Perth Academy

Close Reading Notes

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This booklet is designed to be a practical guide to Close Reading – an important component of your English course. There are four sections to the booklet:

Language Structures Literary Techniques Types of Questions and How to Answer Them Final Tips for Success

There is a lot you can do to prepare yourself for the demands of Close Reading, and the aim is that after completing this booklet, you will feel more confident about this vital part of the course.

Close Reading tests your ability to understand a piece of text and your knowledge of how language works. Your aim is to learn the key language concepts in everyday use and be able to comment on their use and effect in a sentence.

GRAMMARGrammar is a set of rules and guidelines to help you use language correctly. If you understand how language works, you’ll be able to analyse it effectively.Discussing how sentences work is easier if you are familiar with the basics: PARTS OF SPEECH, or the different kinds of words in a sentence. There are eight different parts of speech:

VERBS: words that relate to actions; ‘doing’ words like jump, run, swim, laugh, talk.

NOUNS: the names of things or people, e.g. William, mouse, ladder. PRONOUNS: words that stand in place of a noun, e.g. he, she, them, him. ADJECTIVES: words used to describe a noun or pronoun, i.e. words that

describe things or people, e.g. fat, thin, fast, dangerous, wooden. ADVERBS: words that tell you more about (modify) a verb, but can tell you

more about any word other than a noun or pronoun, e.g. quickly, soon, very. PREPOSITIONS: words that tell you the relationship between one thing and

another, usually where things are in relation to other things, e.g. with, under, to, beside, below.

CONJUNCTIONS: words used to join words and clauses, e.g. and, but, when. INTERJECTIONS: words used to express exclamation, e.g. oh!

Let’s look at these in more detail.

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Close Reading S4-6

PART ONE: STRUCTURES

VERBSVerbs tell you what a person or thing is doing. A verb is the most important word in a sentence; without it, a sentence does not make sense.

He ran to the shops He to the shops

She played football all day She football all day

All sentences have a subject and a verb. The subject is the person or thing doing the action.

Dogs growl The wind blows Birds fly

Verbs are important because they also tell you what TENSE the sentence is written in. The tense of the verb tells you the time at which the action takes place.

There are three main tenses:

PRESENT: I eat my tea in the living room.PAST: I ate my tea at 5.30pm.FUTURE: I shall* eat my tea in the living room.

* Shall and will are helping verbs – they help to make the future tense. Shall is used with I and we; all the other pronouns use will.

I shall return at 8pmWe shall return at 8pmHe will return at 8pmThey will return at 8pm

NOUNSA noun is the name of a person, animal, place or thing. Nouns usually have the, a or an in front of them. There are four different kinds of nouns:

1. A proper noun is a noun that refers to a particular person or thing. They always have a capital letter, e.g. Scotland, Tuesday, August.

2. A common noun names a kind of person or thing. The name is common to all persons or things of the same kind, e.g. day, country, book.

3. A collective noun describes a group or collection of things or people, e.g. a swarm of bees; a bunch of flowers; a pride of lions.

4. Abstract nouns describe things that cannot be seen, heard, smelt, felt or tasted, e.g. honesty, sleep, freedom, boredom.

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PRONOUNSThe words used to stand for a noun are called pronouns. They lend variety to our writing and mean that we don’t have to repeat the same nouns over again.

David was fed up. His English teacher was going on and on about boring parts of speech, whatever they were, and her voice was beginning to send him to sleep.

ADJECTIVESAn adjective tells you more about a noun or pronoun.

The burglar was wearing a ripped jacket with red and black stripes. He had his ear pierced five times and was wearing a large mask over his face.

ADVERBSAdverbs add detail by answering such questions as How? Why? When? or Where?

Ben returned home

This sentence makes sense on its own, but it doesn’t tell you much. By adding adverbs, we find out more:

Ben returned home (where) quickly (how) yesterday, (when) to watch the match (why).

Similarly,

The ship sank

Slowly and surely, the ship sank

PREPOSITIONSPrepositions show the relationship of one thing to another. They are always followed by a noun or pronoun.

David ran across the road

David jumped over the fence

David fell asleep under a tree

CONJUNCTIONSWords used to join phrases, clauses and sentences are conjunctions. Conjunctions are important for linking sentences together; without them, our speech and writing would sound jerky:

David turned round. David bumped into the woman behind him.

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David turned round and bumped into the woman behind him.

Emma brushed her hair. She went to bed.

Emma brushed her hair before she went to bed.

Conjunctions can join together two sentences of equal importance, or two sentences where one sentence is the main clause (the most important point of the sentence) and the other is the subordinate clause (the minor point of the sentence).

It started to rain (main) while I was waiting for the bus (subordinate)

He was angry (main) because I was late (subordinate)

Conjunctions can also draw attention to the point you want to make in a sentence.

David was very tired, nevertheless he worked all weekend to finish his English homework.

He was exhausted, but knew that he had to go on if he wanted to finish the race.

You must try to learn the parts of speech and when they are used. Being able to recognise the types of words that make up a sentence will help you to start thinking about why a writer has written the way he or she has, which is the first step to thinking about style.

One of the most important skills you will acquire this year is learning how to analyse sentences. Understanding how sentences are made up and the different meanings they can convey depending on their make up, is a vital skill needed to tackle Close Reading.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

You need to understand Different types of sentence, and their purposes Different lengths of sentence The order of words in a sentence The use and effect of punctuation in a sentence

1. TYPES OF SENTENCE

A sentence is a group of words which makes complete sense on its own. A sentence has two parts – the person or thing which the subject is about, called the subject; and what is said or written about the subject, called the predicate.

