International Handbook of

Personality and lntelligence

PERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

CECIL R. REYNOLDS, Texas A&M University, College Station ROBERT T. BROWN, University of North Carolina, Wilmington

Current Volumes in This Series

COGNITIVE ASSESSMENT A Multidisciplinary Perspective

Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds

DEAFNESS, DEPRIVATION, AND IQ Jeffery P. Braden

DEMENTIA Allen Jack Edwards

EXPLORATIONS IN TEMPERAMENT Edited by Jan Strelau and Alois Angleitner

FIFTY YEARS OF PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Kenneth H. Craik, Robert Hogan, and Raymond N. Wolfe

HANDBOOK OF CREA TIVITY Assessment, Research, and Theory

Edited by John A. Glover, Royce R. Ronning, and Cecil R. Reynolds

HANDBOOK OF MULTIVARIA TE EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Second Edition

Edited by John R. Nesselmade and Raymond B. Cattell

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CARDIOV ASCULAR RESPONSE TO STRESS Edited by J. Rick Turner, Andrew Sherwood, and Kathleen C. Light

INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE Edited by Donald H. Saklofske and Moshe Zeidner

LEARNING STRATEGIES AND LEARNING STYLES Edited by Ronald R. Schmeck

PERSONALITY, SOCIAL SKILLS, AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY An Individual Differences Approach

Edited by David G. Gilbert and James J. Connolly

SCHIZOPHRENIC DISORDERS Sense and Nonsense in Conceptualization, Assessment, and Treatment

Leighton C. Whitaker

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

International Handbook of

Personality and lntelligence

Edited by

Donald H. Saklofske University of Saskatchewan

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada

and

Moshe Zeidner University of Haifa

Mount Carmel, Israel

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Llbrary of Congress Cataloglng-ln-Publlcatlon Data

International handbook of personallty and lntelllgence I edlted by Donald H. Saklofske and Moshe Zeldner.

p. c1. -- <Perspectlves on Individual dlfferences> Includes blbllographlcal references and Index. ISBN 978-1-4419-3239-6 ISBN 978-1-4757-5571-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-5571-8 1. Personallty and lntelllgence.

II. Zeldner, Moshe. Ill. Serles. BF698.9.ISI57 1995 153.9-~dc20

I. Saklofske, Donald H.

ISBN 978-1-4419-3239-6

95-1086 CIP

© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1995

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All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieva1 system, or Iransmitted in any form or by any means, e1ectronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise,

without written permission from the Publisher

To our beautiful children Jon and Al ison

and Omer and Yair

ln memory of Jeffrey Brian Cullum

Contributors

Phillip L. Ackerman Department of Psychology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Norman E. Amundson Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia V6T lZ4, Canada

Michael Bar-Eii Ribstein Center for Research and Sport Medicine

Seiences Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport Netanya 42902, Israel

Ernest S. Barratt Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Seiences University of Texas Medical Branch Galveston, Texas 77550-0443

David J. Baxter University of Ottawa and Ministry of Correctional

Services Rideau Treatment Centre Merrickville, Ontario KOG lNO, Canada

Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi Department of Psychology University of Haifa Mount Carmel, Haifa 31999, Israel

vii

Monique Boekaerts Leiden University Centre for the Study of Education and Instruction 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands

William A. Borgen Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada

Gregory J. Boyle School of Humanities and Social Seiences Bond University Gold Coast, Queensland 4229, Australia

Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr. Department of Psychology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Jeffrey P. Braden Department of Educational Psychology University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, Wisconsin 53706

John Brebner Department of Psychology University of Adelaide Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia

Nathan Brody Department of Psychology Wesleyan University Middletown, Connecticut 06457

viii

Raymond B. Cattell Department of Psychology University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii 96844

Robert C. Calfee School of Education Stanford University Stanford, Califomia 94305

M. R. Cox Department of Educational Psychology University of Georgia Athens, Georgia 30602

Michael J. Crowley Department of Psychology Wesleyan University Middletown, Connecticut 06457

Robert G. Curley College of Education San Jose State University San Jose, Califomia 95192

lau J. Deary Department of Psychology University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, Scotland

Lisa Dorn School of Education University of Birmingham Birmingham B15 2TT, England

