international financial reporting
DESCRIPTION
International Financial ReportingTRANSCRIPT
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
International Financial Reporting
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
Table of contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
IAS 17 ............................................................................................................................................. 4
IAS 23 ............................................................................................................................................. 7
IAS 36 ............................................................................................................................................. 9
IAS 37 ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Reference ...................................................................................................................................... 15
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
Introduction
Account is considered as the backbone of business, because all the financial activities taking
place in business are recorded in the books of accounts with the help of predetermined
accounting standards. These accounting standards guide the accountants to maintain the books of
account in a more structured manner thereby enhancing transparency and fairness in the financial
statements.
In the earlier days, each business had its own individual way of maintaining the accounts. With
the growth of business, activities related to it turned more complicated. People felt the need of a
common accounting standard. The main aim of this standard was to introduce uniformity in the
records so that the people can have more faith on the accounting information while doing
business with each other. With time, the concept of accounting standard came into existence and
the government actively participated in developing and enforcing these accounting standards.
With businesses now crossing boundaries, the need for international accounting has become all
the more intense and hence international accounting bodies of developed nations have come
together to develop “International Accounting Standards”.
International Accounting Standards (IAS) can be described as a set of standards that prescribes
the manner in which different types of transactions and events should be recorded and reflected
in the financial statement.
Earlier, the Board of the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) was alone
responsible for forming the IAS. However, from 2001 onwards, a modified set of international
accounting standards, known as International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was
introduced by International Accounting Standards Boards (IASB) (Greuning & Koen, 2001, p.1).
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
Many developed as well as developing nations are in the process of replacing their local GAAP
with IFRS to enhance the competency in their prevailing accounting standards (IAS Plus, n.d.).
There are several accounting standards to guide the accountants through each and every
transaction; among them IAS 17, IAS 23, IAS 36 and IAS 37 are of special importance. Each of
these accounting standards will be discussed elaborately in the following sections.
IAS 17
IAS 17 deals with “accounting of lease”. This accounting standard was first introduced in
September 1982; however it underwent modification with the demands of the situation. On April
2009, this accounting standard was amended for “Annual Improvements to IFRSs 2009”
(International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation & International Accounting
Standards Board, 2007, p.1041).
Relevance: IAS 17 prescribes standards that deal with lessee and lessor. Moreover it puts forth
appropriate accounting policies to be used along with the discloser related to operating leases.
Therefore it can be inferred that ISA17 is solely concerned with lease and its treatment while
developing financial statements. This accounting standard is applicable on all the lease
agreements except the lease related to oil, natural gas and minerals. This standard is not
applicable on regenerative resources that include videos, different plays, patents, copyrights and
other such similar items. If the lease agreements are under other IAS such as IAS 40 and IAS 41,
then IAS 17 cannot be applied.
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
Discretion: IAS 17 helps in classifying lease as financial lease or operational lease. Basically the
nature of lease is determined after taking into consideration the „substance of transaction‟. IAS
17 explains that payment made for the operating lease shall be considered as an expense
calculated on a straight line basis after having undertaken the lease term. On the other hand, for a
financial lease, the lessee should incorporate the lease in the form of asset or liability in the
balance sheet. The amount to be incorporated in the balance sheet should reflect the fair value of
the leased property or present value of the minimum lease payable. While calculating the present
value of the lease payable, the discount rate that is used should actually be the interest rate on the
lease or the incremental borrowing rate of the lease. The accounting standard also indicates that
finance lease leads to the depreciation of expense that results due to depreciation of the leased
assets and the financial expenses made on the leased properties each year. The depreciation
policy for the leased assets remains same throughout the period and such depreciation is
calculated in accordance with IAS 16 (Property, Plant & Equipment) and IAS 38 (Intangible
assets). It had also been explained that in case of an uncertainty, the lessee can get the ownership
of the leased property at the end of the lease period when the asset are fully depreciated on the
basis of its useful life or the term of lease, whichever be the minimum (IFRS Foundation, n.d.).
IAS 17 provides guidelines for the lessor of both operating as well as financial lease. In case of
operating lease, the lessor shall disclose the leased property as an asset in the balance sheet
depending on the nature of assets. The property under lease should be depreciated in the same
manner as that of other assets, as mentioned in the common depreciating policy followed by the
lessor for all other assets. Income under the lease shall be treated as income for the whole of the
lease period. Treatment of financial lease is quite different for the lessor as compared to
operational lease. In financial lease, the lessor should replace the leased asset from the balance
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
sheet and place it as a receivable item. The amount of the leased asset should be equal to net
investment made in the lease. When the lessors are manufacturers or dealers, they should treat
the profit or loss on the lease with the same policy that is followed for outright sale (Boobyer,
2003, p.449-450).
