interdisciplinary biannual journal 2013.pdfdr. v. s thampi das associate professor dept. of...

RESEARCH ESSENCE, VOL.1, NO.1, JUNE-DECEMBER 2013

Interdisciplinary Biannual Journal

Sree Narayana College, Sivagiri, Varkala Trivandrum, Kerala 695 145

Tel: 0470 2602362 [email protected]

©Printed and Published by Principal, Sree Narayana College, Sivagiri, Varkala

It gives me immense pleasure to know that a biannual journal “Research Essence” is

being published from Sree Narayana College, Sivagiri, Varkala. It seeks to promote and

coordinate academic pursuits and research projects in the Science and Humanities. The

journal serves as a forum for sharing ideas, insights and experiences. It aims to cater to the

interests and needs of all who are deeply concerned about quality improvement in education

and committed to the quest for academic excellence.

Vellappally Natesan Manager

I feel extremely happy to bring out this biannual multidisciplinary research journal

“Research Essence” of our College. This is an occasion when our P G Departments are in

the process of being elevated to the status of recognized research centres. With this our

College will certainly become an established venue for interdisciplinary discussions, debates

and seminar. This research journal will, to a certain extent satisfy, the long awaited academic

needs of our teachers and students.

Dr. G Jayasenan Principal

MANAGER Sri. Vellappally Natesan

EDITORIAL BOARD

Chairman

Dr. G. Jayasenan Principal S N College, Varkala

Chief Editor Dr. Jerry Alwin Assistant Professor Dept. of Economics

Executive Editor Dr. R Biju Assistant Professor Dept. of Chemistry ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Prof. S Reshmi Assistant Professor Dept. of Physics

Prof. S Aranya Assistant Professor Dept. of Physics

Prof. C. L Veenas Assistant Professor Dept. of Physics EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Dr. R Mohanakumar Associate Professor and Head Dept of Chemistry

Dr. G Geetha Associate Professor and Head Dept of Economics

Dr. Mathew K Jacob Associate Professor and Head Dept of Geology

Prof. S Shibu Associate Professor and Head Dept. of Physics

Prof. Beena Karunakaran Associate Professor and Head Dept. of Malayalam

Dr. C Meera Associate Professor and Head Dept. of History

Dr. T. K Sushama Associate Professor and Head Dept. of Hindi

Dr. L. S Mini Associate Professor and Head Dept of Botany

Prof. Mini Suresh Associate Professor and Head Dept of Zoology

Prof. S Preetha Associate Professor and Head Dept. of Mathematics

Prof. S Lisy Associate Professor and Head Dept of Physical Education

Dr. J. P Prajith Assistant Professor and Head Dept of Sanskrit

Dr. S Soju Assistant Professor and Head Dept of Commerce

Prof. C. R Remya Assistant Professor and Head Dept of English

Dr. V. S Thampi Das Associate Professor Dept. of Chemistry

Prof. Sajesh Sasidharan Assistant Professor Dept. of Physics

GENERAL INSTRUCTION TO CONTRIBUTORS

Submission of Manuscript

Manuscripts for publication should be submitted to the Editor, Research Essence, S N

College, Varkala, Trivandrum, Kerala 695 145. The authors should provide a soft copy of the

paper in M S word (.doc or .docx) along with one hard copy. Manuscripts should be

presented in as concise a form as possible. Good attention should be given to spelling and

grammar aspects. Pages should be numbered consecutively and arranged in the following

order.

Title, authors’ names with their institutional affiliations, email address and abstract

along with relevant footnotes wherever necessary; Introduction, Keywords, Experimental

details/ Theory/ Method/ Analysis; Results; Discussion; Conclusion(s); Acknowledgement;

Reference and Appendixes.

Contact Us

Chief Editor Dr. Jerry Alwin Assistant Professor Dept. of Economics S N College, Varkala Phone: 9495904528 Email: [email protected]

Executive Editor Dr. R Biju Assistant Professor Dept. of Chemistry S N College, Varkala Phone: 9446649680 Email: [email protected]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No

Research articles kwkv-Ir-X-km-ln-Xyhpw hn-hÀ-̄ -\-§fpw þ H-c-h-temI\w 1 Prajith J.P IS½\n«¡hnXbnse IS½\n« 6 Nithya P. Viswam

Role of π-π Stacking in the Construction of a Supramolecular 9 Assembly in the Solid State Structure of a Manganese(III) Schiff base complex Thampidas V. S Shape Memory Epoxy-Cyanate Ester System; Effect of Switching Segments 19 R. Biju, C.P, Reghunadhan Nair Gender Budgeting in Kerala: An Analysis towards Women’s Health 35 Jayasree A Growing Trend in Edible Oil Consumption-An Analysis 46 S.Suchithra Devi Recent Trends in Inflation in India 55 Jerry Alwin Rising Health care issues in Kerala 67 S. C Sreerenjini. Kerala Model of Development: A Critique: Issues of Attapady Tribal 76 Village in Palakkad and Aralam Village in Kannur District. Namitha K.Bhat Social Media Marketing: A Paradigm Shift in Business 85 S. V. Jubilie Environmental Impact on the Beach Tourism Industry in Kerala 95 Parvathy Nand FDI Opportunities in India for Infrastructure Development 101 Simu Rajendran

RESEARCH ESSENCE VOL.1, NO.1, JUNE-DECEMBER 2013

1

kwkv-Ir-X-km-ln-Xyhpw hn-hÀ-¯-\-§fpw þ H-c-h-temI\w Prajith J.P

Assistant Professor and Head, Dept. of Sanskrit, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala Email: [email protected]

Abstract

"kwkvIr-X km-ln-Xy-hpw hn-hÀ-¯-\-§fpw' F-¶ hn-j-b-s¯ kw-_-Ôn-¨ H-cp A-h-

tem-I-\-am-Wv Cu te-J-\-¯nÂ D-t±-in-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. a-l¯m-b `m-cXo-b kw-kv-Im-c-¯n-sâ A-

Sn-¯-d-sb-¶p ]-d-bp¶-Xv kw-kv-Ir-X-`m-jbpw A-Xn-sâ ssh-]p-ey-amÀ-¶ im-kv-{X-im-J-I-fp-am-

Wv. \-½p-sS FÃm im-kv-{X-§-fp-sSbpw C-X-c `m-jm-km-ln-Xy-§-fp-sS-bp-saÃmw th-cv kw-kv-Ir-

X-km-lnXyw X-s¶-bm-Wv. kw-kvIr-X km-ln-Xy-{K-Ù-§-fp-sS `m-jm-´-co-Ic-Ww F-{X-t¯m-fw

D-−m-bn F-¶pw hn-hÀ-̄ -\ im-J-bp-sS kw-`m-h-\-I-sf-¡p-dn-¨pw A-Xn-sâ \Ã h-i-§-sfbpw

No-¯-h-i-§-sf-¡p-dn-¨pw H-cp e-Lp-]T-\w \-S-̄ phm³ Cu te-J-\-¯n-eq-sS {i-an-¨n-cn-¡p¶p.

" `mc-Xo-b-kw-kv-Ir-X-km-ln-Xy¯nÂ hn-hÀ-̄ -\-im-J-bv-¡v {]-tXy-I {]m-[m-\y-ap-−v. a-

äp-`m-j-I-sf-t¸m-se F-fp-¸w FÃm-t]À¡pw ssI-Imcyw sN-¿m³ I-gn-bm-¯-Xp-sIm-−pw, B-i-b-

hn-\na-bw \n-e-hn-enÃm-¯-Xp-sIm−pw k`y`m-j-bm-b-Xp-sIm−pw a-l¯m-b Cu `m-j-bp-sS

am-lmßyw a-\-Ên-em¡m³ Iq-Sp-X-embpw a-äp-`m-j-I-fn-ep-f-f hn-hÀ-¯-\-§-sf-bm-Wv \mw B-{i-

bn-¡p-¶Xv. hnin-jy-am-Xr-`m-jm-hn-hÀ-¯-\§-sf \mw B-{i-bn-t¡-−n-h-cp-¶p. kw-kv-IrX-`m-j

]Tn-¡mt\m a-\-Ên-em-¡mt\m A-[n-I-am-cpw Xp-\n-bmsX, C¯-cw hn-hÀ-¯-\-§-sfbpw a-äpw B-

{i-bn-¡p-¶-Xv B `m-j-bp-sS \n-e-\n-Â¸n-s\ _m-[n-¡p-sa-¦n-epw, hn-hÀ-¯\-§Ä a-säm-cp-X-

c¯nÂ A-h-bp-sS a-l-Xzhpw A-´:Ê-¯bpw \n-e-\nÀ-¯m-dp−v.

almI-hn h-f-f-t¯m-fn-sâ ssh-Zn-I-km-ln-Xy-kw-_-Ôn-bm-b "E-tKzm-Z-{]-th-inIm'1 hn-

hÀ-¯\-§Ä XpS-§n a-lm-`m-c-X-hpw, cm-am-b-W-hpw, a-lm-Im-hy-§-fpw, k-tμ-i-Im-hy-§fpw J-

Þ-Im-hy-§-fp-am-bn hn-hÀ-̄ -\im-J \o-−p-t]m-Ip¶p. Chbp-sS D-f-f-dnbm³ B-{K-ln¡p-¶

`q-cn-`m-Kw hcp-¶ km-[m-c-W-¡mcpw hn-hÀ-¯-\§-sf B-{i-bn-¡p-¶p. aq-e-Ir-Xn-I-sf¡mÄ a-

t\m-l-c-am-bXpw A-]qÀ-Æ-am-b-Xpam-b sam-gn-am-ä-§fpw Im-Wp-¶p−v. DZm-l-c-W-am-bn N-

¼¯nÂ Nm-¯p-¡p-«n-a-¶m-Sn-bm-cp-sS D-¯-c-cm-a-N-cn-Xw hn-hÀ¯-\w aq-e-Ir-Xn-sb¡mÄ kp-μ -

c-am-bn-«p-f-f-Xm-bn kÀÆ-{X Aw-Ko-I-cn-¡p-¶p. hn-hÀ-¯-\-§fnÂ ssi-eo-hy-Xym-kw D-−m-Ip-¶p

F-¶p-ff-Xv Nn-e-Im-hy§-sf kw-_-Ôn-¨v Ipd-hp Iq-Sp-X-ep-I-fm-bn ]-d-tb-−n-bn-cn-¡p¶p. Imfn-

Zmk-sâ im-Ip-´-f-¯n-\pw, ta-L-k-tμ-i-¯n-\p-saÃmw [m-cm-fw hn-hÀ-¯\-§Ä D-−v. AXnÂ

ta-·-bpf-f-h hf-sc Ip-d-¨p-am-{Xw. hym-Jym-\-§fnÂ a-dbp-¶ k-Xyhpw ku-μ-cy-hpw-t]m-se ]-

e-t¸mgpw sam-gn-am-ä-§-fnepw kw-`-hn-¨p-t]m-Ip¶p. C¯cw kw-`h-§Ä a-lm-Im-hy-§-sf-¡m-f-

[n-Iw im-kv-{X-Im-hy-§-fn-em-Wv kw-`-hn-¡p-¶-Xv. A-h-bn-seÃmw s]m-fn-s¨-gpXm³ ]-äm-¯Xpw

k-am-\am-b AÀ°-§Ä In-«m-¯-Xpam-b ]-e km-t¦Xn-I {]iv-\-§-fp-ap-−v. B-bpÀ-tÆ-Z {KÙ-

§Ä t]m-ep-f-f km-t¦XnI kw-Ú-I-fp-f-f {K-Ù-§fnÂ Cu {]-iv\-§Ä ImWp¶p. aq-e-{K-

Ùw a-\-Ên-em-¡m³ _p-²n-ap-«m-sX ]-ecpw a-äp-`m-j-I-fn-ep-f-f sam-gn- am-ä-§-sf-bpw, hym-Jym-\-


2

§-sf-bpw B-{i-bn-¡p-¶p. C-¶-s¯ B-bpÀtÆ-Z hn-ZymÀ-°-n-IÄ ]-ecpw hn-hÀ-̄ -\-{K-Ù-§-fp-

am-bn am-{X-sa C-S-s]-Sm-dp-f-fq. tPym-Xn-jn-I-fp-sSbpw Øn-Xn C-Xp-X-s¶-bmWv.

