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Professor John Henry Merryman (USA), ChairmanDr. Claude Daniel Ardouin (Senegal) Professor Clemency Coggins (USA) Richard Crewdson (England)Professor Vassos Karageorghis (Cyprus) Professor Pierre Lalive (Switzerland) Professor David Lowenthal (England)

Professor Norman Palmer (England)Dr. Patrick O’Keefe (Australia)Professor Lyndel Prott (Australia) Professor Stefano Rodota (Italy) Professor Dr. Kurt Siehr (Germany, Switzerland)Professor Rodolfo Stavenhagen (Mexico)

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ContentsNo. 1 - Vol. 4 - 1995

7 EditorialNorman Palmer

Articles13 A Licit International

Trade in Cultural Objects John Henry Merryman

61 A Licit International Traffic in Ancient Art:Let There Be Light! Clemency Chase Coggins

81 Licit InternationalTraffic in Cultural Objects for Art’s Sake Hugo Keith Weihe

91 Vers un trafic licite des biens culturels?Quelques réflexions et questions à partir d’une perspective anthropologique Claude Daniel Ardouin

Essay

105 The Egyptian Monuments:Problems and Solutions Zahi Hawass

Case Notes119 Greece v. Ward :

The Return of Mycenaean Artifacts Ricardo J. Elia

129 The Legal Protection of TraditionalCommercial Activities:Two Decisions of the Italian Constitutional CourtAndrea Biondi

137 Chronicles

Documents157 Country Land Owners

Association Guidance Note on Metal Detecting

Treaties and EU Matters165 European Union

Joanna Goyder

Conference Reports167 Regional Workshop on

Measures against Illicit Traffic in Cultural Property for Eastern and Southern African Countries. Arusha,24 - 30 October 1993 Etienne Clément

169 IntergovernmentalWorking Meeting on the Situation of Movable Heritage in Central and Eastern European Countries. Prague,9 - 10 November 1993 Etienne Clément

5

Contents

170 The Protection of the Cultural Heritage of the Middle East and North Africa:A Regional Symposium on the Effects of Public Policy. Cairo,14 - 18 November 1993 Lyndel Prott

Book Reviews171 Rudolf Dolzer, Erik

Jayme, Reinhard Mußgnug Rechtsfragen des internationalen Kulturgüterschutzes [Legal Problems of International Protection o f Cultural Property] Ignaz Seidl- Hohenveldem

174 David Rogers The Bodleian Library and its Treasures 1320- 1 700 Keith McVeigh

179 John Hunter and Ian Ralston Archaeological Resource Management in the UK:An Introduction Margaret Curry

182 American IndianCulture and Research Journal: "Repatriation o f American Indian Remains "Ben Ward

187 Alexander GoepfertLiability Problems in Art Trade and Art Auctions Kurt Siehr

189 Peter Watson From Manet to Manhattan - The Rise o f the Modern Art Market Thomas Dreier

192 Hans Belting TheGermans and their Art - A Problematic Heritage Thomas Dreier

196 The Free Circulation of Art Collections, (Studies in Art Law, Vol. 3)Martin Phillip Wyss

199 C. Lury Cultural Rights: Technology, Legality and Personality David Saunders

207 List of Contributors

PreviewThe eighth issue of the Journal will pursue the concept of a licit market and examine forms of cultural propagation falling short of outright commercial dis­positions. Particular emphasis will be placed on art loans. In addition, we shall examine the enforcement of covenants regulating bequests and donations, with particular reference to the Turner bequest, and publish a contemporary analysis of the operation of the Australian Protection of Movable Cultural Heritage Act. The issue will contain the usual range of case reports and legislation notes, and will continue our analysis of European issues. Contributors will include Selby Whittingham, Hugh Jamieson, Mark Boguslavskij, David Murphy, Paul Kearns and Norman Palmer.

6

EssayThe Egyptian Monuments: Problems and Solutions

Zahi Hawass*

1 Introduction

Egypt’s wealth bedazzled the world. Truly a land of plenty, her vast resources during her glorious years as the kingdom of the Pharaohs gave mankind a permanent record of the greatness of her people. The remnants that are seen today show a population that delighted in life and wanted to take that joy into the unknown netherworld.