Norman S. Endler Department of Psychology York University North York, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada

Hans J. Eysenck Institute of Psychiatry University of London London SES 8AF, England

Martin E. Ford Graduate School of Education George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia 22030-4444

Sylvie Fortin School of Psychology University of Ottawa Ottawa, Ontario KlN 6N5, Canada

Adrian Furnham Department of Psychology University College London London WClH OAP, England

Reuven Gal The Israeli Institute for Military Studies Zikhron Ya'ak:ov 30900, Israel

Mayuard GotT Department of Psychology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Elena L. Grigorenko Department of Psychology Yale University New Haven, Connecticut 06520

Michael Houlihan School of Psychology University of Ottawa Ottawa, Ontario KlN 6N5, Canada

R. W. Kamphaus Department of Educational Psychology University of Georgia Athens, Georgia 30602

Ruth Kanfer Department of Psychology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Pani Kline Department of Psychology University of Exeter Exeter EX4 4QG, England

David F. Lohman

Contributors

Psychological and Quantitative Foundations University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1529

Contributors

Richard Lyon Department of Psychology University of Ulster Coleraine BT52 1S1, Northem Ireland

Gerald Matthews Department of Psychology University of Dundee Dundee DDI 4HN, Scotland

A. W. Morgan Department of Educational Psychology University of Georgia Athens, Georgia 30602

Robert B. Most Mind Garden P.O. Box 60669 Palo Alto, Califomia 94306

Laurence L. Motiuk Department of Psychology Carleton University and Correctional Service of

Canada Ottawa, Ontario K1A OP9, Canada

Todd Murtha Department of Psychology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Gregory R. Pierce Department of Psychology Rarnilton College Clinton, New York 13323

R. M. Powell Department of Educational Psychology University of Georgia Athens, Georgia 30602

Cecil R. Reynolds Department of Educational Psychology Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-4225

Thomas Rocklin Psychological and Quantitative Foundations Univeristy of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1529

Donald H. Saklofske Department of Educational Psychology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N OWO, Canada

Barbara R. Sarason Department of Psychology University of Washington Seattle, Washington 98195

lrwin G. Sarason Department of Psychology University of Washington Seattle, Washington 98195

Vicki L. Schwean Department for the Education of Exceptional

Children University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N OWO, Canada

Margaret Semrud-Ciikeman Department of Educational Psychology University of Washington Seattle, Washington 98195

Dean Keith Sirnonton Department of Psychology University of Califomia at Davis Davis, Califomia 95616-8686

Richard E. Snow School of Education Stanford University Stanford, Califomia 94305

Lazar Stankov Department of Psychology University of Sydney Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia

Robert M. Stelmack School of Psychology University of Ottawa Ottawa, Ontario KIN 6N5, Canada

Robert J. Sternberg Department of Psychology Yale University New Haven, Connecticut 06520

ix

X

Con Stough Cognitive Psychophysiology Laboratory Medical School University of Queensland Herstin, Queensland 4006, Australia

Laura J, Summerfeldt Department of Psychology York University North York, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada

Phyllis Anne Teeter Department of Educational Psychology University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201

Elizabeth Tench Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia

Contributors

Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada

Gershon Tenenbaum Department of Psychology University of Southern Queensland Toowoomba, Queensland 4350, Australia

Moshe Zeidner School of Education University of Haifa Mount Carmel 31999, Israel

Foreword

This volume brings together many distingushed theorists, as well as many young investigators

and a range of important viewpoints, to address a central problern of integration for psychology. As the editors note, the terms personality and intelligence label two grand but heretofore distinct

domains of theory and research. The distinction is of course artificial-a convenient fiction adopted early on to divide the scientific problems of psychology into hopefully simpler, more

manageable chunks. Unfortunately, despite admonitions to the contrary in much of the early work, the message received by subsequent generations of psychological scientists seems to have

been that the person, as well as the research and researcher, can be similarly divided. New research is now beginning to test this distinction, to look for relations across the

domains of personality and intelligence, and even to imagine integrations that might be designed for particular theoretical or practical purposes. Many of the possibilities and also the myriad

theoretical and methodological problems faced by this research are delineated in the contents of this book. No foreword can hope to reftect this complex array, even in abstract form. Rather, I

have chosen in this small space to identify briefty four overarching problems that appear relevant to all of the present chapters, and to much of future research as well. Each chapter touches on one or another of these issues, in one way or another, in its own terms. Therefore, I identify these problems here only in abstract form, and I presume to offer no solutions. Some supporting