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David was tired as he went down the stairs for his tea.

‘David was tired’ is the subject of the sentence, the rest of the sentence is the predicate.

The predicate always includes the verb of the sentence (went down the stairs).

There are two main types of sentence: the simple sentence and the complex sentence.

A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate.

The chef (subject) made a cake (predicate).

It could take the form of a question: Did the chef make a cake?

Or a command: Make a cake!

You could add any amount of adjectives or adverbs, or both: The jolly, fat chef happily made an enormous chocolate cake in the kitchen after midnight.

Despite all the added description, the sentence still has only one subject and one verb, so is still a simple sentence.

However, if we only ever wrote or spoke in simple sentences, our attempts at communication would sound very stilted! When we join simple sentences together using a conjunction or a comma, semi-colon or colon, we create complex sentences.

You have already seen how a conjunction joins together two simple sentences. By using conjunctions and punctuation you can join a number of simple sentences together:

Jim likes to go swimming.

Jan likes to run every day.

James prefers to play games on his computer.

These three simple sentences become

Jim likes to go swimming, Jan likes to run every day, but James prefers to play games on his computer.

Many mistakes in writing happen when two or more simple sentences are joined together without a conjunction or a mark of punctuation.

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Remember, as soon as you write a sentence with more than one subject and one verb, you need to use a conjunction or a comma, semi-colon or colon to link the sentences.

Sentences, whether simple or complex, always have a clear PURPOSE. There are four main purposes:

1. STATEMENTS: sentences which state facts; which tell you something. Most writing is made up of statement sentences. (It is very hot today.)

2. QUESTIONS: sentences which ask for an answer. They always end with a question mark. Repeated use of the question may challenge the reader to get involved with the issue the writer is addressing. A RHETORICAL question is a question from a writer which does not expect an answer, because the answer should be obvious. (How do you think I feel?) They create a strong emotional response in a reader because they urge you to consider what your answer would be.

3. COMMANDS: sentences which give orders or requests; tell you to do something. They end with either a full stop or an exclamation mark, and can create the effect of the writer speaking directly to the reader. (Leave the classroom now!)

4. EXCLAMATIONS: sentences which create a strong sense of emotion. They end with a full stop or, more usually, an exclamation mark. Repeated use of the exclamation will create a dramatic or emotive tone. (I can’t believe it!)

The final type of sentence that you will have to be familiar with is the MINOR or INCOMPLETE sentence. This is a group of words that does not contain a verb. Sentences like this will be very short and often create a tense or dramatic mood, or a sense of speed or urgency

What now? Time was short. The house. If only he could reach the house before daybreak.

2. LENGTHS OF SENTENCE

In an extended piece of writing, the sentences will, of course, be of different lengths, types and purposes. When you are asked to analyse sentences, you can start by simply looking at them, at how they are laid out on the page. Are they long or short? Are they complex or simple? Is there a series of questions? Exclamations? Simply by looking, and talking about what you see, you will be discussing the writer’s style. To go to the next stage of analysing the writer’s style, you need to start discussing the effect of what you see on the page.

Complex sentences tend to be long, and are associated with more formal writing.

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Simple sentences tend to be short and succinct, to the point (the style). The effect is therefore to put across a point of view quickly and directly; the writer has no wish to embellish his point. There may be a sense of urgency in the writing, or tension.

3. WORD ORDER

The order of the words in a sentence is often worth comment. There are four features to look out for:

Inversion List Repetition Climax

1. INVERSION

You will only be asked to comment on anything that deviates from the normal word order of a sentence. The key point to remember is that changing the order of words in a sentence is usually done to draw emphasis on the word.

e.g. He ran away quietly from the scene of the accident.

or

Quietly, he ran away from the scene of the accident.

The second sentence draws emphasis on how the man ran away, i.e. as quietly as possible, and even suggests that he is in some way guilty and wants to avoid being seen. The order of words (the style) therefore contributes to the effect (emphasis).

2. LIST

By listing words or expressions in a sentence, a writer will create a particular effect.

e.g. His mother could talk for Scotland. She went on and on about anything and everything: the weather, so and so who had died recently, her latest medical ailment, her husband, Coronation Street...

The list (the style) conveys the idea of the woman having a never ending list of topics to discuss, as if she was never quiet (the effect).

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Always think in terms of the style first, and then its effect. Always comment on both style and effect.

Lists always emphasise the number of things happening and the range or variety of things happening. Always comment on both the number and range of things.

3. REPETITION

Repetition of a particular word or phrase is commonly used for emphasis:

It was dark. So dark that he couldn’t see his hand stretched out in front of him, and so dark that the sides of the road merged into the surrounding fields in an inky blackness.

The repetition of the word ‘dark’ and the reinforcement of the idea with the word ‘blackness’ (the style) emphasises, rather obviously, how dark it is, but also suggests how isolated and possibly vulnerable the person is (the effect).

Repetition can also be used to convey ideas about character or setting; to build up atmosphere; to create humour...

4. CLIMAX

If a writer wants to make an important point, he or she will build up to that point through a series of smaller, linked ideas. The final point made is known as the climax. To further emphasise the climax, the writer may make the point in a short, simple sentence that follows a series of longer ones.

She could hear the noise from several steps away, a quiet meowing in the depths of the bushes. She crept forward, frightened of discovering an injured kitten, say, or worse, one that was beyond saving. She flattened the long grass with her feet, feeling the wispy stems of the dried out summer stalks brushing her bare calves. Pushing aside a tangled branch of gorse, she saw a bundle of clothes lying in the centre of a small clearing. Two dark brown eyes met hers. It was a girl.

