative atti-tude, and the second point grouped the answers “Much” and “Very much”, which reflect a positive attitude. Finally, the validity of the questionnaires was checked in a test run with selected experts on educational assessment.

Population and Sample

The statistical population for the research included all public school TVET teachers, who for the year 2008 totaled 10,120. For the purpose of the survey, these teachers were grouped into two specialty areas: the Technological Sector and the Services Sector. The first sector included the specialties: Mechanical technology, Electrical technology, Electronics, Public works, and Applied Arts. The Services sector included the specialties: Informatics, Commerce and Busi-ness, Health and Social Welfare, and Agricultural products and Environment. Table 1 shows the teacher population and sample size per vocational path.

Table 1. Population and Sample Size per Vocational Path for the 2007 – 2008 School YearVocational Paths

Technological Services Sectors Sum Sectors Sum

Sample sizePopulation per path 2190 1293 733 712 402 5330 2938 677 890 285 4790 10120Sample Computed (1) 77 69 23.5 11.7 7.8 189 77 51 33.2 7.8 169 358Sample Collected (2) 63 55 19 10 8 155 63 42 27 8 140 295Percentage % (2)/(1) 81.8 79.7 80.8 85.4 100 82.0 81.8 82.3 81.3 100 82.8 82.4

The population was distributed statistically into four regional areas as can be seen in Table 2: 1) Central Macedonia, 2) Aegean Islands, Ionian and Cre-tan seas, 3) Attica, and 4) the remaining mainland regions (Epiros, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, Thessaly, continental Greece and Peloponissos). The population was also distributed statistically into four age groups. The size of the statistical sample was estimated on the basis of the population (10,120) and

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its distribution into nine vocational sectors. The “Athenian law of representa-tion and sampling” (Tsiantis, 2008), was used to this end, which was validated with the computer-based simulation method, and which resulted in a samplesize of 358 individuals. The distribution of this size was done proportionally according to size of each vocational specialty (77, 69, 23.5, 11.7, 7.8, 77, 51, 33.2, and 7.8) see Table 1. The sizes for the other groupings of the statistical sampling (geographical regions, gender, age) were covered satisfactorily by the overall estimated size of the sample.

Table 2. Distribution of Statistical Population and Sample, per Geographical Region of Greece Statistical Population Sample Number of Number ofGeographical Region Individuals % Individuals %Attica (1/3 of population of Greece) 2,688 27 106 36Central Macedonia 1,761 17 88 30Islands 1,526 15 34 11Rest of the Mainland 4,145 41 67 23Total 10,120 100 295 100

Procedure

Questionnaires were sent electronically to a total of 500 TVET teachers, in the four regions of the country, following a drawing from available e-mails, provided by the Education Ministry, proportionally according to the estimated sample. Following the same procedure, questionnaires were sent to 125 TVET officers. There were 295 completed questionnaires (about 82 % of the sample) that were returned by the targeted teachers with a gender distribution of 63% males and 27 % females. The corresponding gender distribution for the officers was 71 % and 29 %, respectively. The distribution of the 295 TVET teachers by age group was 18 %, 44 %, 33 %, and 5 %, respectively. There was no interest in distribution according to age for the sample of the officers. The sample distri-bution of teachers according to specialty covered over 80 % of the required size of the sample (Table 2). The distribution of the sample of teachers according to geographical area was 106, 88, 34, and 67, respectively. The corresponding distribution for the TVET officers was 25, 20, 10, and 32, respectively.

Data Analysis

The frequency distribution of the answers in the completed questionnaires was checked, and its deviation from the regular distribution was noted. A similar conclusion was reached from the application of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and


Lilliefors tests for the Likert type questions (Conover, 1980). Because of devia-tion from the regular distribution and the absence of previous statistical data, the maximum acceptable number of groupings was set to be smaller or equal to four in order to assure credibility for the comparative conclusions,. For the questions using the Likert scale, in order to make comparisons among the different groups of the sample, the non-parametric method Kruskal-Wallis (Gibbons, 1985) was used which involves one-way ANOVA analysis for the case in which the data do not obey the regular distribution. For two-way ANOVA analysis, the parametric method Friedman (Hogg & Ledolter, 1987) was used. For nominal type questions, frequencies and bar charts were cal-culated and the X2 test (Pearson Chi-Square Test) was used, for comparisons among the different groupings of the sample. This checking was examining if in two-input tables (2x2) the zero hypothesis was in force at the 5 % statisti-cal significance level. For the validity of the 2x2 test, it was taken into account that the cells of each table, which had a frequency less than 5, were fewer than 20 % of the total number of cells of the table, and that the minimum expected value for each cell was greater than 1. In the database proper groupings of variables were made when needed. The statistical analysis was made using the SPSS package and the programming in Matlab environment.