Iiterature outside of the present book is noted in passing. The four problems, expressed as needs for different kinds of action, are:

1. Modeling the complexity of person-situation interactions; 2. BuHding a comprehensive and useful taxonomy of personality constructs; 3. Learning to use the complementarities among different research methods, measures, and

approaches; 4. Finding the interrelations among individual differential and developmental structures,

functions, and processes.

PERSON-SITUATION INTERACTIONS

Person-situation interactionist perspectives have now largely superseded the old person

versus situation debates. lt is clear that some situation characteristics are sometimes powerful

enough to produce consistency of behavior across many persons, and also that some personal

characteristics are sometimes powerful enough to produce consistency of behavior across many

situations. But I think most researchers agree that most behavior most of the time is a function of interaction among person and situation characteristics. The research aim therefore is to partition

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xii Foreword

the matrix of persons x situations into subsets in which generalizations hold (Cronbach & Snow, 1977).

However, person-situation interaction can tak:e many forms and thus can be modeled in different ways. Different researchers emphasize different kinds of interaction, and may even use the same terms to refer to quite different phenomena. There seem to be especially important differences between reseachers operating in the biological versus cognitive-intelligence versus personality-social spheres in this respect (see, e.g., Hettema & Kenrick, 1992; Pervin & Lewis, 1978; Snow, 1994; Wachs & Plornin, 1991). Particularly, as we consider interactions involving intelligence-personality compounds, we need to be clear on the model(s) being used and interpreted. Following Hettema and Kenrick (1992), at least six types of interaction can be identified:

1. Person-environment matching, wherein relatively consistent characteristics of persons are assumed to suit them for relatively consistent characteristics of situations, and vice versa, to provide a mesh;

2. Choice of environments by persons to suit their own personality characteristics; 3. Choice of persons by environments, as in most selection systems; 4. Transformation of environments by persons to suit their own characteristics and per­

sonal goals (including changing goals); 5. Transformation of persons by environments, as in leaming, adaptation, and develop­

ment; and 6. Person-environment transaction-reciprocal interactions over time that change both

persons and situations to attain a mesh.

There are also variations on each of these themes. lt is noteworthy that modern interactionist research on both intelligence and personality

began with studies of statistical interaction among assumedly independent person and situation variables, as in Hettema and Kenrick's first type, but each has moved of late to address particularly the sixth type. The variations here range from reciprocal interactionist research on ability and strategy shifting in relation to task changes, through transactionist conceptions of leaming in apprenticeships, to purely social constructivist definitions of personality. These approaches differ in the degree to which the individual histories of person and situation are deemed relevant to understanding the transaction system (see Snow, 1994, for relevant refer­ences). Perhaps the most challenging problem, for the philosophy of psychological science, as well as for theory and research on intelligence and personality, arises from these reciprocal interactionist or transactionist perspectives. lt is the problern of how to conceptualize and study intelligence and personality as properties not of personor situation independently but of person­situation unions (i.e., as relational properties of persons-in-situations).

TOWARD TAXONOMY

A second problern is taxonomy construction, an important early activity in any science. Even quite loose and provisional classification structures can help guide exploration and provide a framework on which to pin individual findings as they accumulate. One of psychology's principal taxonomy-building tools has been factor analysis, which has been used to advantage in both intelligence and personality domains. Unfortunately, its use has been lirnited mainly to the person side or to the description of situations as perceived by persons. The situation side per se has rarely been addressed (but see Frederiksen, 1972; Van Heck, 1989). However, even on the person side, the coalescence of evidence favoring a hierarchical structure of cognitive ability factors (Carroll, 1993) and a five superfactor model of personality (John, 1990) hardly completes the taxonomic work. Many questions remain. Among the most important of these concem whether evidence based on methods other than factor analysis supports sirnilar distinctions, or

Foreword

suggests other distinctions, and whether the constructs provided by factor analysis, even if hierarchical, are both molar and molecular enough to cover all the important theoretical needs. For short, these problems are here termed "coverage" and "grain size."