About 450 years before Christ, a restless Greek traveller sailed from his home at Halicarnassus, on the Turkish coast. He was off to see the civilized lands he had heard so much about throughout his boyhood. This inquisitive traveller, Herodotus, reached Egypt and was impelled to stay in the country until he could see the fascinating treasures that were a daily feast before his eyes. As had the ancient Egyptians, Herodotus made this journey both on land and on the life blood of Egypt, the Nile.1

For a period of over a thousand years, the temples and tombs, even pyramids of the Pharaohs were completely covered with sand, which offered them a kind of natural protection. Herodotus, who wrote about the monuments at Giza plateau, never mentioned the Sphinx, because it was completely covered with sand.2 This is im­portant evidence to show that the Egyptian monuments were covered with sand since 500 B.C. Two hundred years ago, scholars and ad­venturers began uncovering the monuments from the protective sand. Since that time, many elements have contributed to the deteri­oration of these monuments.

2 The Causes of Decay

2.1 People Living in, Around and on the Monuments

The problem of urbanization can be seen in many places. The temple of Esna is completely surrounded by the city of Esna. The temple is located on lower ground and the city has grown up around it. None of the houses has a sewage system. Sewage is leaking down from the houses into the temple. Salt has started to appear on the lower

* Director of the Pyramids, Giza.

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part of the temple. The same situation has occurred in Edfu, Akh-miem and Ashmonien in Middle Egypt. Cracks have begun to appear

in the walls of these temples. This caused a huge block to fall down from the top of the first pylon of the temple of Edfu.3 The same thing has recently happened in the temple of Kom Ombo. Many inscriptions and pharaonic scenes were destroyed. The same problem has been occurring for a long time in Qurna located on the west bank of the Nile in Luxor. Many houses have also been built recently nearby the tombs of the nobles and around the tombs of dynasties IV and XI at El Taref.

The village of Nazlet-el-Samman is located just at the foot of the pyramids. It is a village of about 200,000 people. We know that houses have been built above monuments. During the work of the sewage system for the village, we found a very large settlement of about 3km square in this area. Also found were animal bones of sheep, cattle and pigs, showing the marks of butchers’ knifes. Thou­sands of domestic pottery sherds, some originating from Upper Egypt, give evidence of trade between Upper and Lower Egypt in this period. Pollen was found that is being analysed to shed light on the clinic of ancient Egypt. In addition, the causeway and the valley temple of Khufu was found while putting in the village sewage sys­tem. These treasures are being damaged by urbanization.

In short, the problems that come from the building of village homes include ascitic pollution, water pollution, fire and smoke from cooking, and theft.

The village of Qurna, near Luxor, is located on top of an area rich in archaeolog­ical finds.

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The town of Nazlet-el-Samman o f over 200,000 inhabitants is located near to the pyramids. An ancient settlement 3km2, remains o f a causeway and a temple have been excavated in its environs.

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2.2 The Rising Water Table

This problem is a result of the lack of sewage systems, or of leaking systems, as seen in Islamic Cairo where water can be observed flooding the streets. This water full of salt. When it comes in contact with limestone monuments, a chemical reaction reduces it to powder.

The salt crystallisation problem is observed in the monuments all over Upper and Lower Egypt.4 Some believe that the rising of the water table came after the High Dam of Aswan.5 It has been proved that the High Dam does not cause the rising water under the monu­ments in the Nile valley.

The Sphinx is a good example of this problem. The level of the water table under the Sphinx has been about 2m for a long time. The level of the water table was measured last year and found to be at 7m under the Sphinx, suggesting that the sewage system of the village reduces the level of the water table.6

2.3 Fluctuations in Humidity and Temperature

There are climatic elements causing damage. These include biologi­cal degradation, salt crystallization, rock swelling, rains, flash floods, wind erosion and temperature variation.7

The variation in temperature, especially in Upper Egypt, is severe. This change can be seen best in the area of Abu Simbel. During an 8 hour period, the temperature can change from 15 to 41 degrees.8 There is no doubt that this vast change can affect the stone surface.