The final part of the structure equation you need to be able to understand is the use of PUNCTUATION. Like all the previous points about parts of speech and sentences, you need to be able to recognise different marks of punctuation and when they are used, and also comment on their effect in a sentence.

There are six main marks of punctuation: commas colons semi-colons single dash inverted commas parenthesis questions, including rhetorical questions

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1. COMMAS

Three main uses of the comma are To separate a short, additional phrase from the main clause of a

sentence. If you removed the phrase, the sentence would still make sense. e.g. Tomorrow afternoon, I am going to the cinema with Tom.

In longer sentences, commas separate the main clause from the sub-ordinate ones, and usually go before conjunctions. e.g. It was raining that day, so I took my umbrella and hoped for the best, although I still got soaked waiting for the bus.

Commas separate items in a list, when the list is composed of one or two word items. e.g. You’ll need to take water, boots, gloves and a hat with you.

2. COLONS

Three main uses of the colon are To separate two clauses, the second of which explains, expands or

summarises what is said in the first. e.g. Eventually he told us his secret: he had been saving for months to take the whole family on a trip of a lifetime.

To lead into or introduce something that is to follow, often a conclusion. e.g. To cut a long story short: I left.

To introduce a list

3. SEMI-COLONS

Three main uses of the semi-colon are To link two complete sentences and turn them into one sentence. The two

sentences should be closely linked in meaning and of equal importance. e.g. The door swung open; a masked figure strode in.

When words such as ‘therefore’, ‘nevertheless’, ‘however’, ‘moreover’, ‘consequently’ and ‘otherwise’ link two clauses, they should be preceded by a semi-colon. e.g. I was planning to stay late; however, the party was not particularly enjoyable.

*NB Don’t use a semi-colon before an ordinary conjunction such as ‘or’, ‘and’ or ‘but’

To separate items in a list when the items are made up of more than two words and to use the comma would be confusing.

e.g. There are 10 events in the decathlon: the pole vault, which involves leaping to great heights; the 400m, which is once round the track; the discus, which is a throwing event; …

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Don’t use a capital letter after a colon or semi-colon

4. SINGLE DASH

Three main uses of the single dash are To indicate that what comes after it is an afterthought; additional information

that isn’t necessary to the sense of the sentence. e.g. I’ve heard a lot about Mr. Jones – I don’t know him.

To provide a pause for dramatic effect. The part after the dash is often surprising or unexpected. e.g. I opened the lid of the box eagerly and there inside the box – was a dead mouse.

To separate a list from its summary. e.g. I like all kinds of ice-cream – vanilla, strawberry, chocolate.

5. PARENTHESIS

There are three marks of punctuation used to mark off part of a sentence from the rest:

Brackets Double dash Double comma

When to use them depends on how strong a division you want to make between the words in parenthesis and the rest of the sentence. The order above is the order of ‘strength’ each mark has.

All are used to show An interruption to the main idea of the sentence. An explanation of something just written in the sentence.(You must explain

what is being added) Dashes and brackets can be used to add a humorous or ironic aside, but this

is more common at Higher level. (You must explain what the aside is)

For all, if you took away the words inside them, the rest of the sentence should still make complete sense because they provide extra information.

e.g. I had to speak to David because he hadn’t done his homework (no surprise there, then!) and found him to be rather argumentative about the whole situation.

The shops were all closed – it was a Sunday – and no one was around.

I’m going on holiday with Sarah, my best friend, and her mum.

6. INVERTED COMMAS

Five main uses of inverted commas are: To indicate direct speech – the exact words someone speaks.

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To indicate the title of something. To indicate a quotation. To indicate an unusual word and to show that the reader is not expected to

know it already. e.g. Our yacht was ‘tacking’ into the wind at great speed. To indicate irony; to show that what is said is not meant seriously. e.g. When

we arrived, our ‘luxury’ hotel was down an alleyway, and there was no one to be seen.

7. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS

A rhetorical question is a question a writer asks which doesn’t require an answer – because the answer is made obvious by the context.

e.g. I can’t believe you came home so late and didn’t think to phone to let me know where you were! How do you think I felt, waiting up for you to come home?

A writer will use a rhetorical question to create an emotive effect. He wants you to feel the same way he does – usually, angry or outraged. A rhetorical question can be a powerful tool in persuading a reader and creating a strong sense of how the writer feels about his subject.

Remember, not every use of a question mark is a rhetorical question!

When you analyse rhetorical questions, you must comment specifically about what the writer wants you to think/feel.

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Checklist for tackling structure questions:

Can you identify the parts of speech? Can you identify the type of sentence? Can you comment on sentence length? Can you comment on the order of words in a sentence? Can you identify the use of punctuation in a sentence? Can you comment on the effect of a particular structure?

REMEMBER THAT ANY FEATURE OF STYLE WILL CREATE A SPECIFIC MEANING. IDENTIFY THE STYLE FIRST AND THEN COMMENT ON HOW IT HELPS TO SHAPE THE WRITER’S IDEAS

In the close reading paper, you can expect to have to answer questions about an author’s use of literary techniques. You need to understand:

IMAGERY1. Similes2. Metaphors3. Personification

SOUND EFFECTS1. Alliteration2. Onomatopoeia3. Assonance

WORD CHOICE TONE HYPERBOLE REGISTER

Remember, as with structure questions, you will always be asked to think about the effect of a literary technique.

1. SIMILES

A simile is where one thing is compared to another. It always includes the words ‘like’ or ‘as’.

e.g.

She drifted about the house like a ghost, barely acknowledging anyone else’s presence.