The coverage problern can be tested by casting the lists of defined personality and intel­ligence factors onto other kinds of category systems to see what may be left out. For example,

taking the Aristotelian categories of affection, conation, and cognition, and then dividing affection into temperament and emotion, conation into motivation and volition, and cognition

into declarative knowledge and procedural skills yields a fairly comprehensive six column array not derived from factor analysis (see Snow, Corno, & Jackson, in press). Mapping known personality and intelligence factors onto this array suggests at least one empty space. Personality

factors seem to represent much of temperament, characteristic emotional moods, and sources of motivation and interest. Ability factors seem to reftect much of cognitive knowledge and skill. But the column representing volition (or will) seems poorly covered. It would appear to contain

constructs of action control and self-regulation, metamotivational knowledge and social intelli­gence, and beliefs about one's own knowledge and skill, that sofarat least do not seem well­represented in the factor structures typically used. Perhaps here is an important interface

between cognition and conation, or between intelligence and personality, that deserves further exploration.

The grain-size problern is represented at several levels of intelligence and personality

hierarchy. It is seen in the degree to which the whole-person-in-situation is not well described by combinations of ability or personality superfactors. Above the superfactors there may also be

need for compound or syndrome constructs at the level of types. Below the superfactors, the

grain-size problern appears when lower-order factors carry certain specialized and situated

meanings that are not captured in the higher-order factors. lt is becoming clear that both broad, higher-order, and narrow, lower-order factors need to be represented in studies of individual differences; each helps the interpretation of the effects of the other (Gustafsson, 1989). Other kinds of units, such as habitual responses, behavior episodes, or styles, strategies, and tactics

similarly beg the grain-size question. Finally, the interface between behavioral and biological levels of description poses perhaps the mostformidable grain size problem-the question is how to integrate variables defined in quite different grain sizes into a coherent biosocial model of person-situation interaction. There are significant differences of opinion on whether or not this will be possible (see, e.g., Gibson, 1979; Hettema, 1989; Hettema & Kenrick, 1992; Michaels & Carello, 1981).

COMPLEMENTARITIES OF METHOD

lt is now commonplace to hear that nomothetic and idiographic designs, or quantitative and

qualitative data analyses, or experimental, correlational, and naturalistic descriptions are (or should be) complementary. And lip service is paid to the power of multitrait-multimethod reasoning for convergent and discriminant construct validation in many parts of the research

field beyond the kinds of correlation matrices in which it was first applied. Yet there are few

discussions and even fewer concrete demonstrations of how to understand and capitalize upon

these complementarities in actual research. Moreover, examinations of contrasting meth­

odologies often lapse into philosophical arguments wherein one is forced to take a stance, pro or

con, about a particular methodology fitting one's basic assumptions and goals. As examples, it

seems one must choose among behavioral, cognitive, and projective assessments, or normative,

ipsative, and idiothetic measurement models; experiments must be rejected if one rejects logical

positivism. lf one accepts phenomenological views, there is no point in attempting to character­ize "real" or "objective" situations. (For further discussion, see Rorer, 1990.)

There is no denying the importance of considering the philosophical foundations from

which particular methodologies arise. One can also agree that there are no theory-neutral

xiii

xiv Foreword

methods or measures. Yet one can examine alternative methods and measures from a utilitarian and eclectic perspective, seeking to identify and exploit the functional complementarities that the deeper philosophical debates often obscure.

Interestingly, this kind of multimethod approach may be most readily built in practice­oriented fields removed a bit from research on personality and intelligence theory per se. Educational research is a case in point. When understanding educational problems or processes is the target, rather than theory for its own sake, the focus can be on whatever combination of methods illuminates the phenomena. Thus educational research, including research on intelli­gence and personality in education, seems tobe developing this "disciplined eclectic" perspec­tive (Shulman, 1988), and generating examples of some of the possibilities (Jaeger, 1988; Miles & Huberman, 1984). Important lessons for broader application might be leamed by following and promoting this progress.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Finally, a way needs to be found to integrate research on individual differences with research on the development of individuals. For a long time there has been not just a two-way split between intelligence and personality, but a four-way split in which research in each ofthese domains is divided between differentialists and developmentalists. Differentialists usually focus on measures taken at only one or two points in time and can only speculate on developmental trends. Developmentalists focus on the developmental trends but usually measure no individual difference except age. Yet it may be that the best way to understand both individual differences and individuality is in the context of development, whereas developmental pathways both general and unique may best be interpreted in the context of differential distributions.