`mcXo-b X-¯z-im-kv-{X-im-J-bn-se an-¡ {K-Ù-§Ä¡pw ]-e-`m-j-I-fn-em-bn sam-gn-am-äw

Im-Wp-¶p. D-]-\n-j-¯p-I-fpw, {_-Ò-kq-{X-hpw, -̀K-h-Zv-Ko-X-bpw, th-Zm-´ ]-cn-`m-j-bp-sam-s¡ C-

Xn-\p-Zm-l-c-W-§-fm-Wv. A-\z-bmÀ-°¯nÂ a-\-Ên-em-¡nbmÂ X-s¶ aq-e-{K-Ù-¯n-se `m-

jbnÂ A-h-Km-l-an-sÃ-¦nÂ B-i-b-¡p-g-¸-am-bn-cn¡pw ^-ew. Im-hy-§-sf-¡m-fpw im-kv-{X-Im-

hy-§Ä-¡v C-sXm-cp ho-gv-N-X-s¶-bm-Wv. `m-c-Xo-b-aÃm-¯ X-¯z-im-kv-{X- {K-Ù-§-fp-sS sam-gn-am-

ä-§Ä¡pw Im-hy-k-c-Wn-IÄ¡pw \-½p-sS Xm-Xzn-I-{K-Ù-§-fp-sS sam-gn-am-ä-§-fp-sS A-{Xbpw {]-

bm-k-a-\p-`-h-s¸-Sp-¶nÃ.

\mSy-im-kv-{Xw2, [z\y--temIw3, `m-a-lm-e-¦mcw, cp-{Z-Sm-e-¦mcw, Im-hym-e-¦m-cw4 Xp-S§n-

b A-e¦m-c im-kv-{X-{K-Ù-§Ä¡pw sam-gn-amä-§Ä [m-cm-fw D-−m-bn-«p-−v. A-h-bv¡pw C¯-

cw km-t¦-Xn-Iam-b {]-iv\-§Ä H-fnªpw sX-fnªpw D-−m-Ip-¶p-−v. kw-kv-Ir-X-{K-Ù-§-fn-

se sam-gn-am-ä-§-fn-ep-−mIp-¶ A-{X-bpw P-Un-e-X a-äp `m-jm-{K-Ù-§-fp-sS sam-gn-am-ä-§fnÂ A-

[n-Iw Im-Wp-¶nÃ.

\½p-sS ZmÀ-i\n-I {K-Ù-hn-`m-K-¯nepw Im-hy-hn-`m-K-¯nepw Xp-ey-{]m-[m-\y-t¯m-sS

\nÂ¡p-¶ H-cp hn-`m-K-am-Wv Xm-{´-km-ln-Xy-imJ. A-h ]-cn-tim-[n-̈ p t\m-¡nbmÂ sam-gn-amä-

§Ä \-s¶-¡p-d-hm-Wv. hym-Jym\-§Ä Ip-d-s¨m-s¡ Im-Wp-¶p-ap−v 5. Cu hnj-b-¯n-sâ c-l-

ky-kz-`m-h-hpw, km-t¦-Xn-I-]-Z-§-fp-sS {]-iv-\-§fpw X-s¶-bm-Wv sam-gn-am-ä-§Ä-¡v X-S-Ê-am-bn

\n-¶-sX-¶p-th-Ww I-cp-Xm³. kw-kvIr-X km-ln-Xy¯nÂ A-{Kn-a-Øm-\w AÀ-ln¡p-¶ H-cp

km-ln-Xy-im-J-bm-Wn-sX-¶n-cn-¡n-epw, km-[m-c-W P-\-§fnÂ \n¶pw A-I-än-\n-dp-¯n-b-Xm-Wv Cu

A-[:]-X-\-¯n-\p-f-f {]-[m-\-Im-c-Ww. AY-hm hn-h-À¯-\w sN-bvXmÂ kw-kvIr-X ]Z-§Ä X-

s¶ A-tX]-Sn Iq-Sp-X-embpw DÄ-s¸-Sp-t¯-−n-h-cpw. {io-i-¦c-sâ "kuμ-cy e-lcn'6 sb-Sp-

¯mÂ BÀ-°n-I-ambpw im-Ðn-I-ambpw D-f-f am-[pcyw A-sÃ¦nÂ ku-μcyw kÀÆ-{X A-`n-¶-am-

bn H-gp-In-s¡m-−n-cn-¡p-¶ {K-Ù-am-WnXv. {Inh 1901. Â sam-gn-am-äw sNbv-X a-lmI-hn Ip-am-c-

\m-im-sâ "`m-jm-ku-μ-cy-e-l-cn', {Inh 1968þÂ s{]m-^: F-Êv.sI. s]-cn-\m-Sp c-Nn-¨p {]-kn-²o-I-

cn-̈ "ku-μ-cy-e-l-co-`m-jm-Km\w' F¶n-h tam-i-a-sÃ-¦n-epw, km-[m-c-W-K-XnbnÂ C¯-cw {K-Ù-

§fnÂ km-t¦-Xn-Iam-b ]-Z-]-cn-Úm-\-anÃm-¯h-\v sam-gn-amä-§Ä Zp-cq-l-X-bp-−m-¡pw. A-Xp-

sIm-−m-Wn¯-cw {KÙ-§Ä hym-Jym\-§Ä am-{X-am-sbm-Xp-§p-¶-Xpw. i-cnbm-b im-kv-{X-

Úm-\-hpw, `m-jm-Úm-\hpw CÃm-¯h-\v Cu P-Un-e-Xbpw Z-cp-l-Xbpw hym-Jym-\-§-fnepw

D-−m-Ip-¶p. C¯-cw ssh-j-ay-§Ä im-kv-{X-{K-Ù-§-fn-seÃmw I-−p-h-cp-s¶-¦nepw Xm-{´n-I -

{K-Ù-§-fnÂ G-dn-\nÂ-¡p¶p. ]e[ym-\-tÇm-I-§fpw hf-sc A-]qÀ-Æ-am-b-Xpw, C-¶v {]-Nm-c-¯n-

enÃm-¯-Xpam-b A-e-¦m-c-§fmÂ A-Xn-a-t\m-l-c-am-bn sN-bv-Xp-h-¨n-«p-−v. Ah B tZ-h-X-bp-sS

kz-`m-h-¯n-\pw, km-¶n-²y-¯n-\pw, c-k-¯n-\p-a-\p-k-cn-¨m-Wv sN-¿-s¸-«n-«p-f-f-Xv. C-h A-Xp-t]m-

se sam-gn-am-äw sN-¿p-t¼mÄ \-t¶ ]-Wn-s¸-tS-−n-h-cp-¶p. A-Xp-t]m-se ]-e a-{´-§fpw hnti-

j i-Ð-§-fm-bn-«m-Wv tIÄ-¡p-¶-Xv. A-h hn-hÀ-̄ -\-¯n-\-\p-Iq-e-aÃ-X-s¶! C-§-s\-t\m-¡p-

t¼mÄ Xm-{´n-I-Ir-Xn-I-fp-sS {In-bm {]-[m-\am-b `mK-§Ä hn-hÀ-¯-\-¯n-s\m«pw A-\p-Iq-e-

aÃ. F¶mÂ ssh-tZ-in-I-cm-b BÀ-XÀ B-hv-tem¬þsâbpw hnâvÀ\--n-äv-kn-sâ-bp-sams¡, Xm-


3

{´n-I X-¯z-§-sf-¡p-dn-¨p-f-f B-g-ap-f-f ]T\-§Ä ap³-]pX-s¶ D-−m-bn-«p-−v F-¶p-f-fXpw H-cp

h-kv-Xp-X-bmWv.

tZho-am-lm-ßy-¯n-sâ a-e-bm-f-hn-hÀ-¯-\-§-fnepw {In-bm-amÀ-¤§-sf hn-h-cn¡p-¶ `m-K-

§-fnepw [m-cm-fw km-t¦-Xn-I X-SÊ-§Ä D-−v. ssN-\-bn-epw, Sn-_-än-epw, P-¸m-\n-ep-sam-s¡-bp-f-

f _u-²-Xm-{´n-I-{KÙ-§Ä sam-gn-am-äw sN-¿-s¸-Sm-¯-Xp-sIm-−v A-h-sb-¡p-dn-¨v H-c-dnhpw CÃ.

C-Xv sam-gn-am-ä-§-fp-sS {]-k-àn-sb Im-Wn-¡p-¶p. C¯-cw {K-Ù-§Ä-¡v hn-hÀ-¯\-§Ä \-S-

¶n-cp-¶p-sh¦nÂ A-h-sb-¡p-dn-¨v F-s´-¦n-ep-sam-s¡ a-äp-f-f-hÀ-¡v A-dnbm³ km-[n-¡p-am-bn-cp-

¶-tÃm? ]p-cm-W-{K-Ù-§Ä¡pw ap-gp-h-\m-bn sam-gn- am-äw \-S-¶p-Im-Wp-¶nÃ! Xn-cp-hn-XmwIqÀ

tZ-h-kzw-t_mÀ-Uv sse-{_-dnbnÂ ]p-cmW-§Ä H-¶m-bn hn-hÀ¯-\w sN¿m³ Xp-S-¡-an-«-

Xmbpf-f H-cp {K-Ùw Im-Wphm³ I-gn-bp-¶p. ]qÀ-¯o-I-cn-¨n-«nÃ F-¶p X-s¶ A-dn-bp¶p.