IAS 17 provides rules and regulations for selling an asset and leasing back the same asset.
Accounting treatment of these phenomena directly depends on the nature of the asset.
Reliability: Since this accounting standard prescribes the necessary guidelines related to lease
property and its effect on the financial statement of lessee as well as lessor, this standard can be
considered as a reliable one. However, there are certain more issues related to IAS 17 that need
to be settled as soon as possible. As for example, it is not very clear that whether this standard
can be used effectively while treating service concessions. Moreover, doubt persists on the
manner in which this accounting standard should be used in the event of involvement of multiple
assets. Whether the standard should be applied for the transaction as a whole or it should be
applied for each asset individually still remains debateable. Confusion exists whether apart from
the lease obligation, other obligations can be associated with service concession agreement and
the latter‟s treatment in the books of account (IAS Plus-b, 2010).
Comparison: To have a better insight of IAS 17, it was compared with US GAAP. This
comparison will assist one to understand the basic differences in both of these approaches related
to lease. According to IFRS, the leasehold‟s interest can be considered as a part of investment
property under IAS 40. This is possible if the property is held for investment. While measuring
the fair value, the change in value is treated as profit or loss, and if the given condition is not
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
applied then the interest will be considered as prepayment. According to US GAAP “lease hold
interest” in land is always treated as prepayment.
IAS 23
IAS 23 involves the treatment of borrowing costs. This accounting standard was first introduced
in January 01, 1986 as “capitalisation of borrowing costs”. This standard underwent several
modifications which changed the global market conditions. In December 1993, it was renamed
as “borrowing costs”. From 2006 onward, certain changes were incorporated every year in this
act to make it more appropriate and effective in handling issues related to borrowing costs. Major
change was done on 22 May 2008 for “Annual Improvements to IFRS”.
Relevance: This international accounting standard provides guidelines on the manner in which
borrowing costs ought to be treated in the books of accounts. The term borrowing costs includes
many elements, as for example it takes into account the interest paid on bank overdraft, the
premium paid on borrowing, amortisation of loans, financial charges related to finance lease.
Borrowing cost also includes the exchange difference related to foreign currency borrowing.
While calculating the interest expense method, IAS 39 should be used. The expense related to
finance lease should be calculated according to IAS 17.
Description: The definition of borrowing cost prescribed in IAS 23.6 makes it clear that this
accounting standard does not take into consideration the cost of equity and preferred capital as
they are not incorporated in liabilities. Therefore “IAS 23 is applicable to all those costs that are
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or production of a qualifying asset that forms a
part of the cost of the asset” (IFRS Foundation-a, n.d.). As per IAS 23, an organisation should
capitalise the borrowing costs that are directly related to construction, acquisition or production of an
asset depending on the cost of that particular asset. The organisation should also identify other
expenses related to borrowing costs for a particular time period.
Initially the concept of qualifying asset was not incorporated in IAS 23; hence the companies had the
alternative option called “immediate expensing model” that allows borrowing cost to be spread
throughout the period when the expenses are incurred. However, after the amendment of IAS 23 in
the year 2009, this method is no more relevant (International Accounting Standards Committee
Foundation & International Accounting Standards Board, 2007, p.114). This accounting standard
opines that capitalisation should be initiated as soon as expenses are incurred, borrowing costs are
accumulated and the activities necessary for production of asset (to be used or to be sold) have
started. This standard made it mandatory to disclose the amount of borrowing cost that is getting
capitalised in each financial year. This standard also asks the accountants to specify the rates used for
capitalising borrowing cost.
Reliability: As discussed above, earlier there were two ways of capitalising the borrowing incurred
in a specific financial year, but after the amendment of IAS 23 in 2009, things became more
structured. Before capitalising the borrowing assets, companies need to first verify whether the asset
belongs to the category of “qualifying asset” or not. As per IAS 23, “A qualifying asset is an asset
that necessarily takes a substantial period of time to get ready for its intended use or sale” (Ifra
Foundation-b, n.d.). Though the definition sounds quite simple, it is very confusing when applied to
real life situations. As for example, IAS 23 quotes that all the expenses directly related to acquisition
of the assets should be capitalised. On the other hand IAS 17 explains that finance lease should be
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
recognised as an asset. However, the financial charges associated with finance lease are not
capitalised. There are, therefore, many such issues that require further modification to make IAS
more effective.