There are already the beginnings of work in both these directions, in both personality and intelligence domains. Case and Edelstein (1993) have collected examples of Neopiagetian research on intellectual development in which different clusters or webs of ability may be traced along different developmental pathways, and for individuals who differ in some basic processing functions. Demetriou and Efklides (1994) have also brought tagether examples, andin their own work have explicitly combined developmental and psychometric theory and method. Weinert and Schneider (in press) have studied individual differences in cognitive, social, and emotional development. Magnusson (1990; Magnusson & Allen, 1983) has done the same for personality development within a person-situation interactionist perspective. And Bereiter (1990) has proposed the study of what he calls "acquired contextual modules," such as "public speaking ability" or "intentionalleaming style." Presumably, such constructs integrate intellectual and personality aspects, over development and individualization, of characteristic performance in a specialized type of situation.

It is too early to tell whether research on constructs of this sort will really allow us to weave all of these separate strands together. Butthis volume leads in taking at least the important first steps toward coalescence. lt is exemplary of the best research and researchers currently in the field. Hopefully, it will encourage new and old investigators alike to join in, and other such volumes will follow.

REHRENCES

RICHARD E. SNOW

Stanford University

Bereiter, C. (1990). Aspects of an educationallearning theory. Review of Educational Research, 60, 603-624. Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Foreword

Case, R., & Edelstein, W. (Eds.). (1993). The new structuralism in cognitive development: Theory and research on individual pathways. Contributions to human development (Vol. 23). Basel: Karger.

Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A handbook for research on interactions. New York: Irvington.

Demetriou, A., & Efklides, A. (Eds.). (1994). Intelligence, mind, and reasoning: Structure and development. Amsterdam: North-Holland.

Frederiksen, N. (1972). Toward a taxonomy of situations. American Psychologist, 27, 114-123. Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Gustafsson, J. E. (1989). Broad and narrow abilities in research on learning and instruction. In R. Kanfer, P. L.

Ackerman, & R. Cudeck (Eds.),Abilities, motivation, and methodology (pp. 203-237). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Hettema, P. J. (Ed.). (1989). Personality and environment: Assessment of human adaptation. Chichester, UK:

Wiley. Hettema, P. J., & Kenrick, D. T. (1992). Models of person-situation interactions. In G. V. Caprara & G. L. Van

Heck (Eds.), Modern personality psychology: Critical reviews and new directions (pp. 393-417). New York: Harvester Whestsheaf.

Jaeger, R. M. (Ed.). (1988). Complementary methods for research in education Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

John, 0. P. (1990). The "Big Five" factor taxonomy: Dimensions of personality in the naturallanguage and in questionnaires. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 693-720). New York: Guilford Press.

Magnusson, D. (1990). Personality development from an interactional perspective. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 193-222). New York: Guilford Press.

Magnusson, D., & Allen, V. L. (Eds.). (1983). Human development: An interactional perspective. New York: Academic Press.

Michaels, D. F., & Carello, C. (1981). Direct perception. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook ofnew methods. Newbury

Park, CA: Sage. Pervin, L. A., & Lewis, M. (1978). Overview of the internal-external issue. In L. A. Pervin, & M. Lewis. (Eds.),

Perspectives in interactional psychology (pp. 1-22). New York: Plenum. Rorer, L. G. (1990). Personality assessment: A conceptual survey. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook ofpersonality

theory and research (pp. 693-720). New York: Guilford. Shulman, L. S. (1988). Disciplines of inquiry in education: An overview. In R. M. Jaeger (Ed.). Complementary

methodsfor research in education (pp. 3-17). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Snow, R. E. (1994). Abilities in academic tasks. In R. J. Sternberg & R. K. Wagner (Eds.), Mind in context:

Interactionist perspectives on human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Snow, R. E., Corno, L., & Jackson, D. N. III. (in press). Individual differences in affective and conative functions.