The flesh around his eye shone like a pool of wet ink gathered on silk.

2. METAPHORS

A metaphor is still a comparison between two things, but is a stronger comparison because one thing is said to be another, not just like it.

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PART TWO: LITERARY TECHNIQUES

e.g.

Doris was a whisper of a girl.

My brother is a greedy pig with sweets.

That man is an ass.

3. PERSONIFICATION

A personification is where something non-human is compared to a human, and given human characteristics.

e.g.

The trees whispered to one another in the late afternoon breeze.

The great ship heaved her bulk out of port.

REMEMBER: there are three types of imagery – simile, metaphor and personification – and they all rely on comparisons to create their effect.

4. ALLITERATION

Alliteration is where two or more words in a sentence have the same consonant sound, usually through the repetition of the first letter of the words. Alliteration is a sound effect – it creates its effect through how the words sound, and will reinforce or enhance the meaning of the words.

5. ASSONANCE

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When analysing imagery, ask yourself what the subject is being compared to, and then think about the qualities of that thing. e.g. In the first simile, a girl is being compared to a ghost. When we think of ghosts we think of quiet, floating movements, a sense of mystery, perhaps tension. The writer wants us to apply these associations to the girl, making us picture how she moves about the house, and making us think about how the girl feels or behaves.

Assonance is where two or more words in a sentence have the same vowel sound. Assonance is a sound effect – it creates its effect through how the words sound, and will reinforce or enhance the meaning of the words.

e.g. Moonlit slips of silver cloud

6. ONOMATOPOEIA

An onomatopoeia is a word that imitates or suggests the sound of the thing it describes.

e.g.

splashedcrashedrattle

7. WORD-CHOICE

Commenting on a writer’s choice of words is one of the most important things you will have to do when answering close reading questions. You need to start thinking in terms of why an author has chosen to use a particular word to convey his point as opposed to any other. Once again, you’re thinking about the effect of a particular word in a context.

Understanding the CONNOTATION of a word is vital. A connotation means the ideas we associate with a particular word, rather than the meaning of the word itself.

When you think about a writer’s choice of words, always think about the connotations of the word, and what they add to the effect the writer is creating – what is their impact on the writer’s meaning?

e.g. The boy scraped back his chair and wandered to the front of the class. Standing in front of the teacher, he chewed his gum carelessly, with his eyes fixed on the ceiling.

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You should listen out for sounds which create a harsh tone, or a soft, gentle one; or sounds which create an impression of speed by rushing words together, or the opposite: heavy sounds which slow the writing down. Once you’ve identified what the sound is, think about what it adds to the meaning – i.e. what the sound’s effect is.

What are the connotations of the words in italics? What do they tell you about how the boy feels and behaves? What impression does the writer create through her choice of words?

Here are other examples of how word choice can be used to create different meanings:

The boy walked down the street (neutral)The boy sauntered down the street (carefree)The boy marched down the street (purposeful, angry)The boy dragged himself down the street (reluctant)

Can you see how each choice of words creates a different meaning and understanding of character?

Writers create particularly strong effects when they use words out of context.

e.g. A girl was reading by the feeble light of a near-dead torch.

‘Feeble’ is a word we normally associate with a person, but in this case it describes the torchlight. The word ‘feeble’ connotes pathetic weakness, and ‘near-dead’ suggests that the torch has all but given up in its fight to provide light.

Word-choice is closely connected to atmosphere. Atmosphere refers to how something feels. Atmosphere is created through careful choice of words.

e.g. The last of the autumn leaves cowered on all but bare branches, as the wind hurled piles of protesting litter and grit up against the wet stone wall of the courtyard. The leaden skies threatened rain, but as yet it had come to nothing.

What atmosphere is created here through the writer’s choice of words?

8. TONE

Every written piece has a purpose; a reason why the writer has chosen to write what he or she has. In the piece of writing, the writer’s feelings about his subject, and his attitude towards it, will be conveyed. One way a writer makes his feelings clear is through the TONE he adopts in his piece. We all use tone to express our feelings when we speak, e.g. if a teacher is fed-up and frustrated with the behaviour of a class then he will adopt an angry tone when challenging the class about its behaviour.

To work out the tone of a writer, you need to look at the words he has chosen to express himself, and listen to how the words sound when you read them. Think about the connotations of the words, too.

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Here are some examples of frequently used tones:

Humorous or light-hearted. The purpose of the writer will be to poke fun at his subject and possibly himself. He will most likely use informal language, and perhaps techniques such as exaggeration.

Confidential or chatty. This type of writing will invite the reader to share personal experiences of the writer, and will often sound as if the writer is addressing the reader directly. The language will be informal, colloquial and easy to read.

Persuasive or argumentative. This is the type of tone you would expect to find in an advertisement. It would also be a feature of a piece of writing that put forward a very strong opinion. The use of the first person ‘I’ is a common technique in this type of writing, as is the rhetorical question.

Ironic. Irony is where a writer (or speaker) means the opposite of what he says. It is used to criticise or poke fun at something, and usually creates a humorous effect.

Emotive. An emotive tone is one which appeals to our emotions. It is usually used when the writer wants us to be persuaded over to his point of view. A feature of this type of writing is language which encourages us to feel an emotional response, particularly sadness, pity or outrage.

Remember, tone is always linked to the writer’s attitude, feelings and purpose.

Tone is always created by a language feature.

9. HYPERBOLE

Hyperbole is the technical term for exaggeration, something school pupils are experts at!

e.g. Oh no, Miss, not more writing – we’ve been writing all day!

I’m not taking off my jacket – it’s freezing in here!