Comparison: After comparing IAS 23 as prescribed in IFRS with that of US GAAP, certain
noticeable differences have been registered. As for example, according to IFRS, the borrowing
cost comprises different types of interests, exchange rates difference and other ancillary costs,
whereas US GAAP takes into account only the interest. Differences are also found in the
treatment of temporary funds raised for construction of assets. IFRS system allows the reduction
of borrowing cost that is eligible for capitalisation. Under GAAP no such provision is mentioned
(IAS Plus-b, 2010).
IAS 36
IAS 36 was introduced in the mid of 1998 and it became effective from 1st July 1999. This
accounting standard was amended in 2004 to overcome certain drawbacks and again in 2008 it
underwent modification under “Annual Improvement to IFRS 2007”. Further changes were
introduced in 16 April 2009 pertaining to „accounting for goodwill impairment‟.
Relevance: This accounting standard ensures that the assets in the balance sheet reflect the
recoverable amount and also puts forth the method needed for calculating the recoverable the
latter. The standard states that if the amount carried forward is more than that its recoverable
amount, then such asset should be called an impaired asset. IAS 36 is not applicable to the below
given assets:
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
Deferred tax assets
Inventories
Financial assets
Assets generated due to construction contracts
Assets related to insurance contract
Investment property carried at its fair value
Agricultural assets carried at fair value
Assets generated due to employee‟s benefits
Therefore IAS 36 is used to find out the recoverable amount on assets like fixed assets (land,
building, machinery, plant & equipment and investment in property that is carried at cost),
intangible, goodwill and investment done in subsidiaries as well as in joint ventures.
Description: Before understanding this accounting standard one needs to take into account
certain terms. As for example “recoverable amount” or “cash generating unit” is the higher of its
fair value less costs to sell and its value in use” (IFRS Foundation-c, n.d., p.1). While calculating the
fair value of the assets certain factors need to be taken into account. Few of them are explained
below:
The future cash flow that the company can derive from the asset.
Expectation of variation in future cash flow.
Time value of amount after undertaking the future interest rate and market risk.
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
The degree of uncertainty related to market practices and its effect on price of the assets.
It is equally important to understand the concept of “impairment” while finding recoverable
amount. If the recoverable amount of the asset is less than the amount carried in balance sheet,
then the difference between recoverable amount and carried forward amount shall represent the
impairment loss. IAS 36 explains that there must be discloser of events and circumstances that
results in impairment losses, the amount of loss, information regarding the nature of asset and the
category to which the asset belongs, and the information related to cash generating units and so
on.
Reliability: Every year, the accountants in different nations have contradictory view regarding the
value of assets presented in the balance sheet. However, IAF 36 has provided a proper set of rules
and regulation to deal with this chaotic situation. The accounting standard has enhanced the degree of
transparency. The stakeholders of the company thereby now find the data regarding assets more
reliable. However, certain issues regarding the impairment of assets must be followed. As for
example it is quite difficult to predict the future cash flow and the possibility of short term liquidity
crises in the market. Some confusion also exists regarding intangible assets and goodwill. According
to this accounting standard the intangible asset with unlimited life should be tested for impairment,
but these tests posses certain loopholes and often companies fail to get the real recoverable value
(Ullah, et al., n.d., p.3).
Comparison: A comparison was done to find out the nature of change that a company needs to
undertake while shifting from US GAAP to IFRS regarding asset impairment. As per IFRS, the
recoverable amount of the asset should be represented in the books of account. This recoverable
amount is the highest asset value in use as well as the fair value less costs to sell. On other side
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
US GAAP asks impairment of the asset only on the basis of asset‟s fair value (IAS Plus-b, 2010,
p.12).
IAS 37
IAS 37, commonly known as “Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets” was
implemented in September 1998 and with time it underwent certain distinctive changes. On June
30, 2005 an amendment draft on this accounting standard was drafted to make it more effective
in respect to IFRS.
Relevance: This accounting standard ensures that appropriate measures are applied to different
types of provisions, contingent liabilities as well as contingent assets. Therefore, the accounting
standard explains that sufficient amount of information should be provided in the form of notes
while preparing the financial statement so that the reader gets sufficient information on the
nature and amount of provisions, contingent assets and contingent liabilities. This accounting
standard is not applicable to the contingent assets and liabilities that result due to “executory
contacts” where either both the parties have performed their obligations partially or none of the
parties has performed any obligation. This accounting standard is also not applicable for those
assets and liabilities that are covered by another accounting standard (IFRS Foundation-c, n.d.).