In D. C. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of Education Psychology. New York: Macmillan. Van Heck, G. L. (1989). Situation concepts: Definitionsand classification. In P. J. Hettema (Ed.), Personality and

environment: Assessment of human adaptation (pp. 53-69). Chichester, UK: Wiley. Wachs, T. D., & Plomin, R. (Eds.). (1991). Conceptualization and measurement of organism-environment

interaction. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Weinert, F. E., & Schneider, W. (in press). Congitive, social, and emotional development. In D. Magnusson (Ed.),

The european network on longitudinal studies on individual development (Vol. 8). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

XV

Preface

For more than a century, psychologists have researched intelligence and personality in an effort to develop models of human behavior. The tendency, however, has been to exarnine the many variables described within each of these broad areas more or less separately. To date there have been few efforts to explore the potential avenues for integrating these two key constructs from a theoretical, empirical, and applied perspective. Consequently, there is a need to summarize current findings and further examine potential areas of the personality-intelligence interface.

This handbook is an attempt to address these purposes and is further guided by several considerations. First, these two broad constructs are linked and have much in common by virtue of being key sources of individual and group differences in behavior. The field of personality itself is frequently viewed as the combination and organization of all relatively enduring dimensions of individual differences, across time and situations, on which a person can be measured. Second, intelligence is often construed as the cognitive part of personality, so the two constructs are in effect mutually intertwined. Third, personality and intelligence variables may influence each other and therefore interact with respect to their development, manifestation, and measurement. These considerations attest to the critical importance of examining the interface between intelligence and personality in order to develop more comprehensive descriptions of human behavior. Some of these integrative efforts-drawn from psychological theory, research, assessment, and practice-are briefly noted below.

From a theoretical and conceptual perspective, earlier works by such influential figures in the field of differential psychology as Binet, Terman, Wechsler, and Anastasi recognized the inextricable web of interrelationships between personality and intelligence constructs. One of the more contemporary positions views intelligence as the cognitive part of the overall structure of human personality (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). Here personality is the Superordinate con­struct, which can be further divided into two complementary categories: noncognitive compo­nents, such as affect and motivation; and cognitive components, including intelligence. In Cattell's (1971) theory of personality, intelligence is one of the 16 basic source traits. The "big five" (Costa & McCrae, 1992) describes a fifth factor labeled "openness to experience" or "intellect." Further examples range from Gough's (1987) conceptualization of personality to include an intellectual factor and Lazarus's (1991) theory of emotion, where intelligence is viewed as a majorpersonal coping resource, to Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences, which identifies two personal components.

Among the many examples of research findings that can be cited are the considerable efforts directed at determining the relative genetic and environmental contributions for both personality and intelligence. There is a convergence of research data that supports a strong genetic component in personality and intelligence traits, although the heritability estimates are slightly higher for the latter. Using reliable data, large samples, and correlationa1 methods, it is

xvii

xviii

estimated that genetic influences account for at least 60% of the variance underlying individual differences in IQ (Vemon, 1979) and about 50% for personality factors (Bouchard & McGue, 1990). The meaningful remaining variance, excluding residual error, is attributable to such environmental factors as child-rearing practices and opportunities for language development and education. Further examples include research on the cognitive components of depression and anxiety (e.g., worry and cognitive interference), as weil as the impact of affective states on intelligence and achievement test performance. Recent models of stress and coping have emphasized the mediating role of cognitive factors, including appraisals and rational problem­focused coping, in influencing adaptive outcomes (Zeidner & Saklofske, in press).

Many facets of measuring personality and intelligence (e.g., domain specification, proce­dures for item generation, test formats) have developed separately. This foilows the psycho­metric tradition of striving for measures that maximize true score variance and minimize error variance that may be caused by any factor unrelated to the construct under consideration (i.e., nuisance variables). Clearly, confounding the measurement of weil-established psychological variables will not further integrative efforts. Although contemporary test and measurement experts will continue developing valid and reliable measures of operationaily defined constructs of intelligence (e.g., spatial reasoning, verbal fluency) and personality (e.g., extraversion, hostility), it is at the theoretical, research, and finally the clinicallevels that the integration ofthe data from these measures will occur.