The wind is another powerful factor. The ancient Egyptians recog­nised this factor. Tuthmose IV built two protective walls on the north side of the Sphinx to protect it from wind.9

Strengthening the bedrock base of the Sphinx: stones were

placed in position according to a

photogrammatic map. The mortar used consisted of lime and

sand.

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Essay

2.4 Human ActionModem technology, such as the building of industrial centres near the monuments and the resulting pollution are a major problem. The factories in Helwan affected the monuments at Sakkara and Giza. There are limestone quarries near the monuments where they use dynamite. The vibration of the dynamite was affecting the body of the Sphinx. A control program for the limestone quarries has now reduced this impact.

Other elements of human action, such as wars, absence of cultural awareness and voluntary destruction from ignorance (for example the use of the pyramids as stone quarries),10 and neglected mainten­ance have had an enormous negative impact.

Modem agriculture has expanded and is surrounding the monu­ments. Lands belonging to antiquities have been converted to agric­ulture. There are many examples of this in Upper and Lower Egypt.

2.5 TourismThere is no system to integrate the income generated by tourism and, in turn, to fund the preservation of the Egyptian monuments. Tourism is very important for the economy but it is also very danger­ous to the preservation of the monuments. It is a fact that each tourist who enters a tomb or a pyramid brings about 20gm of water to the monument. The great pyramid of Khufu is a good example. Hu­midity has risen to 95 per cent inside the pyramid. Salt accumulation of about 1cm thickness has accumulated over the surfaces of the so- called queen’s chamber and the grand gallery of Khufu’s pyramid. In about 500 different spots within the great pyramid, the stone had become weak and detached.11 Some restoration has been done. Soot (black spots) was removed from the ascending passage which leads to the second burial chamber or queen’s chamber by a solution com­posed of alcohol and water: 1:1 in equal parts. Following that, some of the areas were cleaned by using a concentration of acetone. In addition, the salts which covered the walls and the roof of this pass­age were cleaned by mechanical methods. Weak parts were consoli­dated to protect the walls of this passage from detachment by using special mortar derived from sand and araldite.

Other deteriorating parts of walls were restored by applying a suitable mortar composed of three parts sand, two parts lime powder and one part Kaolin. All the blocks were registered in the grand gallery and recorded by drawing and photographing the actual con­dition of each block before restoration. Where possible the loosened blocks were grouted and reattached. In the grand gallery, a total of 239 blocks were examined and repaired on the left wall.

A television monitoring system was introduced in order to control t he circulation of visitors inside the Great Pyramid. Five highly sen­sitive television cameras were placed inside the grand gallery, the second burial chamber and the third burial chamber.12

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The Sphinx in 1936 after the removal of

sand and the restoration of the head by Baraize.

The results of poor restoration of the

Sphinx are clearly visible.

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The Sphinx in 1926 be fore restoration by Baraize.

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The EAO and the German Archaeological Institute have com­pleted the cleaning of the so-called air shafts inside Khufu’s pyramid to stop the increase in humidity. During this work officials installed electric lights and a security system with instruments which measure the temperature and humidity inside the pyramid. Measurements showed that humidity had increased to a dangerous level of 85 - 9 5 per cent. After studying the humidity and air circulation problems inside the pyramid, the German Institute proposed to clean the so- called air shafts to facilitate air circulation. The pyramid was closed for five days last May. After cleaning the shafts, there was a remark- able improvement in air quality inside the pyramid.13

Additionally, two electrical ventilation units with an air flow of approximately 400m3 were installed to ensure the air exchange in­side the pyramid. After a careful study, two electrical fans were installed inside already existing openings in the air southern channel and in the so-called Caviglia tunnel behind the exit of the northern channel. After the installation, the air is completely exchanged every one and a half hours. Now the interior temperature and humidity match that on the outside.

Over 3,000 tourists a day visit the tomb of Tutankhamen of the XVIIIth dynasty and Seti I of the XIXth dynasty. There has been deterioration in the tomb of Seti. Cracks have formed in the tomb interior and the inscription in second half of the tomb of Ramses III is now gone. Moreover, the tomb of Mentomhet is in very bad condition.