Before applying this standard, one should understand certain basis definitions. For example,
contingent liability is the liability that arises due to past events and the liability will be confirmed
only on occurrence or non-occurrence of future events which are not in the control of the
organisation. In the same manner contingent asset arises due to some past events and this asset
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
becomes confirmed on occurrence or non-occurrence future events which are not in the control
of the entity (IFRS Foundation-c, n.d.).
Description: IAS 37 specifies, that the amount recognised as provision should be equal to the
amount required to settle present liabilities reflected in the balance sheet. Hence, provision can
be made for restructuring, settling law-suit or cleaning up the environment. Provision can also be
developed regarding legal events such as warranties and customer refunds. Therefore, provisions
should be adjusted with changes introduced in the balance sheet. Adjustment in provision is also
required when outflow of cash is no longer probable. This accounting standard provides specific
circumstances that explain when provision should be executed. While making the discloser,
reconciliation should be made for opening balance, additions, unwinding the discount and
closing balance. Description should be related to the nature of assets and liabilities, timing of the
cash flow related to liabilities, and uncertainty, assumption and reimbursement of the provisions.
Reliability: Till date, people argue that IAS 37 suffers from certain major loopholes. As for example,
the process by which uncertainty prevailing in the economy and market condition is determined
while deriving value of provision has still remained dubious. Confusion takes place when financial
lease is confused with obligation and people thereby follow IAS 37 for its treatment in the books of
accounts instead of undertaking IAS 17 (International Accounting Standards Board, 2006, p.4).
Comparison: The IAS 37 was compared with both IFRS and US GAAP to understand the
differences among them. In IFRS, settlement of the obligation should be done as per “expected
value method” and discounting is allowed. On the other hand according to US GAAP “lower
possible amount” should be considered and certain provisions should not be discounted.
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
Reference
Boobyer, C. 2003. Leasing and asset finance: the comprehensive guide for practitioners.
Euromoney Books.
Greuning, H. V. & Koen, M. 2001. International accounting standards: a practical guide. World
Bank Publications.
IAS Plus. No date. An Overview of International Financial Reporting Standards. Deloitte Touche
Tohmatsu. [Online]. Available at: http://www.iasplus.com/standard/standard.htm [Accessed on
July 04, 2010].
IAS Plus-b, 2010. Service Concession Arrangements. IFRS Interpretations Committee Agenda.
[Online]. Available at: http://www.iasplus.com/ifric/ias17serviceconcession.htm [Accessed on
July 04, 2010].
IFRS Foundation. No date. IAS 17 Leases. Technical Summary. [Pdf]. Available at:
http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/B8ABE9AA-8F5B-4301-866E-ED2D423504E7/0/IAS17.pdf
[Accessed on July 04, 2010].
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
IFRS Foundation-a. No date. IAS 23 Borrowing Costs. Technical Summary. [Pdf]. Available at:
http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/5D6686FE-9436-432D-A0AD-72EB6B94207E/0/IAS23.pdf
[Accessed on July 4, 2010].
IFRS Foundation-c. No date. IAS 36 Impairment of Assets. Technical Summary. [Pdf]. Available
at: http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/A288C781-7D39-4988-BA71-
9AB77A263BA0/0/IAS36.pdf [Accessed on 06 July 2010].
IFRS Foundation-d. No date. IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets.
Technical Summary. [Pdf]. Available at: http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/81F90956-3009-
4346-B727-11119816C992/0/IAS37.pdf [Accessed on 06 July 2010].
International Accounting Standards Board. 2006. The Recognition Principle. IAS 37 Round-table
Discussions: Summary of outcomes. [Pdf]. Available at:
http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/B364DFB6-DB77-4183-8C3E-
0550C1FCF2FE/0/SummaryofoutcomesFINAL.pdf [Accessed on 06 July 2010].
International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation & International Accounting
Standards Board. 2007. A guide through International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs)
MBA TERM PAPERS
CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING SERVICES
ORDER YOUR CUSTOM ESSAY NOW - http://mbatermpapers.co.uk/order/
2007: including the full text of the Standards and Interpretations and accompanying documents
issued by the International Accounting Standards Board as at 1 January 2007 ; with extensive
cross-references and other annotations. Kluwer.
Ullah, S., Zeb, M. & Khan, A. No date. Introduction. An Examination Of The IAS 36 ‘‘Assets
Impairment’’ On The Valuation Models Used By Analysts Firms In U.K. [Online]. Available at:
http://list.academic-journal.org/submissions/isfa2009_submission_4.doc [Accessed on July 06,
2010].