C\n {]-kn-²am-b H-cp K-Zy-km-ln-Xy-Ir-Xn-sb ]-cn-tim-[n-¡mw. K-Zy-km-ln-Xy-Ir-Xn-I-fp-

sS `m-jm-hn-hÀ-¯-\-§fnÂ _m-W-`«-sâ Im-Zw-_-co-hn-hÀ-¯\w (ap−qÀ kp-Ip-amc³) D-Zm-l-c-

W-am-Wv 7. Cw-¥o-jnepw C-Xv sam-gn-am-äw sN-bv-Xn-«p-−v. A-\m-bm-kw B c-k-{]-hm-l¯nÂ H-

gp-In-\-S-¡m-sa-¦nepw Im-Zw-_-co-c-km-kzm-Z-\-¯n-epff- D-t±-in¡p-¶ ^-ew sam-gn-am-ä¯nÂ D-

−m-Ip-¶nÃ. Im-hy-§-fnepw Cu co-Xn-bp-−v. Hm-tcm-Im-hy-§Ä¡pw A-Xn-tâXm-b D-t±-iy-ap-

−v. Im-fn-Zm-k-sâ-bpw, Z-Þn-bp-sS-bpw, am-L-sâ-bpw, `m-c-hn-bp-sS-bpw, {io lÀ-j-sâbpw Im-

hy-§Ä D-t±-in¡p-¶ e-£y-§Ä sam-gn-am-ä-§fnÂ D-−m-Ip-¶nÃ.

aebm-f-Ir-Xn-I-fp-sS kw-kv-Ir-X-hn-hÀ-¯\-§Ä ]-cn-tim-[n-¡mw. ]-ZyIr-Xn-IÄ ]-Zy-

Ir-Xn-I-fm-bn sam-gn-am-äw sN-¿-s¸-«XnÂ [m-cm-fw D-Zm-l-cW-§Ä Im-Wn¡m³ I-gn-bpw.

B-im-sâbpw D-f-fq-cn-sâ-bp-sam-s¡ Ir-Xn-IÄ D-Zm-l-c-W-am-Wv. s{]m-^: am-th-en-¡-c A-NypX-

sâ kw-kv-Ir-X-hn-hÀ-¯-\am-b "I-cp-W'8 aq-e-Ir-Xn-bp-sS A-{Xbpw `w-Kn-bnÃ F-¶p X-s¶ ]-d-

bmw. A-Xn-sâ Xm-f-tam, B-kzm-Z-\-tam, ]-e Ø-e-§-fnepw tNmÀ-¶p-t]m-Ip-¶-Xm-bn Im-Wmw.

Bim³ kw-kv-Ir-X-]-Z-§-fp-sS I-S-¶p-I-b-ä-anÃm-sX hf-sc kq-£n-¨m-Wv Icp-W ssI-Imcyw

sN-bv-Xn-cn-¡p-¶-Xv F-¶p-]-d-bp-¶p-s−-¦nepw ]-e Ø-e-§-fnepw kw-kv-Ir-X-]-Z-§Ä X-s¶-bm-

W-[n-I-hpw9. H«p-an-¡-]-Z-§fpw A-Xp-t]m-se-X-s¶-bm-Wv A-Nyp-X³-kmdpw F-Sp-¯p-tNÀ-¯n-«p-f-

f-Xv. C-hn-sS sam-gn-am-äw ]-te-S¯pw A-\y-am-Ip-¶p. Nn-´m-hn-ãbm-b ko-X, D-f-fq-cn-sâ t{]-a-

kw-KoXw, Sm-tKm-dn-sâ Ko-XmÚ-en Xp-S§n-b I-hnX-IÄ F³. tKm-]m-e-]n-f-f sam-gn-am-äw sN-bv-

Xn-«p-−v. ]-«m-¼n-tIm-tf-Pn-se ho-Wm¼mÄ "ho-W-]q-hns\' Cu A-Sp-¯-Ime-¯v sam-gn-am-äw \-

S-¯n-bn-«p-−v. Xn-cp-\Ãq-cn-sâ N-Þm-e-`n-£p-In-bpw, ta-L-k-tμ-ihpw {]-kn-²-am-W-sÃm. C-h-

scm-s¡ aq-e-Ir-Xn-I-tfm-Sv B-ßmÀ-°-X-Im-Wn¨-hÀ X-s¶-bm-Wv. ssh-Zn-I-]p-kv-X-Iam-b ]pXn-b

\n-b-a-¯n-se B-Zy-`m-Kam-b Kn-cn-{]-`m-j-Wsa-¶ K-Zy-hn-`m-K-s¯ ]n.kn. Nmt¡m a-t\m-l-cam-b

H-cp Ir-kv-Xp-`m-K-h-X-a-lm-Im-hy-am-¡n 32þkÀ-¤-§fnÂ kw-kv-Ir-X-¯n-te-¡v sam-gn-am-äw \-

S¯n.

\½p-sS cq-]-I-§-fp-sS Im-cy-sa-Sp¯mÂ A-hbnÂ ]-eXpw `m-jm-hn-hÀ-̄ -\-§Ä-¡v hn-

t[-b-am-bn-«p-f-f-Xm-Wv. Im-fnZm-k \m-S-I-§Ä, Du-cp-`wKw, IÀ-®-`mcw, XpS-§n `mk-sâ ]-e

\m-S-I§Ä, iq-{ZI-sâ ar-Ñ-L-SnIw, a-tl-{μ hn-{I-a-hÀ½-sâ a-¯-hnem-k {]-l-k\w10, {io-


4

lÀj-sâ c-Xv-\m-h-eo-\m-Sn-I' F¶n-h D-Zm-l-c-W-§-fm-Wv. C-hbnÂ I-Ym-]m-{X-kw-`mjW-§Ä

D-Nn-Xam-b co-XnbnÂ {]-tbm-Kn-¨n-«p-s−-¦nepw tÇm-I-hn-hÀ-¯-\¯nÂ ku-μcyw tNm-cp-¶pthm

F-¶ kw-i-b-hp-anÃm-XnÃ. Im-fnZm-k \m-SI-§Ä \mw hm-bn-¨p- a-\-Ên-em¡p-¶-Xp-t]m-ep-f-f

ku-μcyw sam-gn-am-ä-§fnÂ ZÀ-in-¡m-\m-InÃ. N-e-¨n-{X-§-fnepw sam-gn-amä-§Ä ImWm³ km-[n-

¡p-¶p. Nn-e A-h-k-c-§fnÂ kw-kv-Im-c-hp-am-bn tN-cm-¯ hn-[¯nÂ sam-gn-amä-§Ä D-−m-Ip-

¶p. A-Xp-t]m-se kw-Ko-X-hn-ZybnÂ sam-gn- am-äw ZÀ-in¡mw. D-Zm-l-c-W-am-bn K-k-ep-I-fp-sS

sam-gn-amä-§Ä ]-e-t¸mgpw c-tkm-Nn-X-am-Ip-¶nÃ.

Pohn-IfnÂ a-\p-jy-\p-am{Xw ssI-h-¶n-«p-f-f hn-in-ã-kn-²n-bm-WsÃm `mj. Cu `m-j-I-

sfÃmw ]-e ]-e Im-e-L-«-§-fn-eq-sS sam-gn-am-ä-§-fn-eq-sS D-cp-¯n-cn-ª-h-X-s¶-bm-Wv. ]m-en-

bpw, \m-K-cn-bpw, J-tcm-ãn-bpw, tZ-h-\m-K-cn-bpw, XpS-§n ]-e `mj-IÄ tem-I-s¯-¼mSpw D−v.

ChbnÂ ]-e `m-j-I-fpw A-dnsªm A-dn-bm-sXtbm sam-gn-am-äw ]-c-kv]-cw sN-bv-Xn-«p-−v. \mw

C-¶v D-]-tbm-Kn¡p-¶ a-e-bm-f-`m-jbnÂ [m-cm-fw ]Z-§Ä sam-gn-am-äw sN-¿-s¸-«n-«p-−v. ta-i, I-

tk-c, h-cm-´, _m-¡n XpS-§n A-t\-Iw ]Z-§Ä a-äp-`m-j-IfnÂ \n-s¶-Sp-¯n-«p-f-f-Xm-Wv.

"XÀÖ-a' F-¶ {]-tbm-Kw D-dp-±p-`m-j-bn-em-Wv. ap-KÄ-Im-e-L-«¯nÂ "{-hP-`m-j' F-¶ ln-μp-

Øm-\n-`m-j-bp-sS {]-hm-lw kw-kv-Ir-X-{]-Nm-c-W-¯n-\v H-cp X-S-Ê-am-bn. ln-μp-Øm-\n-bp-sS {]-

Nm-chpw `-c-W`m-j Cw-¥o-jn-te-¡p am-än-b-Xp-sam-s¡ sam-gn-am-ä-§Ä-¡v h-gn-sbm-cp-¡n. kw-kv-

Ir-X-`m-j-bp-sS `m-jm-´-co-I-c-W¯nÂ am-Iv-kv-ap-ffÀ, am-Iv-sUm\Â, hnâÀ-\n-äv-kv Xp-S§n-b ]m-

ÝmXyÀ h-f-sc-a-l¯m-b ]-¦p-h-ln-¨n-«p-−v. C-t¸mgpw \mw C-h-cp-sS ]p-kv-X-I-§-sf-X-s¶-bm-

Wv B-{i-bn-¡p-¶-Xv. C-h-cp-sS ]-cn-`mj-IÄ kw-kv-Ir-X-s¯-bpw, `m-cXo-b ss]-Xr-I-s¯bpw

A-\y-tZ-i-§-fn-se-¯n-¡m-\pw, A-h-cp-sS a-l-Xz-s¯-bpw, aq-ey-s¯bpw A-dn-bn-¡m\pw km-[n-

¨p F-¶p-ff-Xv sam-gn-am-ä-§-fp-sS ]-eXnÂ H-cp "¹-kv-t]m-bnâm-Wv'. hn-hÀ¯-\w `m-j-bv-¡pw,

km-ln-Xy-¯n\pw H-cp {]-Nm-c-W-amÀ-¤-am-Wv. \-ap-¡-dn-hnÃm-¯ ]-e `m-jm-{K-Ù-§fpw \mw hn-

hÀ-¯-\-§-fn-eq-sS-bm-W-dn-bp-¶-Xv. A-[n-Iw-t]cpw hn-hÀ-¯-\-§fnÂ k-©-cn-¡p-hm-\m-Wv C-ã-

s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. sam-gn-am-ä§Ä, A-dn-bm-\m-{K-ln¡p-¶ hn-j-b-§Ä-¡v h-gn-Xp-d-¡p-¶p. A-h \n-c-¸m-

bpw \n-c-¸Ãm-¯-Xp-ambpw I-t−-¡m-sa-¦nepw A-t\z-jI-sâ e-£y-s¯ G-sd-¡p-sd km-[q-I-cn-

¡p-¶psh¶v \n-kwi-bw ]-d-bmw. hn-hÀ¯-\w `m-j-bv-¡v H-cp X-c¯nÂ H-c-\p-{K-lw X-s¶-bm-

sW-¶p ]-d-bmw.