Findings

Firstly, the findings (OEPEK, 2008) regarding the content, duration, sched-uling, frequency, design, certification, selection of teaching staff, and infra-structure of the prospective training programs were classified according to the issue components which were chosen to conceptualize the framework of the prospective new policy on the CT of TVET teachers. Table 3 shows teacher demand for different CT topics.

Table 3. Teacher Demand for ‘CT’ Topics (Ν=295) % of expressed interest (/100) % (/100) (4=highest scale) Sum of Topics 1 2 3 4 (3) + (4)4.1.1 Pedagogy / Didactics 0.0448 0.1724 0.4138 0.3690 0.78284.1.2 Science & Technology 0.0173 0.2007 0.3495 0.4325 0.78204.1.3 Practical knowledge 0.0069 0.0619 0.3299 0.6014 0.93134.1.1 School management 0.0868 0.3507 0.3646 0.1979 0.56254.1.5 Digital technology 0.0145 0.0652 0.3768 0.5435 0.92034.2.1 Pedagogy / Learning theories 0.0310 0.2483 0.4138 0.3069 0.72074.2.2 Classroom management / delinquency 0.0137 0.1263 0.3140 0.5461 0.8601


% of expressed interest (/100) % (/100) (4=highest scale) Sum of Topics 1 2 3 4 (3) + (4)4.2.3 Learning disabilities 0.0139 0.1354 0.3681 0.4826 0.85074.2.4 Special education 0.0692 0.3322 0.3599 0.2388 0.59874.2.5 Multicultural issues 0.0523 0.2056 0.4181 0.3240 0.74214.3.1 General instructional techniques 0.0524 0.2867 0.4196 0.2413 0.66094.3.2 Special instructional techniques 0.0307 0.0819 0.2867 0.6007 0.88744.3.3 Student assessment 0.0414 0.1931 0.4207 0.3448 0.76554.3.4 Digital technology applications 0.0245 0.0874 0.3182 0.5699 0.88814.4.1 Administration of education 0.0906 0.4216 0.2857 0.2021 0.48784.4.2 Education systems 0.0383 0.2718 0.4077 0.2822 0.68994.4.3 Health education 0.0205 0.1877 0.3993 0.3925 0.79184.4.4 School-to-work issues 0.0208 0.1592 0.3218 0.4983 0.82014.4.5 Demand for knowledge and qualifications, EQF* 0.0592 0.2021 0.3937 0.3449 0.73864.4.6 European funding of ed. programs 0.0660 0.2569 0.3785 0.2986 0.6771* European Qualification Framework

Secondly, the findings reflected statistically significant differentiations among the respondents, regarding their gender, age, years of service, instructional sub-ject matter and geographical location of their school (region), to the extent that the reform should consider addressing different target groups separately. Finally, the teachers and the officers seemed to have differences regarding some of the issues of the new policy on teacher CT, which may reflect the difference be-tween personal need and the need of the general teaching practice, something that should be considered by the policy makers, when they would be reviewing the validity of their proposed policy design.

Continuing Training Issues

The issues, which were explored in the survey, were training content, duration, scheduling, frequency, design, certification, selection of teaching staff, and in-frastructure. The following issues in quotations were options in the related research questionnaire. The need for CT seems to be attributed mostly to introducing “new technolo-gies in the instructional procedure,” to “developments in instructional theory and practice,” and to “changes in job contents,” and to a lesser extent to “social changes in the school environment,” and to “the complex role of workers in con-temporary society.” The most important factors, which affect the teachers’ inter-est for CT, are “the need to follow related scientific developments,” “the need for personal development as a professional teacher” and “facing needs and problems


of school life.” “Acquiring additional qualifications for promotion” is a factor of lesser importance, while “improving their social status” and “economic incen-tives” are not considered important factors, which make CT more attractive. Teachers’ aspirations from a CT program seem to be greater for “upgrad-ing and updating related knowledge,” for “improving instructional and peda-gogic ability” and for “supporting student abilities and development,” and not so much for “developing relations and exchanging experiences with the peer group.” Next in order come aspirations for “improving school management skills.” Here it must be clarified that in Greece, school principals are selected on the basis of teaching experience and not on school management qualification. The respondents indicated special preference among pedagogic and socio-psychological CT subjects, for “classroom management,” “coping with disrupt-ing student behavior,” “facing student violence.” and “juvenile phenomena.” Continuing in-service training which received high ratings were, “special instructional methods for vocational subjects”, “designing an hourly instruc-tion”, “group learning techniques”, “learning with projects” and “individualized instruction”. Optional participation of teachers in CT programs seems to be strongly affected on “program content”, “trainer quality”, “physical accessibility of CT facility” and “block release from school obligations”. The respondents did not seem to relate strongly their decision to participate in a CT program to economic conditions, that is, transportation expenses and per diem. The majority of respondents do not favored scheduling CT classes during weekends. Instead they favor strongly weekdays and after school hours. The proposition for selecting one weekday for a six-month CT duration seems very interesting to most respondents. Nevertheless, eight in 10 respondents would gladly spend 75 contact hours or more in a CT program without release from teaching duties, provided they would be awarded a training certificate. Concerning the periodicity of compulsory CT, the most favorable response was every five years. On the question of proper agents for delivering CT, the preferences were for: the Pedagogical Institute, the Organization for In-service Training of Teachers (OEPEK), the universities, the Technological Educa-tion Institutions and the Regional Centers for In-service Training of Teachers (PEK), in that order. On the question of who should be included in the teams, which would be designing CT programs, strong preferences were for expe-rienced TVET teachers, the agent delivering the CT program, TVET School Councilors, and experienced labor market actors, the latter for the program components dealing with technical-vocational subject matter. All CT delivery modes were acceptable by the respondents, with the mode “in-school training” (inside a centrally located TVET school with the proper facilities) standing out as optimal. All CT instructional approaches were ac-ceptable by the respondents excluding the “chalk-and-talk” method, and pro-