I’ve got about a million pieces of homework already!

Hyperbole, of course, usually creates a humorous effect, and the exaggeration serves to emphasise the point.

The opposite of hyperbole is UNDERSTATEMENT, or LITOTES. Again, it creates a humorous effect.

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e.g.

“Did you see Mr Stewart about that Maths homework that you haven’t done?”

“Yeah, he wasn’t very pleased about it.”

We can work out that ‘not very pleased’ probably means ‘really rather annoyed’!

10. REGISTER

We have already touched on some aspects of formal and informal writing. A writer will choose to write in a particular register – usually formal or informal. There are specific differences between the two.

Formal Register Grammatically correct. Longer, more complex sentence structures. Wider range of word-choice, including complex or technical vocabulary. Impersonal, objective tone: where the writer presents all the ideas, and not

just those he sides with.

Informal Register Colloquial language – abbreviations, shorter sentences. Common, everyday words, perhaps use of specific dialect. Personal, subjective tone – uses first person ‘I’ and second person ‘you’ to

address and involve the reader. May adopt a one-sided, emotional stance.

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Checklist for tackling literary techniques questions: Can you identify and comment on imagery? Can you identify and comment on sound effects? Do you know what ‘connotations’ means? Can you identify different tones? Can you name the features of formal and informal language?

REMEMBER THAT ANY FEATURE OF STYLE WILL CREATE A SPECIFIC MEANING. IDENTIFY THE STYLE FIRST AND THEN COMMENT ON HOW IT HELPS TO SHAPE THE WRITER’S IDEAS

The performance criteria for Close Reading are Understanding – understand what the writer has written. Analysis – analyse how the writer has written. Evaluation - evaluate how well the writer has achieved his purpose.

In any close reading paper you will have to answer a variety of U, A and E questions. Each question is clearly labelled U, A or E.

Let’s look at each category in more detail:

1. Questions on Understanding

Of the three categories, questions on Understanding are probably the most straightforward, because they deal directly with what the passage means - with its main ideas. You will be asked to show that you understand an idea the writer presents, or the attitude he has to what he is writing about.

There are some key things to remember when answering U questions: Base your answer on the specific lines the question directs you to. Always use your own words. You must write down your understanding of

what the writer has written, not simply copy what he has written. You must, therefore, not quote unless the question instructs you to do so. Usually, you will be awarded 1 mark for each point you make. Bullet points can be a helpful way to organise your answer, particularly if the

question is worth 3 or more marks. They help you to Keep your answer succinct Keep track of how many points you’ve made Check that you don’t repeat yourself

The most common type of Understanding question is the USING YOUR OWN WORDS question

For example

(All of the model questions and answers are taken from recent SQA papers)

1. “ To ward off an aggressive black bear, the books suggest making a lot of noise, banging pots and pans together, throwing sticks and rocks, and ‘running at the bear’.

Question: What tactics are you advised to adopt if you are attacked by a black bear?

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PART THREE: DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUESTIONS AND HOW TO ANSWER THEM.

2 U Answer: You should make as much noise as you can, perhaps by bashing loud objects together, or you could throw something at the bear to distract it.

Method: Read the passage. Because the question is worth 2 marks, choose two points to make. Write these down in your own words as far as possible, checking that you have written two clearly separate points.

2. “ Or, come to that, whose fatal failing was simply to be very, very unfortunate – to round a bend and find a moody male blocking the path, head rocking appraisingly, or wander unwittingly into the territory of a bear too slowed by age or idleness to chase down fleeter prey.”

Question: In your own words, explain the ways in which human beings might have accidental confrontations with bears. 2 U

Answer: They might be out walking doing nothing wrong, but suddenly be faced with a bear as they turned a corner. Or they might, by mistake, find themselves in the habitat of an old bear that is on the lookout for an easy kill.

Method: Read the passage. Because the question is worth 2 marks, choose two points to make. Write these down in your own words as far as possible, checking that you have written two clearly separate points. Keep your sentences short and to the point.

3. “ Now it is important to establish right away that the possibility of a serious bear attack on the Appalachian Trail is remote. To begin with, the really terrifying American bear, the grizzly – Ursus horribilis as it is so vividly and correctly labelled – doesn’t range east of the Mississippi... If I were to be pawed and chewed... it would be by a black bear, Ursus americanus. There are at least 500,000 black bears in North America, possibly as many as 700,000. They are notably common along the Appalachian Trail ( indeed, they often use the trail, for convenience) , and their numbers are growing. Grizzlies, by contrast, number no more than 35,000 in the whole of North America.”

Question: In your own words, outline the points the writer makes to support his contention that, if he were attacked by a bear, it is more probable “it would be by a black bear”. 3 U

Answer: Compared to black bears, there are very few Grizzlies, and none on the

Appalachian Trail. There are thousands of black bears The black bears use the trail frequently.

Method: Read the passage – in this case, there is quite a bit to read, so make sure you read enough. Because the question is worth 3 marks, choose three points to make and use

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bullet points to order them. Write these down in your own words as far as possible, checking that you have written three clearly separate points. Keep your bullet points short and to the point.

There are two types of Understanding questions where you are required to quote as part of your answer. They are CONTEXT and LINK questions.

1. Context questions

A context question is where you have to define the meaning of a word, showing how its context (the words surrounding it) helped you to arrive at its meaning.