{KÙ kqNnI

1. E-tKz-Z kwlnX þ h-f-f-t¯mÄ, hn-hÀ¯\w Pub : tI-c-f-kÀ-Æ-I-emime.

2. \mSy-im-kv{Xw þ Dr. N. tKm-]m-e-¸-Wn¡À, Pub: hn-Zym-]oTw.

3. [z\ym-tem-Iw þ C.V. hm-kp-tZ-h-`-«-Xncn, tI-c-f-`m-jm-C³-Ìn-äyq«v.

4. Imhym-e-¦m-c-kq-{X-hr-¯n þ Dr. Cu-iz-c³ \-¼q-Xncn, tI-c-f-`m-jm-C³-Ìn-äyq«v.

5. Ipgn-¡m-«p ]¨ þ a-tl-iz-c³ `-«-Xn-cn-¸m-Sv þ ]-©mw-Kw ]p-kv-X-I-ime.

6. kuμ-cy-el-cn þ i-¦-cm-NmcyÀ þ tZ-ho-hym-Jym, Dr. N. tKm-]m-e-¸-Wn¡À hn-Zym-]oTw. P. 3

7. ImZw-_-cn þ hn-hÀ¯-\w þ ap−qÀ kp-Ip-amc³- Un.kn. _p-Ivkv.


5

8. IcpW þ kw-kv-Ir-X-hn-hÀ¯-\w þ s{]m-^: am-th-en-¡-c A-NypX³, tI-c-f-ln-μn {]-Nm-

ck`.

9. IcpW þ Ip-am-c-\m-im³ þ ]T-\w þ c-hn s\-Snbd, Pub: {]-nbm-]-»n-t¡-j³kv,

Xn-cp-h-\-´-]pcw.

10. a¯hn-em-k-{]-l-k\w. Dr. N.P. D®n, `m-c-Xo-b hn-Zzm-{]-Imi³.

11. cXv-\m-h-eo-\m-Sn-Im þ hn-hÀ¯-\w þ a-tlm-a-tlm-]m-²ym-b, F-. ]-c-taiz-c im-kv-{XnIÄ,

Nn-{X ]-»n-jnw-Kv-lukv.


6

IS½\n«¡hnXbnse IS½\n« Nithya P Viswam

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Malayalam, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala Email: [email protected]

kmlnXyImcsâ kztZiw (P·tZiw) s]ä½bpw At±lw PohnXhym]mc§fnteÀs¸SpIbpw kzm[o\n¡s¸SpIbpw sNbvX A\ytZi§Ä t]mä½bpw Bbn¯ocp¶X\v kzm`mhnIw. Fw.Sn bv¡v IqSÃqcpw tImgnt¡mSpw t]mse. Fw.apIpμ\v a¿gnbpw ZÂlnbpw t]mse. CXnÂ s]ä½ \ÂIp¶ BZycpNnIÄ¡pw KÔ§Ä¡pw AdnhpIÄ¡pw PohnX]mT§Ä¡pw IqSpXÂ ss\À½eyhpw am[pcyhpw Bghpap−mIp¶Xpt]mse kmlnXyImc·mcnepw kztZiobamb BhnjvImc§Ä¡v IqSpXÂ sXfnabp−mhpIXs¶ sN¿pw. A¯c¯nÂs¸« at\mlcamsbmcp IhnXbmWv IS½\n« cmaIrjvWsâ ""IS½\n«''. ""IS½\n«bmWv Fsâ P·tZiw. AXpsIm−mWv Rm³ IS½\n« cmaIrjvW\mbXv. FhnsSbmbmepw Rm³ IS½\n« cmaIrjvW\mWv. IS½\n« cmaIrjvW³ IS½\n« am{Xambpw hyhlcn¡s¸Sp¶p. A§s\ Rm³ Xs¶ Hcp tZiambn amdnbncn¡p¶p F¶p ]dbmw. IS½\n« Hcp tZiamtWm, `hamtWm? tZiw Xs¶. AXn\v ]e `mh§fpap−v'' þ F¶v Ihn Xs¶ "s\Ãn³X−p aW¡pw hgnIÄ' F¶ teJ\¯nÂ A`n{]mbs¸Sp¶p. "NnXdnb Nn{X§Ä ' F¶mbncp¶p "IS½\n«' F¶ IhnXbv¡v BZyw sImSp¯ t]cv. Hcp {Kma¯nsâ hnhn[ Nn{X§Ä AhXcn¸n¡p¶ Hcp efnXcN\bmbn¡q«mhp¶ "IS½\n«' ]t£ ]ebmf¯nse Gähpw anI¨ IemkrjvSnIfnsem¶mbn¯oÀ¶p. H¶ne[nIw Xe§fnÂ \ne\nÂ¡p¶ `mhZmÀVyw Cu IhnXbv¡v A]qÀÆiàn \ÂIp¶p. Gsd \mfpIÄ¡ptijw IS½\n« F¶ Xsâ P·tZi¯neqsS k©cn¨psIm−ncn¡p¶ Ihn _mlym\p`h§fneqsS kz´w AkvXnXzkXy§fnse¯nt¨cp¶ kμÀ`amWv IhnXbmbn cq]s¸«ncn¡p¶Xv. CXnÂ BhnjvIcn¡s¸«ncn¡p¶ IhnbpsS A\p`h§Ä kmÀÆP\o\amhpIbpw IhnbpsS {KmaNn{X§Ä kmÀhtZiobamhpIbpw sN¿pt¼mÄ "IS½\n«' F¶ {Kmaw FÃm {Kma§tfbpw {]Xn\n[m\w sN¿p¶ kmÀÆeuInIXe¯nte¡v Dbcp¶p. {KmaPohnXs¯ kz´w PohnXk¦ev]§fpsSsbÃmw ImXembn ImWpt¼mÄ kz´w Aht_m[¨nsâ Xs¶ DÛhØm\hpw A`bkt¦Xhpambn AXns\ AwKoIcn¡pIbmWv Ihn sN¿p¶Xv C¯cw Hcp ASnØm\X {KmaoWPohnX¯n\p \ÂIpIbmÂ {Kmaw a\pjycpsS PohnXmhØIfpsS _nw_mßIamb BhnjvImcambn amdp¶p. ImgvN, tIÄhn, KÔw, kv]Àiw, cpXn, F¶o ]t©{μnbm\p`h§fneqsSbmWv Ihn Xsâ \mSns\ Adnbp¶Xv. ""s\Ãn³X−p aW¡pw hgnIÄ'' ""XÅ¯hfIÄ \maw sNmÃn ¡Ãn¶SnbnÂ Imepw\o«nbncn¡pt¶cw'' ""Ipft¡mgn¸nSbmSbpcnªp]nSªp ]Snªmt«mSnt¸mhXp t\m¡n\S¶p Rm³'' ""]p®nend§nb Ipiap\bqcn¸ÃnS Ip¯naW¯v Ipip¼v \n\¨v Ipdp¼p \Sn¨v'' ""XeapSn aWsa³ aq¡ns\dnªp apdnªp'' ""s\©¯©mdÅo apdnhn\p ]¨ne BSpISn¨XneÛpXant¶m ! '' ""]mes¡m¼nÂ \ngepIÄam{Xw hoWphnd¨p ]cp§pw ImgvNIÄ I−p''


7

""N´w tX«n¨abw sI«n¨μ\KÔw NmdnbkÔyIÄ'' ""adpXm \¡n, amS³ XÃn amcItcmKw apebnÂ ]cphmbv'' ""aq¡nÂ apdp¡m³ ISbpsS ]SnbnÂ Ip¯nbncp¶ Ipip¼p sNmdnªp ]c¯pw sIm{¼ms¡mÅn¡män³ I¿nÂ hmÀ¯]c¶p ]Xns¡ hmtXmcmsX ]dªp ]c¯n ]mhw ]¿n³ ImXnepsa¯n a¨n¸¿ns\ \mdpw sXdnbpsS HmSbnen«pw hen¨pt]mepw'' þ CXntesd \sÃmcp {KmaoWm\p`qXn Imev]\nIXbpsS ISpw Nmb¡q«nÃmsX hc¨nSp¶sX§s\! t]mbIme¯nsâ aWaqdp¶, \\hqdp¶ ImgvNIÄ I−pw tI«pw \S¶ Ihn¡v HmÀ½IÄ aq¯p\c¨v apXpInÂ Iq\mbv amdp¶Xp apXÂ Imev]\nImwis§sfÃmw hns«mgnªv IhnX t\À¡mgvNIfntes¡¯p¶p. At¸mgs¯ ImgvNIÄ ImWens\ Zo\am¡p¶p. hmÀ¯IÄ tIÄhnbpsS k¯ \in¸n¡p¶p. ""I¯pw PohnXkXyw Ip¸nbnÂ hmänsbSp¯sXmgnªp InS¸q h¡p apdntªm ]m{Xw'' F¶v Ihn kXys¯ Xncn¨dnbp¶p. ]pXpXeapd hnfÀ¯psaenªp hni¸n³ s\©¯mªp sXmgn¨v Idp¯p hfÀ¶p hcp¶Xv ImWp¶p−v Ihn. AbÂtZis¯ sXcphnÂ sXmgnen\p sXavSp¶ sX½mSnIfpsS I¯pw Imipw t\m¡nbncp¶p apSntªmÀ sI«nb tIm«¸SnIÄ Xm−n sIm«nhnbÀ¯p \St¡−nhcp¶p−v Ihn¡v. ChnSw PohnX kw{Kma¯nÂ NpSe¡ftam NpSp\oÀ¡ftam F¶v ]chi\mIp¶ Ihn B {Kma¯nen¯ncn t\cancp¶v HmÀ½Isf Dd¡n ]pXnb t\cpIfnte¡v I®pXncpan t\m¡p¶ Nn{XamWp HSphnÂ \mw ImWp¶Xv. ChnsS IS½\n« F¶ Øew Hcp a\pjymht_m[¯nsâ {]XoIambn¯ocpIbmWv. {Kmam\p`h§fmbn¸Scp¶ kzXzhpw AhbnÂ \n¶pamdn \nÂ¡p¶ kzXzhpw IhnbpsS hyànXz¯nsâ Awi§fmsW¶pImWmw. Ch Cu IhnXbnÂ ]ckv]cw I−pap«p¶p. hyàn kmaqly_Ô§fnepw kaqlhyàn_Ô§fnepamWv kzbw Is−¯p¶Xv. IS½\n«bpsS IhnXIfnÂ hyànbpsS A\yhXv¡cW¯ns\XnscbpÅ Iem]¯n\p XpS¡anSp¶Xv "IS½\n«' F¶ IhnXbpeqsSbmsW¶v ImWmhp¶XmWv. IhnXbpsS cq]]camb {]tXyIXIfnte¡v {i² Xncn¡pt¼mÄ \mtSmSn Iemcq]§fpsS AbhpÅ kz`mhw Hdd t\m«¯nÂ Is−¯mhp¶XmWv. N«¡qSpIÄ \nc´cambn ]co£hnt[bam¡pIbpw AXv A\p`hØcpsS k½X¯n\p hnSpIbpw sN¿p¶XmWtÃm \mtSmSn Iemcq]§fpsS s]mXp khntijXIfnÂ H¶v. ""s\Ãn³ X−p aW¡pw hgnIÄ FÅn³\m¼p Ipcp¡w hbepIÄ'' F¶ CucSn Hcp km[mcW XcwKnWn t]mse t]mIp¶p. F¶mÂ aq¶mas¯ hcnbnÂ bXn`wKw kw`hn¡p¶p. ""F®w sXänb HmÀ½IÄ, ho−pw Ip¶n³ NcnhnÂ, amhn³ sIm¼nÂ D®nIfmbn Dd§nsbWo¡'' F¶mWv IhnX XpScp¶Xv. Cu bXn`wK¯nemWv IS½\n«¡hnXbpsS Xmf]camb khntijX Bcw`n¡p¶Xv. km[mcWhr¯s¯ Dt]£n¨v Gä¡pd¨neneqsS `mhhpambn IhnXbnse Hmtcm hm¡nt\bpw Ihn _Ôn¸n¡p¶p.