vided that theory is always followed by contextual practice applications, and model demonstrations by experienced teachers or School Councilors. The re-spondents strongly accepted assessment-based certification of CT, provided there is official recognition of the certificate for transferring credits in modu-lar CT schemes, and for promotional opportunities. On the question of who should be included as stakeholders in CT evaluations, first preference was given to the teachers attending the program. Finally, the majority of the respondents (eight in 10) considered compul-sory CT necessary for all TVET teachers, and definitely for those who seek a TVET officer position. They also considered optional CT necessary, provided that the participating teachers are allowed to select the training module.Statistically Significant ParametersStatistically significant differentiations among the respondents regarding their gender, age, years of service, instructional subject matter and geographical lo-cation of their school (region) are displayed in Table 4

Table 4. Teacher Impact Factors (N=295) Number of questions, for which there was statistical difference in the answers Impact Factor because of an impact factor1. Gender (63% males, 27% females) 342. Teaching subject (two main groups: Technology with 5 subgroups, and Services with 4 subgroups) 163. Geographical region (4 major regions) 144. Teaching experience (4 groups) 115. Teacher age (4 groups) 11

Statistically significant differentiations among the respondents regarding their gender, age, years of service, instructional subject matter, and geographical location of their school (region), were recorded as described below. Regarding differentiations according to gender, women TVET teachers re-sponded at higher rates than men TVET teachers, in all of the above men-tioned views. Regarding differentiations according to years of teaching experi-ence (younger teachers with one to five years experience, relatively old teachers with 6-15 years experience and older teachers with over 15 years experience), the younger teachers were more eager to participate in CT programs and had higher expectations from them than relatively older teachers and much higher than older teachers. The same was true for their interest in the pedagogic and socio-psychological component of a CT program. On the other hand, older teachers were more critical concerning the qualifications of those teaching in


CT programs. Program duration and workload are factors, which influence more the younger teachers in deciding their participation in CT programs. Younger teachers, as opposed to older teachers, showed preference to open, distance learning CT modes. Younger teachers, as opposed to older teachers, felt that CT is more effective, when there is continuous support by experienced teachers and School Councilors. Regarding differentiations according to geographical location of their school, teachers working in Central Macedonia and in the remaining Mainland region showed greater interest for CT in School Management and Evaluation, espe-cially when compared with the interests of teachers working in Attica schools. It should be pointed out that the region of Attica is by far the most populated region of Greece (about one third of the total population of the country). Teachers working in schools on the islands showed much greater interest for CT programs which prepare them in drafting proposals to attract fund-ing from the European Union, for implementing special educational programs, especially when compared to the interests of their peers who teach in Attica schools. As expected, teachers working in schools on the islands and in the rest of the Mainland, were affected more strongly by the factor of accessible transportation to the CT facility, than their peers teaching in Attica schools. Duration and work load of CT programs affect much less teachers in Attica schools, compared to their peers in the rest of the country, in forming interest to participate in a CT program. Attica teachers favor a frequency of 7 years for compulsory CT repetition, as compared with teachers in schools in the rest of the country, who prefer a frequency of 5 years. Attica teachers do not favor an alternating CT between school and work place, as compared with teachers in schools in the rest of the country, who favor this mode of CT. The issue of cer-tifying CT was viewed differently by Attica teachers, as compared with teachers in schools in the rest of the country, because the former felt that certification should apply only when there is provision for it to be counted in promotions and credit recognition. There were also significant differentiations among teachers, according to the subject matter they teach, but they will be omitted because they do not ap-ply within the scope of this paper.