How to answer: Quote the word and give its meaning Quote at least two words or expressions from the context and explain what they

mean – it may be useful to discuss their connotations Link together the meaning of the words in the context and the meaning of the

word you have worked out.

e.g. In Bill Bryson’s passage about bears, he writes

“It is also foolish to climb a tree because black bears are adroit climbers and you will simply end up fighting the bear in a tree”

Question: Give the meaning of the word ‘adroit’ and explain how the context helps you to work it out. 2 (A)

Answer: ‘adroit’ means to be good at something. (Quote the word and give its meaning.) The expression ‘end up fighting the bear in a tree’ reinforces this because it

suggests that a bear would be able to climb a tree after a person and continue to attack them up it. (Explain the meaning of the context.)

This must mean that bears are good, or ‘adroit’ climbers. (Link the context and the word.)

2. Link Questions

These questions will ask you to show how a particular sentence acts as a link between two paragraphs. These questions are more straightforward than you may think because they have a clear formula for how to answer. You will usually be given the link sentence in the question. Split it into two and work out which ideas the first half of the sentence links back to in the paragraph before. Then work out which ideas the second half of the sentence links forward to in the remainder of the paragraph.

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How to answer Quote the words of the link sentence which link back to previous ideas and

discuss these ideas and how they link together with the sentence. Use your own words.

Quote the words of the link sentence which link forward to the next ideas and discuss these ideas and how they link together with the sentence. Use your own words

e.g. In this passage about trainers, the writer saysIn 1968, at the Mexico Olympics, tartan tracks were introduced for the first time. Fourteen world records fell that year, and the trend continued as more and more stadiums adopted the new surface.

But there was a price to pay. Athletes weren’t used to competing on hard surfaces, and before long doctors noticed an increase in the number of injuries such as Achilles tendon and cartilage problems.

Question: Show how the sentence ‘but there was a price to pay’ acts as a link in the writer’s argument. (2 U)

Answer: ‘but’ introduces a contradictory idea to the point about the new running tracks being a great advance for athletes which helped them to break records and improve performances. ‘price to pay’ links forward to the idea that the cost of these new tracks was more injuries from the hard surface, which athletes’ bodies were not used to.

TIP: be alert to words used to signal a change in direction: but, however…

2. Questions on Analysis

From the work you have completed so far, you should be familiar with the term ‘analysis’. It means to explore the features of language that a writer has used to create meaning. You will have to be able to Understand and comment on a writer’s choice of words Understand and comment on a writer’s choice of imagery

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Checklist for Understanding questions own words, unless you are asked to quote short, succinct sentences clearly separate points, according to the number of marks

available, perhaps using bullets

Understand and comment on a writer’s choice of sentence structure

So, Understanding questions focus on content; Analysis questions focus on the way in which the content is expressed – the writer’s style.

There are some key things to remember when answering A questions: You must always quote the example of word-choice, imagery, structure, etc You must always go on to discuss the example in order to demonstrate your

understanding of the techniques the writer has used In your discussion, you must, therefore, use technical terms such as simile,

repetition, hyperbole, semi-colon, connotation, etc. (In other words, all the things you’ve been learning in the second section of this booklet!)

You must always go on to comment on how the writer’s style helps to shape his meaning. That means you must make a comment about the feature in the context it is used.

There are a number of different types of Analysis questions that you can learn how to answer. They are: Questions about imagery Questions about word choice Questions about sentence structure Questions about tone

We’ll deal with these in turn.

1. Questions about imagery.

The first premise is that you must learn the different types of imagery, or you’ll never be able to do these questions!

How to answer: Find and quote the image State what the comparison is Explain how the comparison relates to the point the writer makes

e.g. In this passage about Muhammed Ali, the writer is exploring how the money that Ali made from fighting was badly spent and soon wasted.

“One fight I attended in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, showed a fascinating insight into how the money haemorrhaged”

Question: Comment on the writer’s use of imagery to convey his feelings about what happened to Muhammed Ali’s money. 2 (A)

Answer: “…how the money haemorrhaged” (the image)

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In this metaphor, the loss of Ali’s money is compared to the loss of blood from a wound (the literal comparison)

This suggests that a huge amount of money was wasted because a huge amount of blood is lost when a wound bleeds out of control, or haemorrhages. (understanding of figurative meaning relating to point the writer makes)

Method: Quote State comparison Explain what is suggested by comparison in terms of the writer’s point

In the same passage, the writer describes the people who used Ali’s money as if it was their own:

“The rest were relatives, friends of relatives, old pals of Ali who had fallen on hard times, and outright leeches”

Question: Comment on the writer’s use of imagery to convey his disapproval of some of the people who took advantage of Muhammed Ali. 2 (A)

Answer: “outright leeches” (the image) In this metaphor, the people who hung around Ali are compared to leeches,

blood-sucking parasites (the literal comparison) This suggests that they took everything they wanted from Ali but gave nothing in

return, because a leech feeds off its prey without giving anything back and is stuck so firmly to its victim that it’s hard to get rid of it. (understanding of figurative meaning relating to point the writer makes)

Method: Quote State comparison Explain what is suggested by comparison in terms of the writer’s point

Here is an alternative method to use when answering imagery questions:

1. “outright leeches”

The people that hung around Ali are compared to leeches.Literally, a leech is a blood sucking parasite.Figuratively, the comparison suggests that Ali’s friends stuck around him only to drain him of his money, in the same way a leech drains its victim’s blood.

2. In his poem ‘The Jaguar’, Ted Hughes writes“The world rolls under the long thrust of his heel.”

The force of the jaguar’s stride is compared to the pull of gravity.

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Literally, the earth moves constantly.Figuratively, the comparison suggests that the jaguar’s stride is so powerful that it can move the earth, causing it to revolve.

Note that the words in bold are always used to frame your answer, ensuring that you complete each stage.