8

s\Ãn³ X−paW¡pw hgnIÄ F¶p XpS§p¶ c−phcnIfnÂ "Rm³' F¶v hyàn \S¡pIbmWv. s]s«¶v F®w sXänb HmÀ½IÄ F¶p ]dbp¶tXmsS bm{XnI³ sXÃnS \nÂ¡p¶Xp \ap¡\p`hn¡mw. sXÃhnsS \n¶n«v CbmÄ Npäp]mSp t\m¡p¶Xpw \ap¡p ImWmw. ho−pw "Ip¶n³ NcnhnÂ' F¶p\nÀ¯nbn«v "amhn³ sIm¼nÂ' F¶p ]dbp¶Xn\nSbnÂ Cu \mtSmSn¸m«nsâ hmbv¯mcn kzmX{´yw Hcp hncmaw \ÂIp¶p. IS½\n« DÄs¸« B[p\nIcnÂ Xmfw Dt]£n¡m³ X¿mdmbnÃ. IS½\n« DÄs¸« B[p\nIcnÂ ]ecpw hr¯w D]tbmKn¡p¶XnÂ hnapJcmsb¦nepw IhnXbpsS A´cmßmhmb Xmfw Dt]£n¡m³ X¿mdnÃ. ap³Ime IhnXIfnÂ \n¶pw hyXykvXambn {Kma¯nsâ {hXip²nsb¡pdn¨v hmtXmcmsX {]kwKn¡p¶ ioew IS½\n« Dt]£n¡p¶p. AXn\memWv Xsâ {KmaoW_meyhpw KrlmXpckvacWIfpw HmÀs¯Sp¯Xn\ptijw {Kma¯nsâ hÀ¯am\ Zpc´w hc¨pImWn¡m³ Ihn aSn¡m¯Xv. Bß]pÑhpw tcmjhpw IeÀ¶ {KmahmknbpsS a\Êm£nbnÂ \n¶psImavSmWv IS½\n« kwkmcn¡p¶Xv. Imev]\nIamb ]cnthj§Ä AÀ°clnXambn ]cnWan¡pIbpw AhbpsS Øm\¯v \ho\ ss\XnIt_m[w tXtcm«amcw`n¡pIbpw sN¿p¶p. Cu hn[nssh]coXyamWv IS½\n« F¶ Imhy¯neqsS Ihn Ipdn¨psh¡p¶Xv. 1967 Â FgpXs¸«sX¦nepw IS½\n« F¶ IhnX ImenI{]kànbmÀÖn¡p¶Xv Cu Xncn¨dnhntes¡¯pt¼mgmWv. {KÙkqNnI 1. IS½\n«;Ihnbpw IhnXbpw (F.Un) t]m¡À.]n.sI. 2008 Nn´]»ntjgvkv, Xncph\´]pcw. 2. IS½\n«bpsS IhnXIÄ, cmaIrjvW³ IS½\n«, IrjvW³ 2009 Un kn _p¡vkv, tIm«bw. 3. IS½\n«¡hnX (FUn)þ tUm. sI.Fkv.chnIpamÀ; 2008. hnÚm\ap{ZWw {]Êv, Xncph\´]pcw.


9

Role of π-π Stacking in the Construction of a Supramolecular Assembly in the Solid State Structure of a Manganese(III)

Schiff base complex V. S Thampidas

Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The manganese(III) Schiff base complex, [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O]

was synthesized from the manganese(II) carboxylate [H2msalen = N,N'-bis(3-

methoxysalicylidene)-1,2-diaminoethane]. Single crystal X-ray diffraction studies show

that the Jahn-Teller distorted octahedral complex is stabilized by non-covalent

interactions like H-bonding and π-π stacking in the solid state.

1. Introduction

The ability of a system to spontaneously generate a “well-defined (functional)

supramolecular architecture from its components under a given set of conditions”,

according to Lehn, is molecular self-assembly [Dunitz, 1991]. The construction of a

supramolecular assembly through specific recognition events, leading to a

supermolecule like a single crystal, with well-defined shape and structure involves the

establishment of specific and selective connections between two or more molecules

through non-covalent interactions [Lehn, 1995; Whitesides and Grzybowski, 2002].

Many kinds of intermolecular interactions are utilized in supramolecular chemistry.

The major types of non-covalent bonds are all based on electrostatic interactions arising

from the presence of small directional and non-directional electrical charges on the

interacting molecules. This covers a wide range of attractive and repulsive forces, with

ion-ion interactions [Lehn, 2007], dipole-dipole interactions [Hoffart et al., 2008 ], ion-

dipole interactions [Adhikari et al., 2008; Mu and Gao, 2007; Persson and Ryberg,

1981], van der Waals forces [Dosi et al., 1973; Bockris, 2000], and π-π stacking

[Kitaigorodski, 1973; Sygula et al., 2007].

An area, where the coordination chemistry of high-valent manganese witnessed

significant attention in recent decades, is complexes employing ligands like

carboxylates and Schiff bases [Petitjean et al., 2004; Hulme et al., 1997; Bermejo et

al., 2006; Thampidas et al., 2008; Reshma et al., 2009; Biswas et al., 2011; Kar et al.,


10

2011; Mukherjee et al., 2011; Benetollo et al., 2012; Bini et al., 2013]. Manganese(III)

carboxylate complexes with Schiff base ligands display a great deal of structural

diversity and includes mononuclear, dinuclear, and polymeric species [Hulme et al.,

1997; Bermejo et al., 2006]. Herein we present a detailed analysis of the structure of

[Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O], a reported compound, with a view to investigate

the π-π stacking interactions.

2. Experimental

2.1 Materials

All chemicals were purchased from E-Merck and used without further

purification. The manganese(II) carboxylate precursor was prepared as reported earlier

or alternatively by mixing hot aqueous solutions of sodium carboxylate and

manganese(II)chloride (2:1 molar ratio), which gave pale pink crystals of the

compounds in yields greater than 70 % in a day’s time [Hulme et al., 1997].

2.2 Physical methods

IR spectra were recorded on a Nicolet 6700 spectrophotometer (KBr pellets,

4000-400 cm-1) and elemental analyses were performed using a Perkin-Elmer 2400

CHNS analyzer.

2.3 Synthesis of [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O]

To a solution of [Mn(p-OH-C6H4CO2)2(H2O)2] (1.00 g, 2.61 mmol), and 3-

methoxysalicylaldehyde (0.76 g, 5.22 mmol) in methanol (40 ml), 1,2-diaminoethane

(0.16 g, 2.61 mmol) was added. The solution was stirred for 20 minutes, filtered and

left to evaporation in an open conical flask. Brown crystals were deposited in 2-3 days.

These were collected by filtration, washed with methanol, and dried in air. Crystals for

X-ray crystallography were grown from a DMF solution. Yield 1.00 g (72.0 %). Anal.

Calc. for C25H25MnN2O8 (536.41): C, 55.9; H, 4.6; N, 5.2; Mn, 10.3 % . Found: C,

55.6; H, 4.4; N, 5.0; Mn, 9.9 %. IR (KBr pellet): cm−1 = 3051 (m,br), 1633 (vs), 1596

(vs), 1383(s), 1286(m), 1151(m), 463(w).

2.4 X-ray crystallography

Data were collected on a Bruker SMART APEX II diffractometer, equipped

with a CCD area detector (Cu-Kα radiation, graphite monochromator, λ = 1.54178 Å)

at 100(2) K. The crystal structure was solved by direct methods and refined by full-

matrix least squares methods based on F2 values against all reflections including

anisotropic displacement parameters for all non-H atoms, using SHELXS97 and


11

SHELXL97 [Sheldrick, 1998]. All the non-hydrogen atoms were located from a

Fourier map and refined anisotropically. Hydrogen site locations were inferred from

neighbouring sites and were treated by a mixture of independent and constrained

refinement. The molecular graphics were done with MERCURY 2.0 [Macrae et al.,

2008].

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Molecular structures of [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O]

Molecular structure of [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O]consist of a

manganese(III) ion in distorted octahedral environment (Figure 3.1). The N2O2 donor

set of the tetradendate Schiff base ligand bind the manganese(III) ion in a nearly planar

square consisting of two Mn–Nimine (1.97 and 1.99 Å) and two Mn−Ophenol (1.88 and

1.88 Å) bonds (Table 2.1) leaving only the trans positions open for carboxylate

linkage. The carboxylates adopt a unidentate coordination mode accommodating the

aqua ligand along the opposite axial direction.

Figure 3.1. Molecular structure of [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O]

Jahn-Teller distortions, which facilitate the removal of double degeneracy of the

eg electron of the high-spin manganese(III) ion is apparent in the complex with

elongated axial bonds [Mn−Oaq = 2.32 Å and Mn–Ocarb = 2.11 Å]. There is sizeable

extent of angular distortion around the Mn-N2O2 core of the complex. The dihedral

angle between the aromatic rings of the Schiff base ligands is 3.60˚whereas the


12

N,N',O,O' least-square plane deviation from the manganese(III) ion, along the Mn--

Ocarb directions is 0.083 Å .

3.2 Solid state structure of [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O]

In the solid state structure, the coordinated water molecules of adjacent

[Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O] molecules approach in a face on manner. This

together with the presence of extra methoxy groups on the Schiff base provides four

proximate recognition sites for every axial water molecule.