By necessity the greatest amount of integration of cognitive and affective variables takes place in clinical and applied settings. For example, the clinical or school psychologist may assess a child's poor school achievement by gathering data (tests, observations, interviews) on the child's inteiligence, leaming style, motivation, self-concept, anxiety, and social behavior, as weil as physical and health status and home environment, in order to arrive at a diagnosis and prescription of the most appropriate intervention pro gram. Thus the psychological practitioners' task is to develop a comprehensive and integrated description of the person by employing precise measurement strategies and continuously referencing the theory and research that describes the interrelationships among the various examined factors. Given that such an integra­tion is not always explicit from theory or from the available research literature, clinicians may be required to make this integration on their own (i.e., at an intuitive Ievel).

The relationship between cognitive and noncognitive constructs is best conceived of as one of reciprocal determinism. Obviously, more complete models of human behavior are impossible without recognizing the dynarnic interplay between cognitive, affective, and motivational variables-what Hilgard (1980) calls the "trilogy of the mind." Because there have only been a small number of concerted efforts to explore the multiple facets of the potential interface between personality and intelligence, it is of critical• importance to assess and document the current status of the integration between these cardinal constructs.

This is not the first effort to examine the interface between personality and intelligence (e.g., Baron, 1982). lt is unique, however, in bringing together a wide range of potential integrative links drawn from theory, research, measurement, and application. Respected authori­ties in the field of psychology were invited to examine these issues critically from the perspective of their own areas of specialization. Authors chose to describe either a narrow or more broadly based view of this interface. We hope this volume makes an important step forward in our scientific efforts to construct an interactive model ofhuman behavior and individual differences.

The handbook should be of interest to all psychologists and professionals in the behavioral and health sciences who have a serious interest in the study of either or both personality and intelligence. The chapters are arranged to reflect five broad but overlapping categories.

Part I focuses on basic and theoretical issues. These chapters present historical and contemporary paradigms and critically assess ideological, genetic, longitudinal, social, and cultural factors underlying the study of personality and intelligence. The chapters in Part II reflect personality and intelligence "at the crossroads." Included here are contributions that

Preface

Preface

present contemporary and evolving theoretical views on thinking, creativity, learning, literacy, social behavior, exceptional children, and adult psychopathology. Part III explores empirical links between personality and intelligence variables and includes chapters ranging from psycho­metrically described traits to more basic processes such as attention, reaction time, and event­related potentials. Part IV discusses measurement issues that are critical in linking personality and intelligence. The chapters cover measurement models, test construction procedures, current instruments, psychodiagnostic processes, and the psychometric problern of test bias. Part V describes applications of personality and intelligence in applied settings and specific contexts. Included here are examples from applied psychology, including industrial and organizational, counseling, school, and clinical neuropsychology. Additional chapters focus on the integrative role of personality and intelligence in relation to sports, crirninal behavior, health, war heroes, and leadership.

We are grateful to many colleagues and friends for supporting us throughout this project. First, we are indebted to all of the distinguished authors who prepared chapters that appear in this handbook; we recognize the complexity of the task and congratulate them all for their critical contributions. Richard Snow graciously agreed to write the foreword that appears at the beginning of the book. The active interest and encouragement from Charles Spielherger is acknowledged. Eliot Wemer and Plenum Publishing Corporation have been most helpful in all phases required tobring this project to publication. The University of Saskatchewan and Haifa University provided the acadernic environments necessary to undertake and complete this handbook. Finally, we both thank our respective partners, Vicki and Eti, for their personaland professional support throughout the preparation of this volume.

REFERENCES

DONALD H. SAKLOFSKE

MosHE ZEIDNER

Baron, J. (1982). Personality and intelligence. In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of human intelligence (pp. 308-351). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Bouchard, T. J., & McGue, M. (1990). Genetic and rearing environmental influences in adult personality: Reanalysis of adopted twins reared apart. Journal of Personality, 58, 263-292.

Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth and action. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-PR) and NEO Five-Factor

Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985). Personality and individual differences. New York: Plenum. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books. Gough, H. G. (1987). California Psychological lnventory administrator's guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting

Psychologists Press. Hilgard, E. R. (1980). The trilogy of mind: Cognition, affection, and conation. Journal of the History of the

Behavioral Sciences, 16, 107-117. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press. Vemon, P. H. (1979). Intelligence: Heredity and environment. San Francisco: Freeman. Zeidner, M., & Saklofske, D. H. (in press). Adaptive and maladaptive coping. In M. Zeidner & N. S. Endler (Eds.),

Handbook of Coping: Theory, research, applications. New York: Wiley.