The system of Sound and Light shows in the temple of Karnak and Philae is not properly designed for the safety of the temple. The system is now being improved with new technology. Mechanical shock, such as occurs from tourist buses and cars in the sites of the antiquities sites, is very dangerous. Excessive vibration and air pollution are generated.

2.6 Inadequate RestorationImproper restoration is the greatest danger to the preservation of the Egyptian monuments. The Sphinx is a good example. Large stones were put as a casting on the Sphinx in 1982 and 1987. Cement was used to hold the casting in place. In order to add the casting, all the ancient stones that were added to the Sphinx in Pharaonic, Saïte and Roman periods were removed. The result of this improper resto­ration can be seen by the damage done by workers who directly damaged the claws.14 Salt started to appear on the new stone.

Improper and poorly designed restoration is widespread and can be seen on the temples of Edfu, Esna, Luxor, Karnak and Medinet Habu. No appropriate system of conservation is being used. Cement is still being used in the restoration.

The restoration of the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir-el-Bahri is based on imagination and not on knowledge.

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Essay

The temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri has suffered damaged from landslides. Subsequent restoration has been based more on conjecture than informed re­search.

2.7 Other Factors

There are other elements affecting the Egyptian monuments, such as natural disasters (earthquake, flood), biodegradation, the action of gravity and habitation.

Many monuments are in critical condition due to the problems mentioned above. There is a list, which I call the Dangerous List, which includes temples or monuments that need immediate atten­tion. Examples are: the temples of Edfu, Esna, Deir-el-Bahri, Luxor, Medinet Habu and the Rameseum; the tombs in the valley of the Kings, such as Ramses III, Seti I, King Tutankhamen and the nobles’ tombs; the Serapeum and the interior of the Step Pyramid at Sak­kara; and the tombs of Kom-el-Shekafa in Alexandria.

3 The Way Ahead

The solution for protecting and conserving can be summarised as follows:

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3.1 Safe ZonesThe first precaution is the establishment of a "safe zone" for each site or monument, providing for the control of tourism, factories, urbanisation and other activities.

The conservation measures at the Giza plateau are a good ex­ample. The EAO and UNESCO designed a master plan for the plateau. The Centre of Engineering Archaeology at Cairo University is responsible for the design of the project. The master plan includes a ring road around the plateau to route traffic. Cars and buses will not be allowed to enter the plateau. An educational cultural centre will be built for tourists and public, to enable them to learn about the monuments and their history. This project will include a place for the horse and camel drivers that are stationed in and around the pyramids. A conservation plan will be designed for the monuments at Giza. A similar plan should be made for urban renewal of houses and building around the temples of Edfu, Esna, Luxor, Karnak.

Village built around and above the monuments should be removed to other locations, such as Nazlet-el-Samman, El Ashmonien, Akh- miem and Qurna.

3.2 A General Conservation Plan

A comprehensive conservation and preservation plan that provides for an appropriate balance between tourism and preservation is badly needed. For example, under such a plan only limited visitor access would be allowed to some tombs, such as that of King Tutankhamen, and the walls of all tombs would be equipped with a protective

UNESCO experts discovered that the head of the Sphinx is very durable.

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The Sphinx in 1942 during the second world war. (Photographs by courtesy of the author)

barrier of fibre glass. The project of the Great Pyramid at Giza is a good case study that demonstrates the effectiveness of suchplanning.

A management plan should be designed for the tombs. For ex­ample, certain tombs should be open to tourism while others should be closed tor restoration during the next year.

The painted tombs in Sakkara, Beni Hassan and the West Bank should be protected by a barrier of fibre glass. Photography with

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flash and the touching of tombs should be stopped. Certain tombs such those as King Tutankhamen, Nefertari and Khufu’s pyramid should be open to visitors only with a prior reservation.

3.3 A Sound Restoration and Conservation Plan for each Site

Again, the establishment of such plans is sorely needed.The Sphinx conservation project serves as a further case study for

the alliance of technologies geared towards both conservation and restoration. The project is well managed and consists of three phases:

(i) The restoration of the southern side. This phase is already fin­ished.