Table 2.1 Crystal data, structure refinement, selected bond angles (˚), and bond lengths (Å) of [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O].

Empirical formula

C25H25MnN2O8 Mn−Op 1.8821 (11)

Formula weight 536.41 Mn−Op 1.8848 (12) T (K) 100(2) Mn−Ni 1.9774 (15) Wavelength (Å) 1.54178 Mn−Ni 1.9930 (14) Crystal system Monoclinic Mn−Oa 2.3257 (12) Space group P21/c Mn−Oc 2.1164 (13) a (Å) 8.5988 (3) Op−Mn−Op 94.17 (5) b (Å) 13.5524 (5) Op−Mn−Ni 91.90 (6) c (Å) 21.1335 (8) Op−Mn−Ni 172.37 (6) α (°) 90.00 Op−Mn−Ni 172.26 (6) β (°) 93.280 (2) Op−Mn−Ni 90.95 (6) γ (°) 90.00 Ni−Mn−Ni 82.56 (6) V(Å3) 2458.75 (16) Op−Mn−Oc 89.99 (5) Z 4 Op−Mn−Oc 89.99 (5) ρcalc. (g cm−3) 1.449 Ni−Mn−Oc 93.68 (6) μ (mm−1) 4.82 Ni−Mn−Oc 87.26 (6) F(000) 1112 Op−Mn−Oa 90.40 (5) θmin/max (°) 9.7/72.7 Op−Mn−Oa 91.09 (5) Total data 26252 Ni−Mn−Oa 84.87 (6) Unique data 4259 Ni−Mn−Oa 83.08 (5) Rint 0.033 Oc−Mn−Oa 170.33 (5) Restraints/ parameters

0/329

Goodness-of-fit (GOF)

1.04

Final R indices [I > 2σ(I)]

R1 = 0.0290 wR2 = 0.0348

R indices (all data)

R1 = 0.0784 wR2 = 0.0815


13

Figure 3.2. Section of the crystal structure of [Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O]

showing the formation of a μ-aqua dimer; H-bonds (---).

Bifurcated hydrogen bonds are formed between the aqua hydrogens, H1W (O3-

--O6 = 2.67 Å; O3---O1 = 3.00 Å), H2W (O3---O6 = 3.00 Å; O3---O = 2.95 Å) and the

methoxy/phenoxy oxygens of the Schiff base giving rise to a supramolecular μ-aqua

dimer (Figure 3.2).

Reason for the slippery feel of graphite and a contributing factor to the stability

biomolecules like nucleic acids and proteins, π-π stacking of aromatic rings, may yield

attractive forces of 0–50 kJ mol–1. The presence of quadrupole moment enables

attractive electrostatic interactions between oppositely charged regions of the rings.

face-to-face (offset) edge-to-faceface-to-face Figure 3.3. Types of π-π stacking between aromatic rings.


14

+

-1/2

-1/2

+

-1/2

-1/2

Attraction

+

-1/2

-1/2

+

-1/2

-1/2

Repulsion

+

+

-1/2

-1/2

-1/2-1/2

Attraction

Figure 3.4. Interaction of π-electron densities of aryl rings. Face-to-face, face-to-face (offset), edge-to-face orientations as well as various

intermediate geometries are probable (Figures 3.3 and 3.4). But face-to-face

configuration, never corresponds to direct overlap, would yield a repulsive force

[Hunter and Sanders, 1990]. Distances are usually 3.30–3.80 Å (for both the face-to-

face and edge-to-face interaction); degree of the offset (for the face-to-face interaction),

measured as the offset or slipping angles also has an influence on the extent of

stabilization (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.6 shows the π-π stacking interactions in a section of the crystal structure of

[Mn(msalen)(p-OH-C6H4CO2)H2O].

Figure 3.5. Stacking parameters for the analysis of π-π interactions between aromatic rings. [α- dihedral angle between planes I and J. β and γ – Slipping angles defined by centroid-centroid distance (dc-c) and the normal to the plane I or J, respectively. D(Cg(I orJ)-PJ or I) : defined as the distance from centroid I (or J) to the normal to the plane J (or I). d(π,π) – Stacking distance defined as the centroid to normal to the plane, averaged distance, β = γ when α = 0°].


15

Aryl rings [(C1–C6) and (C11–C16)] of the Schiff base in adjacent molecules of the μ-

aqua dimer, stack together in a face-to-face (offset) fashion. The average π-π stacking

distance, d(π–π) = 3.76 Å while the dihedral angle between the planes of these rings, α

= 3.60º. The centroid-centroid distance, d(cg-cg) = 3.76 Å and the slipping angles are β

= 20.05º and γ = 18.68º. These stacking parameters indicate reasonable levels of

stabilization of the μ-aqua dimer on this account.

Figure 3.6. π-π tacking interaction between the Schiff base aryl rings in the μ-aqua dimer. Conclusion

Non-covalent interactions like hydrogen bonds and π-π stacking play a

significant role stabilizing the solid state structure of a manganese(III) carboxylate

complex with a symmetric N2O2 Schiff base ligand. Chains and networks arising from

non-covalent interactions are very common in natural systems and are vital for the

catalytic functioning of many metallo-biomolecules. Structural level studies as

discussed in the paper would be of some relevance in areas like bioinorganic modeling,

as there are several manganese-containing biomolecules in biological systems.


16

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Prof. Robert D. Pike, College of William and Mary,

Williamsburg, VA 23187-8795, USA, for the X-ray diffraction analysis. Thanks are

also due to NSF (CHE-0443345) and the College of William and Mary for the purchase

of the X-ray equipment.

Supplementary materials

Supplementary data for this paper is available from the electronic archives of

International Union of Crystallography, Chester, England (Reference: BT5032).

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19

Shape Memory Epoxy-Cyanate Ester System; Effect of Switching Segments R. Biju a*, C.P Reghunadhan Nairb

*Corresponding author: aAssistant Professor, Dept. of Chemistry, S N College, Varkala bPropellants Polymers Chemicals and Materials Entity, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre,

Thiruvananthapuram 695 022, Kerala, India Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The role of switching segments on the shape memory property of epoxy-cyanate ester

system was investigated. The shape memory thermoset polymer was designed by co-reacting

cyanate ester and epoxy with phenol-telechelic of different switching segments constituted by

poly(tetramethyleneoxide) (PTMO), poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(propylene) (PPG).

Phenol groups help the shape memory component get integrated into the network matrix

through coreaction with both cyanate and epoxy groups. All polymer possessed good

mechanical properties and thermal stability. The PTMO system is a good as the PCL system

in terms of shape memory properties. Vis-a-vis to the alcohol terminated shape memory

component, phenol terminal groups help the PTMO segments get integrated into the matrix.

The resin is suited to process good elastic memory composites as cyanate esters normally

promote excellent composite formation.

Keywords: Shape memory polymers; Cyanate ester; Oxazolidinone.

Introduction

Shape memory polymers are stimuli-responsive polymers that possess the ability to

change their shape upon application of an external stimulus (e.g. temperature, electric or

magnetic field, pH etc.) [Lendlein and Kelch, 2002; Chun et al., 2007]. The demand for shape

memory polymers in both earth and space application fields is on increase in recent years as

the technologies move towards smart systems. Thermo-responsive shape memory polymers

find potential applications particularly in space and biomedical applications. Literature cites

the development of a host of polymers belonging to the class of thermoplastics and a few

thermosets exhibiting shape memory characteristics. Among the thermosets, epoxy resins are

the most versatile ones in view of their ease of synthesis, umpteen ways of effecting the

curing, amenability for copolymerisation, compounding, composite processing etc. In fact,

epoxies are the best suited for elastic memory composites with good strength characteristics

if they possess shape memory properties. Many reports refer to the use of proprietary shape

memory epoxy formulations and composites derived thereof, for development of several self-


20

deployable systems for potential space applications. However, there are no details on their

synthesis or processing aspects nor on the structural features leading to the manifestation of

shape memory properties. Though epoxy resins are the workhorse matrix for structural

composites, it is not the ‘last word’ in thermoset.

Cyanate ester (CE) emerges as a better alternative for epoxies with several advantages

as CE is the answer to many issues raised by epoxies for aerospace applications. It can form

highly crosslinked, three-dimensional polycyanurate networks through a

polycyclotrimerization reaction in presence of suitable catalysts. The moisture resistance

increases along with the thermal stability, when epoxy is reacted with CE [Ho et al., 2009].

The toughness of CE/epoxy system depends on the blend composition.

Apart from the synthesis and characterization of these polymer systems, the research

was targeted also to achieve controllable transition temperature and good processability in

comparison to reported shape memory polymer systems. The composites with adequate

strength are targeted for the development of temperature responsive, self-deployable systems

for related applications.

The general strategy for developing any SMP is to incorporate a known SMP

component in the matrix of interest preferably by way of copolymerization. Examples of such

components are poly(tetramethylene oxide), poly(ε-caprolactone) etc. In this work also, this

strategy was followed.

There are a good numbers of reports on shape memory epoxy resin systems [Yuyan et

al., 2010; Squeo and Quadrini, 2010; Li et al., 2010; Mather et al., 2009; Tong et al., 2008]. It

can be seen that majority of them are patented. There are a few reports on cyanate ester based

shape memory polymer for space deployable application [Tong et al., 2008, Steven et al.,

Glenn, 2008]. However, these reports miss the details of achieving shape memory

characteristics to the resin system. The present work differs from these in the sense that it

reports for the first time the synthesis of shape memory polymer based on a blend of cyanate

ester-epoxy resin. This blend system has many features better than epoxy and cyanate ester

that they provide better mechanical and hygrothermal properties and the desirable low

thermal expansion as reported in literature [Nair, 2004] while, maintaining the processability

of epoxies. They can form better composites than epoxy resin alone. These qualities render

them better candidate as matrices in polymer composites particularly for space applications.


21

Our approach to derive shape memory epoxy is to incorporate switching segments

(SwS) based mainly as poly(tetramethylene oxide) in polymer matrix as this group confers

shape memory property to the system.

This work discusses the effect of three shape memory components on the shape

memory property of an epoxy-cyanate ester resin system based on diglycidyl ether of

bisphenol A cured with bisphenol A dicyanate ester (BADC). The three components selected

are: phenol-telechelic poly(tetramethyleneoxide) (PTOH), phenol-telechelic poly(ε-

caprolactone) (PCLOH) and phenol-telechelic poly(propylene) (PPGOH). Epoxy-cyanate

ester blend with the composition DGEBA/SwS/BADC (molar ratio-1/0.07/0.92) was chosen

as the base resin. The comparative effect of end alcohol and phenol groups on the shape

memory polymer of a typical system was also investigated. The impact of the nature of the

shape memory component on the properties of the cured resin was examined.