The Views of TVET Officers

As anticipated, the views of TVET officers did not necessarily match the views of the teachers. Among the issues of disagreement the following were most interesting for formulating a CT reform framework. Teachers are more strongly in favor of CT programs that emphasize theo-retical technical-scientific knowledge than the officers. The same holds true for


practical vocational knowledge and skills. On the other hand, officers are more strongly in favor of CT programs, which emphasize school organization and management than the teachers. Teachers are more strongly in favor of CT pro-grams that emphasize digital technologies in education, than the officers. The officers show much greater interest in CT programs on special education than teachers do. On the other hand, teachers show much greater interest in CT pro-grams on special instructional techniques and on contemporary instructional approaches for more effective learning than the officers do. Teachers are more concerned about the infrastructure of CT programs than the officers, when deciding to participate in a program. Teachers and officers seem to disagree strongly regarding the agents of delivering CT programs. They both agree on decentralized agents, but the officers favor the ministry of education traditional CT agents, while the teachers feel strongly that higher education institutions should be included among the agents. Only the teachers accept the model of teacher-designed self-learning CT programs, which are supervised by desig-nated agents. The officers support much stronger teacher assessment and certi-fication in CT programs, while teachers seem to agree conditionally. Finally, on the issue of compulsory versus optional CT, the officers consider compulsory CT as a prerequisite to all promotions. On the other hand, teachers prefer optional CT with the possibility of freely selecting the content of training.

Discussion and Conclusions

A needs assessment survey is an effective tool to generate important informa-tion that is valuable in formulating educational policy. In the present case it was used to document the views of TVET teachers and officers on reform-ing CT for their professional development. The weight placed on this type of input by policy makers depends on the selected policy formulation approach. Nevertheless, TVET teachers and officers are the most important stakeholders for this issue, and it is inconceivable that any CT reform would not commence with a review of their needs. A conceptualization of the survey findings may focus on the following im-portant issues:

The respondents showed increased interest in reforming the existing CT • scheme with intent to improve their effectiveness as teachers and as teacher councilors, respectively. Consequently, the reform need not concentrate ex-tensively on special incentives. Rather it should be driven by contemporary instructional needs, which according to the results of the survey are linked to developments in new technologies affecting subject matter knowledge and instructional media, in more effective instructional techniques, and in changes in work places and skill requirements.


The vast majority of the respondents accept compulsory, periodic CT with • a repetition period of 5 years and with a total of not less than 75 contact hours. Most favorable scheduling was “one day per week for a six-month period”, with work release. The majority of respondents also accepted op-tional CT. This suggests the need for flexibility in the new CT scheme.The issue of credible assessment of CT participants, leading to some sort of • certification, was given importance by the majority of the respondents, on the condition that any form of certification will be officially recognized in all promotion considerations. This issue, together with CT mode flexibility raises the need to modularize the content of CT programs in the form of credits that would allow summative credit recognition and certification.The issue of the fitness of CT delivery agents and trainers was emphasized • by most of the respondents, as a significant factor affecting their decision to participate in a program. In view of the ever increasing interest in the Euro-pean Union (and in Greece) for life long learning, inevitably many related funds will be available for CT of teachers, raising great interest among all potential delivery agents. Consequently, any reform of teaching staff devel-opment should include an integral component of quality assurance through an institutional accrediting agency. Quality assurance for CT seems to be associated with the validity of CT pro-• gram design, which as an issue it was raised by the majority of the respon-dents, in relation to the inclusion of their experienced peers in the design teams.

Proposed Policy Framework

Conceptualizing the above conclusions into a new policy framework for the CT of TVET teachers, we are led to the following fundamental principles as necessary components of the policy framework:

The reform’s main scope should aim at improving the effectiveness of teach-1. ers, as professional instructors and as counselors and mentors for their stu-dents.To assure the validity of the reform, experienced teachers should be in-2. cluded as principal stakeholders in the design, development and evaluation of CT programs.CT contents should be guided by reviews of the impact of new technologies 3. on vocational knowledge, instructional effectiveness and new skill require-ments in the work place.There should be enough flexibility in CT scheduling, delivery modes, pro-4. gram duration and content structures, so as to ensure development opportu-nities for teachers with different family, career and subject area priorities, and


at the same time assure reasonable cost-effectiveness. Accelerated, school-based CT seems to be the most favored mode, especially when it includes self-learning components. CT participant assessment and certification should be optional, but if se-5. lected, it should be competency-based and linked to an institutionalized reward system of transferable professional development credits, and/ or promotional procedures.In spite of the optional/compulsory participation possibility in assessment 6. and certification, teacher CT reform should include the necessary summative evaluation, as an integral part of an established quality assurance scheme. Equally important integral part of the quality assurance scheme should be the 7. accreditation of CT delivery agents and CT programs and contents, and Important criterion for the selection of teacher-trainers for CT programs 8. should be adult training qualifications.

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