(ii) The restoration of the northern side and the chest.(iii) Global involvement in the design of a comprehensive conser­

vation and restoration plan, that will address in turn each of the many elements causing deterioration and will generate guide­lines for access to researchers and tourism.

Since the Sphinx was uncovered by Baraize in 1926, it has (as I have indicated) been under siege from many elements, such as the rising water table, vibrations emanating from aircraft and vehicle traffic especially buses in the immediate vicinity of the area, and people living around the Sphinx, in particular the villagers of Nazlet- el-Samman and Kafr-el-Gebel. The leaking of waste water from nearby villages which lack sewage containment systems constitutes a further threat. In addition, the modem construction of the Sound and Light installations and the cutting of tunnels for cables; climatic factors, such as rain and fluctuations in humidity and temperatures; modem technology, such as factories near the monument and the resulting pollution; the practice of utilizing stop-gap and harmful methods of conservation and/or restoration, particularly where using cement and gypsum on the mother rock of the Sphinx’s lion body; and the limestone quarry near the Giza plateau, which uses dynamite to pulverize lime for use in sugar factories, have all played their part.

All the above mentioned factors in the deterioration of the Sphinx are the same elements that cause damage to all the monuments of Egypt. The method of management and the conservation plan of the Sphinx and the Giza plateau is a model plan for the protection and restoration of Egyptian monuments.

The Egyptian monuments need an urgent plan to attain the preser­vation of this unique civilisation. Expertise from all over the world should co-operate with us in the protection, study, preservation and the restoration of these ancient sites. Egypt believes that the Egyp­tian monuments belong not to Egypt alone, but to the people all over the world.

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Notes

1 For the history and archaeology of Egypt see, B G Trigger, et al. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press 1986, K W Butzer, "Archaeology and Geology in Ancient Egypt" Science, 132 (1960), pp 1617 - 24; J Baines and J Malek. Atlas o f Ancient Egypt, Oxford, 1984.

2 Herodotus. Translated by A de Selincourt; Herodotus; The Histories. Pen­guin Classics, Harmondsworth, 1972.

3 See N Herz, “Geological Sources of Building Stone”, E Robertson, “Physical Properties of Building Stone", D E Winkler, “Problems in the Deterioration of Stone” in Conservation o f Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments, National Academy Press, Washington, 1982.

4 H Fahmy et al, “Environmental Protection of the Egyptian Cultural Heri­tage”, Unpublished paper (1992).

5 Ibid.6 K L Gauri, “Deterioration of Stone of the Great Sphinx” NARCE 112

( 19981 ), pp 35 - 47; idem, “Weather in Deserts as Exemplified by the Great Sphinx of Giza” Geol Soc Am Abstracts with programs (1981; idem “The Deterioration of Ancient Stone Structures in Egypt” prospectus et sau­vegarde des sauvegarde des antiquites de l’Egypte” BdE 88 (1981); idem, “Selection of stone for repair of the Great Sphinx,” NARCE 1/6 (1981 - 82), idem, “Geological study of the Sphinx” NARCE 127 (1984), pp 24-43.

7 See note 4.8 Ibid.9 Z Hawass. “History of the Sphinx Conservation” in Book o f Proceedings o f

the EAO 1992, pp 175—176; K L Gauri, “Weathering and Preservation of the Sphinx Limestone” in Book o f Proceedings o f the EAO 1992, pp 55- 1 08.

10 See note 4.11 W F Petrie, The Pyramids and Temples o f Gizeh edited with a chapter by

Z Hawass London, 1990, p 102 -1 0 4.12 Ibid.13 For the function of the air-shafts, see Z Hawass, “The Funerary Establish­

ments of Khufu, Khafra and Menkaura During the Old Kingdom,” Ph.d. dissertation. Ann Arbor, Mich. 1987, chapter I; I E S Edwards, “The Air Channels of Chephren's Pyramid”, in Studies in Ancient Egypt, the Aegean, and the Sudan: Essays in Honor o f Dows Dunham, Boston, 1981, pp 55 - 57.I would like to thank my friend Prof Rainer Stadelman for his co-operation in this project.

14 See note 9.

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