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Contents

I. BASIC AND THEORETICAL ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE

1. History of Personality and Intelligence Theory and Research: The Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Emest S. Barratt

2. Models and Paradigms in Personality and lntelligence Research 15 Lazar Stankov, Gregory J. Boyle, and Raymond B. Cattell

3. Ideological Aspects of Research on Personality and Intelligence . . . . . . 45 Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi

4. Environmental (and Genetic) lnfluences on Personality and Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Nathan Brody and Michael J. Crowley

5. Longitudinal Studies of Personality and lntelligence: A Behavior Genetic and Evolutionary Psychology Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr.

6. Cross-Cultural Differences in Intelligence and Personality Richard Lynn

II. PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE AT THE CROSSROADS

7. Intelligence and Personality in Social Behavior Martin E. Ford

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8. Intellective and Personality Factors in Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Robert C. Calfee and Robert G. Curley

9. The Interface between Intelligence and Personality as Determinants of Classroom Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Monique Boekaerts

10. A Cognitive-Social Description of Exceptional Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Vicki L. Schwean and Donald H. Saklofske

11. Thinking Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Elena L. Grigorenko and Robert J. Sternberg

12. Creativity as a Product of Intelligence and Personality Hans J. Eysenck

13. lntelligence, Personality, Psychopathology, and Adjustment Norman S. Endler and Laura J. Summerfeldt

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249

14. Cognitive Interference: At the Intelligence-Personality Crossroads . . . 285 lrwin G. Sarason, Barbara R. Sarason, and Gregory R. Pierce

111. EMPIRICAL LINKS BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE

15. Personality Trait Correlates of Intelligence Moshe Zeidner

16. Theoretical and Empirical Relationships between Personality and

299

Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 John Brebner and Con Stough

17. Event-Related Potentials, Personality, and Intelligence: Concepts, Issues, and Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Robert M. Stelmack and Michael Houlihan

18. Cognitive and Attentional Processes in Personality and Intelligence 367 Gerald Matthews and Lisa Dom

19. The Relationship of Personality and Intelligence to Cognitive Learning Style and Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Adrian Furnham

Contents

IV. MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE

20. Measurement and Statistical Models in the Study of Personality and Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Gregory J. Boyle, Lazar Stankov, and Raymond B. Cattell

21. Current and Recurring Issues in the Assessment of Intelligence and Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 7 David F. Lohman and Thomas Rocklin

22. Constructing Personality and Intelligence Instruments: Methods and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Robert B. Most and Moshe Zeidner

23. A Critical Review of the Measurement of Personality and lntelligence 505 Paul Kline

24. Personality and lntelligence in the Psychodiagnostic Process: The Emergence of Diagnostic Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 R. W. Kamphaus, A. W. Morgan, M. R. Cox, and R. M. Powell

25. Test Bias and the Assessment of Intelligence and Personality Cecil R. Reynolds

V. APPLICATIONS AND CLINICAL PARAMETERS

26. Personality and lntelligence in Industrial and Organizational

545

Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Ruth Kanfer, PhiHip L. Ackerman, Todd Murtha, and Maynard Goff

27. Counseling and the RoJe of Personality and lntelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Norman E. Amundson, William A. Borgen, and Elizabeth Tench

28. Intelligence and Personality in School and Educational Psychology . . . 621 Jeffrey P. Braden

29. Personality, Intelligence, and Neuropsychology in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Clinical Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 Margaret Semrud-Clikeman and Phyllis Anne Teeter

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30. Intelligence and Personality in Criminal Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 David J. Baxter, Laurence L. Motiuk, and Sylvie Fortin

31. Personality and Intellectual Capabilities in Sport Psychology . . . . . . . . 687 Gershon Tenenbaum and Michael Bar-Eli

32. Intelligence, Personality, and Severe Hypoglycemia in Diabetes 711 lan J. Deary

33. Personality and Intelligence in the Military: The Case of War Heroes 727 Reuven Gal

34. Personality and Intellectual Predictors of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 Dean Keith Sirnonton

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757