Experimental

Materials

Table 1 Details of polyols used

Bisphenol A dicyanate ester (BADC, molecular weight 278 g/mol) was supplied by

Lonza, Switzerland. Epoxy resin, diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) with an epoxy

value 5.4 eq/kg (molecular weight 370 g/mol) was procured from Ciba Geigy, India. Zinc

octate was supplied by Amirtha Industries, Mumbai, India. Nonyl phenol was purchased from

Fluka, Switzerland. para-Hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA) was supplied by SRL chemicals,

Mumbai, India and para-toluene sulfonic acid (pTSA) by CDH chemicals, Mumbai, India.

Chloroform and toluene (supplied by SRL chemicals, Mumbai, India) were purified by

distillation. Diglyme was purchased from Loba Chemie chemicals, Mumbai, India. PTMO

SI. No.

Name

Mol.wt.

(Mn) g/mol

OH value mgKOH/g

Source

Purification

1.

Poly(tetramethyleneoxide)

2000

56

Aldrich chemicals, USA

Flash evaporation at 80°C/5hrs.

2 Poly(ε-caprolactone)diol

2000

56 ,,

,,

3 Poly(ethylene glycol)

2000

56 ,, ,,


22

and epoxy resin were dried in a flash evaporator at 80 °C for 5 h before use. PHBA was dried

in vacuum oven at 80 °C for 3 h. Catalyst was prepared by mixing of zinc octate and nonyl

phenol in a weight ratio of 3:40.

Synthesis of phenol-functional poly(tetramethylene oxide) (PTOH)

PTOH was synthesized by reaction of PTMO (0.1 mol) with PHBA (0.6 mol) in

toluene/diglyme solvent in the presence of pTSA as catalyst. The mixture was refluxed for 20

h and the byproduct water was removed by azeotropic distillation using toluene in a Dean

Stark apparatus. After completion of reaction, the solvent was removed by distillation and the

resultant viscous fluid was poured into CHCl3 and the unreacted PHBA was filtered out. The

filtrate was washed several times with 5% NaHCO3 solution to remove the catalyst and

unreacted PHBA. The CHCl3 solution was dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, for one day, filtered

and the solvent was removed in a flash evaporator at 60 °C. The resultant resin was

characterized by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and size exclusion

chromatography (SEC). Estimation of ester value was done by chemical analysis. Same

synthesis route was used for PCL and PPG diols. The resultant resin was characterized by

fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC).

Estimation of ester value was done by chemical analysis.

Synthesis of shape memory epoxy-cyanate ester resin

The DGEBA/PTOH/BADC blend and catalyst (Zinc octate and nonyl phenol, 4 wt%

of BADC) were first mixed together, degassed at 80 °C for 30 min and then poured into a

steel mould. Blends with different switching segments (PCLOH and PPGOH) of DGEBA

and BADC were prepared following the same procedure. Composition of

DGEBA/SwS/BADC, weight ratio - 47/20/33 was selected in this study. Since all the three

components of the base resins systems are difunctional and have same molar mass, their

molar ratios equal their equivalent ratios.

Polymer characterization

The synthesized polymers were characterized by FTIR, DSC, and TGA analysis. In

addition to this, flexural strength and thermo-mechanical analysis were also used to

characterize the polymers. Shape memory evaluation was carried out by bending test.

Structure of various diols is shown in scheme 1


23

OO

O

OOH

OH

n

OH

O

OH

OO

OO

OO O

n

n

O

O

OH O

OH

OO

n

Structure Reference

PCLOH

PTOH

PPGOH

Scheme 1 Structure of different switching segments

Bending test

A straight rectangular strip of polymer of size 120 x 15 x 2.6 mm was used for the test.

The polymer was heated to a temperature Ttrans+20 °C and deformed to an angle (θmax). Then

the deformed polymer was cooled ~ Ttrans-20 °C to fix the deformation and the resultant

deformation was measured by angle (θfixed). Then the deformed polymer was reheated (Ttrans

+20) and the change in angle (θfinal) was recorded.

Shape recovery (%) = [(θmax-θfinal)/θmax] x 100 (1)

Shape retention (%) = [θfixed/θmax] x 100 (2)

Results and discussion

Synthesis and characterization of α,ω-phenol functional switching segments

The synthesis route of PTOH was extended for preparation of resins [Biju et al., 2012]

i.e. PCLOH and PPGOH. The method of synthesis of PCLOH is illustrated in scheme 2 and

FTIR spectra of PCLOH and PPGOH are shown in Fig. 1. The peak at 3419 cm-1

corresponds to stretching vibration of -OH groups and that at 1725 cm-1 to the C=O stretching

of the ester group. The peak at 1164 cm-1 corresponds to C-O-C stretching of PCLOH. The

polymer was further characterized by ester value estimation. The ester value of PCLOH (47

mgKOH/g) conformed nearly to the theoretical value (50 mgKOH/g). The similarity in SEC

profiles by both refractive index and UV detector techniques shows that all polymer chains

are end-capped with phenolic groups (Fig. 2). Same studies have been extended to PPGOH, it

shows peak at 3464 cm-1 corresponding to vibration of -OH groups, 1711 cm-1 to the C=O

stretching of the ester group and 1107 cm-1 corresponds to C-O-C stretching of PPGOH. The


24

ester value of PPGOH (46 mgKOH/g) also agrees with the theoretical value and same trend

of SEC profile was observed when compared to PCLOH.

OH COOH HO

OO

OO

H

O O

n

n

OH

O

OH

OO

OO

OO O

n

n

O

+

Reflux

2

Parahydroxybenzoic acid Polycaprolactone diol

Phenol-functional PCL (PCLOH)

Scheme 2 Synthesis of PCLOH

Fig 1 FTIR spectrum of (a) PPGOH and (b) PCLOH

8 10 12 14 16 18 20Elution time (min)

UVRI

Fig. 2 SEC profiles of PCLOH (Superimposition of RI and UV detected traces).

4000 3000 2000 1500 1000 650.0

cm‐1

%T

(a)

(b)

3253

2941 2859

1711

1609

15151453

1374

1272

1164

851 772

698

1107

3403

2944

1725

1609

11641093

1271

13541458


25

Cure characterization of epoxy-cyanate ester system using different switching segments

The cure characterization of DGEBA/PTOH/BADC blend has been explained

in previous publication [Biju et al., 2012]. The cure schedule of the DGEBA/PPGOH/BADC

and DGEBA/PCLOH/BADC blends was determined by DSC and FTIR. The DSC profiles

(Fig. 3) of the PPGOH system shows one exotherms at low temperature and the other at

higher temperature (Table 2). The exotherm at 170 °C is attributed to cyanate-epoxy reaction

leading to the formation of oxazolidinone groups (pathways 1 and 4) [Martin et al., 1999] and

that at 203 °C to the polymerisation of cyanate groups (pathway 2) [Hamerton and Hay,

1998]. In PCLOH system shows one exotherm (Fig. 3) at 183 °C, due to the formation of

triazine network. From FTIR, (Fig. 4) completion of cure reaction of the epoxy and –OCN

groups of two systems (PCLOH and PPGOH) in the network was confirmed from the

absence of peaks corresponding to epoxy ring at 916 cm-1 and of –OCN at 2271-2238 cm-1. It

was further confirmed from the appearance of triazine peaks at 1363 cm-1 and absorptions of

isocyanurate at 1698 and 1459 cm-1 [Zeng et al., 2010]. The oxazolidinone rings formed from

the reaction of cyanate and epoxy was observed at 1731 cm-1 [Lakshmi M S and Reddy,

2002; Nair et al., 2001]. Following the above studies, all the compositions were cured under

same cure schedules: 100°C - ½ h, 120 °C-1 h, 150 °C-1 h, 180 °C-1 h and 200 °C-3 h.

N

N

N

O

OOR

R R O

CH2

OR' ON

O

CH2

OR'

R

R OC NO

CH2

OR'N

OR O C

H2

OR'

ON

O

CH2

OR'

RRearrangem ent+

N

N

N

OR

RO OR

N

N

N

O

OOR

R RR OC N3

Rearrangem ent

Cyanurate Isocyanurate

N N

N O

R''

RO

OR

OHR'' R OC N R OC O R''

NHROCN

+

Im inocarbonate

OHR''O

OO

R'''R'''

OR''

OH

HH

Oxazolidinone

(1)

Oxazoline

(2)

(3)

Isocyanurate

+

Oxazolidinone

(4)

(5) +

Scheme 3 The likely reaction pathways of the curing process

RESEA

DGEBA

(Fig. 3

oxazoli

cyanate

tempera

lower te

the cata

groups

ARCH ESSEN

Hea

t Flo

w (W

/g)

Fig. 4 FT

The DSC

A/PTMO/B

) at 170 °

dinone grou

e ester pol

ature (225 °

emperature

alysis of cy

react with e

NCE

0

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Fig

TIR Spectra

profile (

ADC) show

°C is attrib

ups and tha

lymerization

°C) the ble

, due to the

yanate ester

epoxy resin

50 100

nonf PTM

PPG-20

PCL-20

CEP-20

. 3 DSC pr

a of PCL-2

(Fig. 4) o

ws same tre

buted to cy

at at 225 °C

n in the n

ends contain

e involveme

homopolym

also.

26

0 150

functionalizedO (PTMO-20)

160 170

-0.05

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

Hea

t Flo

w (W

/g)

ofile of diff

20 (a) uncur

of nonfun

end as the fu

yanate-epox

C to the poly

nonfunction

ning PCLO

ent of the p

mersation (p

VOL.1

200

0 180 190 200Temperature °C

1

2

ferent syste

red and (b)

ctionalized

unctionalize

xy reaction

ymerisation

nalized PTM

H and PPG

phenolic gro

pathway 2)

1, NO.1, JUN

250 30

210

ems

) cured blen

PTMO b

ed systems.

leading to

n of cyanate

MO blend

GOH showe

oups of swi

. It is possi

NE-DECEMBE

00

nd (200 °C

blend (PT

The one ex

o the forma

e groups. W

occurred

ed this exot

itching segm

ible that the

ER 2013

, 3h)

TMO-20,

xotherm

ation of

While the

at high

therm at

ments in

e phenol


27

Flexural properties of different systems

Table 3 compiles the flexural strength of the different resin blend. The flexural

strength shows slight increases in the order PPG-20<PCL-20<CEP-20. The flexural strength

of nonfunctionalized PTMO (PTMO-20) is lower than that of functionalized PTMO (CEP-

20). The switching segments are expected to provide the epoxy-cyanate ester more flexibility

which could help improve its shape memory property.