IT DOESN’T MATTER WHICH METHOD YOU USE, AS LONG AS YOU ALWAYS EXPLAIN THE IMAGE FIRST AND THEN RELATE ITS LITERAL MEANING TO THE FIGURATIVE POINT THE AUTHOR IS MAKING. YOU MUST SHOW UNDERSTANDING OF THE ‘ROOT’ COMPARISON!

2. Questions about word choice

Being able to do questions about word choice relies on your understanding of connotations. Remember, you need to think about how the writer’s meaning is enhanced by the words he has chosen.

How to answer: Quote the word State what its connotations are Explain how these reinforce the writer’s ideas

e.g. In this passage about bears, the writer describes the grizzly bear:

“To begin with, the really terrifying American bear, the grizzly – Ursus horribilis as it is so vividly and correctly labelled – doesn’t range east of the Mississippi..”

Question: Why has the writer used the word “labelled” instead of a word like “called”? 2 (A)

Answer: “labelled” (quote) Suggests (or connotes) the correct classification of the bear, according to its

species and type. (The connotations) It is therefore more formal than a word like “called”, which would suggest that

“Ursus horribilis” is its every day name. The writer uses “labelled” to show us that the Latin name is its proper, scientific name. (Explanation of how the connotations relate to the writer’s point.)

In the same passage, the writer talks about reading stories of people being attacked by bears:

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“I lay saucer-eyed in bed reading clinically precise accounts of people being gnawed pulpy in their sleeping bags”

Question: Considering this sentence as a whole, explain fully how the language used makes it humorous. 2 (A)

Note that this question uses ‘language’ instead of ‘word-choice’. For this type of question, you could discuss word-choice as well as other techniques such as hyperbole and contrast.

Answer: The writer uses hyperbole, word-choice and contrast to create humour. He says he read ‘saucer-eyed’, suggesting his eyes were wide open in shock at what he was reading. He also uses the words ‘gnawed pulpy’ to exaggerate the state the body was in once the bear had finished with it. ‘pulpy’ suggests the body was reduced to mush by the bear. He contrasts the light-hearted expression of ‘pulpy’ with the formal word choice of ‘clinically precise’ to create humour, suggesting that the book gave every gruesome detail about the state of the bear’s victim.

Can you see in this answer how word choice is commented on in relation to the tone it creates? This is a common feature of word-choice questions – you will sometimes have to show how a single word contributes to meaning (like in the first example here), but you will sometimes have to do the more difficult task of linking word choice to other language features, such as in the second example.

3. Questions about sentence structure.

The third type of analysis question is the sentence structure question. This is where you will have to identify the features of punctuation and/or structure that the writer has used and comment on what these features contribute to the meaning. You will need to know and understand all the features covered in part 1 of this booklet!

Some sentence structure questions will be quite straightforward:

In the passage about bears, Bryson writes“I lay...in bed reading...accounts of people gnawed pulpy in their sleeping bags, plucked whimpering from trees, or even noiselessly stalked (I didn’t know this happened!) as they sauntered unawares down leafy paths...

Question (a) Explain the use of the brackets around this expression. 1(A)(b) Explain the use of the exclamation mark 1 (A)

Answer (a) The brackets are used to give additional information (demonstrate your understanding of the function of the brackets), in this case to show how Bryson was

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surprised at the lengths a bear will go to, to track down a human (comment on the specific purpose of their use in the text).(b) The exclamation mark expresses Bryson’s shock (demonstrate your understanding of the function of the punctuation mark).

Other sentence structure questions are more difficult. You will be asked to identify the features yourself and then comment on their effect.

How to answer Quote your chosen feature Identify the features of punctuation and/or structure Comment on what the effects of these features are in terms of the writer’s

meaning

e.g. In this passage about a river journey, the writer writes“I’ve found a way of keeping on the move that works, or seems to. Accommodation sufficient to contain an ordinary daily working life. A suitable speed at which to meet the world. Just enough danger to keep one’s wits sharp. A vehicle dependent on the random chances and decisions of the weather.”

Question: Comment on the sentence structure used in presenting the writer’s ideas about how he keeps ‘on the move’. 2(A)

Answer: The writer uses a series of short, incomplete sentences (identify the features used) to convey the idea that he has a number of separate reasons which combine to ensure the success of his journey (comment on how these features combine to contribute to the writer’s meaning).

4. Questions on tone

The fourth type of analysis question is questions on tone. You must learn examples of different types of tone and remember to think about what a writer’s purpose is and what his attitude to his subject is.

You will usually be asked to identify the tone and comment on how the writer has created a particular tone – i.e. the techniques he has used.

How to answer Describe the tone in one or two words Quote an example of words or phrases which convey the tone Analyse the features used – word-choice, punctuation, sentence structure – and

link these to the tone

e.g. In Bryson’s passage about bears, he writes“Black bears rarely attack. But here’s the thing. Sometimes they do. All bears are agile, cunning and immensely strong, and they are always hungry. If they want to kill

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you, they can, and pretty much whenever they want. That doesn’t happen often, but – and here is the absolutely salient point – once would be enough.

Question: Identify any one technique used by the writer in this paragraph and explain how the technique helps him to create an appropriate tone. 2 (A)

Answer: The tone is humorously confidential. (Identify the tone)“But here’s the thing. Sometimes they do.” (Quote an example of it)Bryson’s use of short, incomplete sentences using colloquial word-choice creates humour because it is as if he is addressing the reader directly. By being blunt and to the point about the reality of dying by a bear attack, he makes it seem funny. (Analyse the features)

Sometimes, you might be given the tone and just have to comment on the features:

“Every day, for up to six hours, Marco puts up with laughter, sarcasm – and the Scottish weather.”

Question: How does this sentence suggest that the tone of the passage will be humorous? 2 (A)

Answer: “...puts up with laughter, sarcasm – and the Scottish weather.” (Quote an example of tone)The use of the single dash creates the funny afterthought about the Scottish weather. This creates humour because everyone knows that the weather in Scotland is terrible and that it is really a standing joke if you live there.

REMEMBER: Tone is not a language feature in itself; it is CREATED by a language feature.

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Checklist for Analysis Questions Quotation necessary Deal with one technique at a time – never lump quotations together

with a single comment Can I identify the different types of analysis questions? Do I know how to answer different types of analysis question?

3. Questions on Evaluation

The final category of questions is Evaluation questions. This is where you have to demonstrate both your understanding of the writer’s purpose and the techniques he has used to convey his ideas.

You will evaluate how well you think the writer’s techniques have conveyed his ideas.

There will be 2-3 Evaluation questions in the whole passage.

In the final question, you may be asked to identify techniques that the writer has used to meet his purpose, and the question will tell you what the writer’s purpose is. This type of final question is usually worth 4 marks, and you will have to give 2 examples of techniques and discuss each fully. It is worth remembering that you can use techniques that you have already made use of in previous questions.

How to answer Quote an example of a technique used by the writer, stating what the technique

is Analyse the technique Explain why the technique fits with the writer’s purpose Do the same for a second, different technique.

* Never quote two examples of techniques at the same time and then lump your discussion of them together – always deal with one technique at a time.

e.g. Question: The writer’s main purpose in this extract is to convey his fascination with travelling by boat. Identify two features of style the writer uses and comment on how well you believe he has achieved his purpose. 4 (E)

Answer: “I’d wake up in the morning and remember with a pang, that I’d lost the river and the boat.” The writer’s word-choice gives a good indication of his fascination with travelling by boat. (Quote and identify technique)The word ‘pang’ tells us that he misses his boat and wishes he was on it again, because ‘pang’ is a word associated with regret. (Analyse the technique)He is obviously fascinated with boats if he wishes he could spend more time on one. (Explain how the technique fits the purpose)

“The wind is a mad travel agent, with a malicious...turn of wit”. The writer’s use of personification gives a good indication of his fascination with travelling by boat. (Quote and identify second technique)

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The personification of the wind emphasises the adventure of travelling by boat because it makes it seem as if his journey is directed by the wind, not him. (Analyse the technique)He is obviously fascinated by boats if he loves the adventure of an unpredictable journey. (Explain how the technique fits the purpose)

The final question may ask you about the effectiveness/appropriateness of the title or last paragraph:

If the last question asks you how a title relates to the passage, then quote an aspect of the title, find and quote a bit of the passage that links to it, and explain the link between them.

If the question asks you to show how a final paragraph or sentence effectively concludes a passage, sum up the ideas of the final paragraph/sentence and then quote an idea that links to it from the rest of the passage, explaining the link.

For both types of final question, make as many points as there are marks.

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Checklist for knowing about different types of questions: Do I understand what U, A and E means and the different demands

of each? Do I know how to tackle different types of questions, particularly in

the Analysis category?

Checklist for Evaluation questions Quotation necessary Analysis of techniques necessary Link technique with purpose Separate comments for each quotation; write enough to get full

marks

You’ve almost reached the end of your introduction to Close Reading. You probably feel that you have covered a lot of ground but can’t remember any of it! Don’t worry – doing lots of practice will help to reinforce all the things you’ve learned and this guide should always be at your side so that you use it for reference and help until you feel confident. This final section contains lots of different advice.

1. Sometimes candidates struggle to understand the words used in the question. Here are the most commonly used and what they mean.

Explain: means to show your understanding by giving a clear and detailed account

Show: means to find examples or quotations to support your answer

Analyse: means to comment on the techniques a writer has used With close reference to: means to quote and analyse an example Compare: means to find something similar Contrast: means to find something different Develop: means to show how an idea is continued in a paragraph

or passage Indicate or identify: means to find and write down a quotation Suggest: means to give your own ideas/opinions Examine: means to analyse Comment: means to quote and then analyse

2. Always read the question carefully and be clear about what you are being asked to do. Underline the parts of the question to focus you on its different demands. Sub-headings can very useful – for example, if the question asks you to deal with both sentence structure and imagery, organise your answer using a sub-heading for each part. This keeps you focused and helps the person marking your paper!

3. Never start your answer by writing out the question again. Learn when it is appropriate to use bullet points to organise your response – when a summary of ideas is required, for example, or when you have to write down two or more words from the passage. Generally, bullets suit Understanding questions and Analysis questions require formal continuous prose. Your aim, whichever method of organisation you choose, is to be as economical as possible.

4. Understanding of the writer’s key ideas and his/her attitude towards these is fundamental to success at Close Reading. You need to read

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PART FOUR: FINAL TIPS FOR SUCCESS

actively, and in some cases this means training yourself to read in a different way. Try these strategies:

Always read the title and the blurb and actively consider what’s said, and the way the title/blurb is framed (questions, for example), before considering what expectations you have just from the title/blurb

After reading the passage you should ask yourself ‘What are the key ideas? What is the writer’s attitude? How do I know?’

Train yourself to answer these questions by highlighting the passage as you work through it (topic sentences, key words/phrases which suggest/clarify the writer’s ideas/attitude, any obvious aspects of structure).

Obviously, you won’t have time to highlight the text when under exam conditions. By the time you get to May, you should be used to reading in an active way, and able to do without the scaffolding of highlighting.

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