R'O

O

NN

NCO R' O

CN

OH

O R OCH2 NH

R'O

OCN

CH

N O

CH

O

R'ONC

OOOH R OH C

H

OHOO R OHC

H2

R'O O CNNC

CH

OOH

O R OCH2

CNCO R' ONH

R'O OCNNC

OO

R'O OCNNC OO

CN

N

NN

R'O

O

NN

NOR'

R'O

O

R'

O

O

O

CH

O

NR'

OO

R'

O

O

OO RCH2

O

N

N

N

CN

R'O OCNNC

R'O

O

NN

NR'O

R'

O

O

CN

OH

CH

N O

CH

O

CN

CN

OO

O

OO

OO

OO O

n

n

O

2

+ +

iminocarbonate

R

R'

R'-OCN+

Cyanurate

Oxazolidinone

Cross linked network

Scheme 4 Possible reaction mechanism leading to network structure for

DGEBA/PCLOH/BADC system

Dynamic mechanical thermal properties

Visco-elastic properties of the samples were investigated by DMA in three point

bending mode. Fig. 5, indicate the loss tangent (tanδ) for different switching segments as a

function of temperature. The transition temperature Ttrans was determined from the tanδ peak.

The modulus ratio Eg/Er is taken as (E’Ttrans-20/E’Ttrans+20). Where, E’Ttrans-20 and E’Ttrans+20


28

stand for the storage modulus at temperature Ttrans-20 and Ttrans+20, respectively. Initially, PCL-

20 show higher storage modulus than other two systems (Fig. 6.4), but it suddenly drops after

80 °C. Above this temperature PPG-20 shows high modulus than PCL-20 and CEP-20. While

the storage modulus decreases, the Eg/Er ratio (Table 6.3) increases in the order PPG-

20<PCL-20<CEP-20. The transition temperature shows similar trend of storage modulus in

the order CEP-20<PCL-20<PPG-20. The high transition temperature of PPG-20 is due to

crystalline nature of the segments when compared to other two systems. In the case of PCL-

20, it contains longer aliphatic chain and an ester group. The latter provide more dipolar

interaction of the chain segments. But in CEP-20, this type of interaction is comparatively

less probable as it is gifted only by ether groups spaced between four -CH2- groups.

The transition temperature shows the trend CEP<PCL<PPG. This is in league with the

crystallinity of the shape memory polymer additives. PPG is more crystalline and more polar

and adds to the cohesive strength of the blend, thereby increasing its Ttrans above those of

other two systems. The transition temperature of PTMO-20 (139 °C) is higher than that of

CEP-20 (100 °C) system. This is clear that nonfunctionalized PTMO (alcohol terminal) is

less reactive than functionalized PTMO (phenol terminal) and that will reduces the

involvement of PTMO segments in the epoxy-cyanate ester matrix by way of coreaction.

Matrix plasticization by free PTMO is less than by the coreacted PTMO.

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 2000.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

CEP-20

PPG-20

PCL-20Tan δ

Temperature (°C)

120 °C

100° C

157 °C

nonfunctionalized PTMO

139 °C

159 °C

137 °C

Fig. 5 Loss tangent-temperature profile for low switching content (20 %) systems


29

Table 2 Composition of the ternary blend, DSC exotherm peak maxima of epoxy-

cyanate ester systems containing different switching segments.

* Nonfunctionalized

0 100 200 300 400 500 6000

20

40

60

80

100

Wei

ght (

%)

Temperature (°C)

PCL-20 PPG-20 CEP-20

Fig. 6 TGA traces of systems with 20 % switching segments loading (N2, 10 °C/min).

Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA)

Fig. 6 represents the typical TGA of the cured compositions with 20 % shape memory

polymer loading. All the three systems showed thermal stability above 280 ºC. The cyanate

ester-epoxy system alone normally decomposes at temperature >350 ºC. Additions of the

Sample

Molar ratio of

DGEBA/SwS/BADC

Mass ratio of

DGEBA/SwS/BADC

Peak

max 1 (°C)

Peak

max 2 (°C)

PTMO-20*

1/0.07/0.92

47/20/33

170

225

CEP-20 “ “ 170 185

PCL-20 “ “ - 183

PPG-20 “ “ 169 203


30

shape memory components diminish the thermal stability. Among the three, PPG caused least

damage for the thermal stability, while PTMO made the system thermally least stable.

Practically, all the PTMO got degradation at around 300 ºC. However, all the systems have

stability well above their service temperature (normally around the transition temperature).

Shape memory properties (Bending test)

Qualitatively, the shape memory behavior was estimated by bending test between the

temperatures (Ttrans+20 °C) and (T trans-20 °C). The shape memory studies are done with

respect to the transition temperature. The shape memory behaviors of PCL-20 and PPG-20

(CEP-20 is discussed in previous paper) [Biju et al., 2012] are demonstrated in Fig. 8. The

original (permanent) rectangular shape (a) was heated at Ttrans+20 °C and the sample was

deformed into different shapes through bending and twisting. Upon cooling under load, these

deformed temporary shapes (b) and (c) were fixed. On reheating above Ttrans, the sample

recovered its original rectangular shape (d). The recovered shape as practically

indistinguishable from the original shape, confirming the excellent shape fixity and recovery.

80 82 84 86 88 90

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Eg/E

r rat

io

% Shape recovery

(PPG-20)

(PCL-20)

(CEP-20)

Fig. 7 Variation of Eg/Er with % shape recovery for different switching segment at 20 %

concentration

For quantitative evaluation, the bending tests of all systems were conducted in

temperatures Ttrans+20 (°C) (Table 3). At Ttrans+20 (°C) the shape recovery of low switching

segment content system increases in the order PPG-20<PCL-20<CEP-20. This observation

conforms to the trend in modulus ratio (Eg/Er) which increases in the same manner as has

been observed in previous studies also [Merline et al., 2008]. At high Eg/Er ratio, the shape

recovery is maximum at minimal recovery time. There is a linear relationship between Eg/Er

ratio and extent of shape recovery as shown in Fig. 7. The highly cross-linked structures have


31

strong restraining force on their segments, which need large free volume and more energy,

necessarily higher temperature to accomplish shape recovery [Yuyan et al., 2010].

Table 3 Flexural strength, Loss tangent, elastic modulus ratio and shape memory

properties of different systems

*Nonfunctionalized

Fig. 6.9 Shape memory properties of PCL-20 and PPG-20 (a) original/permanent shapes, (b)

and (c) fixed temporary shapes and (d) recovered shapes.

In all cases, the shape fixity and recovery time are identical for both PCL and CEP, while the

PPG system is inferior to the other two in terms of shape fixity, recovery and time needed for

recovery. It is concluded that both PCL and PTMO are good shape memory conferring

segments while PPG is not rated good for the same. When the shape memory component is

end capped with hydroxyl group the system is not as efficace as when the phenol groups are

Sample

Flexural strength (MPa)

Ttrans

(°C)

Eg/Er

% of shape recovery at

Ttrans+20 (°C)

Recovery

Time (min)

% of shape

fixity at Ttrans-20 (°C)

PTMO-20*

89± 0.5

139

12

85

3.00

85

CEP- 20 100 ± 0.5 100 17 90 2.50 98 PCL-20 98 ± 0.5 120 15 87 2.55 92 PPG-20 95 ± 0.5 157 10.4 80 3.10 80


32

present (w.r.t shape memory properties). The shape recovery, shape fixity and Eg/Er ratio of

PTMO-20 is less than that of CEP-20 (Table 3). This can be ascribed to the less incorporation

of shape memory component in the epoxy-cyanate ester matrix by way of coreaction.

Coreaction of the shape memory component in the matrix is imperative for achieving good

shape memory properties. All systems are mechanically sturdy and have good thermal

stability to be used in composites for developing smart system for diverse application.

Conclusions

The role of switching segments on the shape memory property of epoxy-cyanate ester

system was investigated. The shape memory thermoset polymer was designed by co-reacting

cyanate ester and epoxy with phenol-telechelic of different switching segments constituted by

PTMO, PCL and PPG. Phenol groups help the shape memory component get integrated into

the network matrix through coreaction with both cyanate and epoxy groups. The transition

temperature shows the trend CEP<PCL<PPG. This is in league with the crystallsability of the

shape memory polymer additives. In all cases the shape fixity and recovery time are identical

for PCL and CEP, but PPG system is inferior to the other two in terms of shape fixity,

recovery extend and time needed for recovery. All polymer possessed good mechanical

properties and thermal stability. The PTMO system is a good as the PCL system in terms of

shape memory properties. Vis-a-vis to the alcohol terminated shape memory component,

phenol terminal groups help the PTMO segments get integrated into the matrix by way of

reaction with both epoxy and cyanate groups that decreases the transition temperature. This

helps in achieving better shape memory properties. The shape recovery, shape fixity and

Eg/Er ratio of phenol terminal PTMO is much better than those of alcohol terminal PTMO.

The resin is suited to process good elastic memory composites as cyanate esters normally

promote excellent composite formation.

References

Biju R, Gouri C, Reghunadhan Nair C. P. Shape memory polymers based on cyanate ester-

epoxy-poly (tetramethyleneoxide) co-reacted system. Eur. Polym. J. 48 (2012) 499-

511.

Chun S Z and Qing Q N. Bending behavior of shape memory polymer based laminates.

Compos. Struct., 78 (2007) 153–161.

Glenn J H. Self-deploying trusses containing shape-memory polymers. NASA Tech Briefs

2008.


33

Hamerton I, Hay J N. Recent technological developments in cyanate ester resins. High

Perform. Polym., 10 (1998) 163–174.

Lakshmi M S, Reddy B S R. Synthesis and characterization of new epoxy and cyanate ester

resins. Eur. Polym. J., 38 (2002) 795–801.

Lendlein A, Kelch S. Shape memory polymers. Angew. Chemie. Inter. Ed. 41, (2002) 2034–

2057.

Li Y, Zhou D W, Lu M G. Study on shape memory effects of LC epoxy resins with lateral

substituents. Key Eng. Mater., 391 (2010) 428–429.

Martin M D, Ormaetxea M, Harismendy I, Remiro P M, Mondragon I. Cure chemo-rheology

of mixtures based on epoxy resins and ester cyanates. Eur. Polym. J., 35 (1999) 57–

68.

Mather P T, Luo X F, Rousseau I A. Shape memory polymer research. Annu. Rev. Mater.

Res., 39 (2009) 445–471.

Merline D J, Nair C P R, Ninan K N. Synthesis, characterization, curing and shape memory

properties of epoxy-polyether system. J. Macro. Sci. Pure Appl. Chem., 45 (2008)

312–322.

Nair C P R, Mathew D, Ninan K N. Cyanate ester resins, recent. Developments. Adv. Polym.

Sci., 155 (2001) 1–99.

Nair C P R. Advances in addition-cure phenolic resins. Prog. Polym. Sci., 29 (2004) 401–498.

Squeo E A, Quadrini F. Shape memory epoxy foams by solid-state foaming. Smart Mater.

Struct., 2010; 19: doi:10.1088/0964-1726/19/10/105002.

Steven J V, Melville P U, Lisa R H, Mathew E, Semyon V, Gary E, Michael G, Jonathan E,

Matvey F, Stephen V. Laminated electroformed shape memory composite for

deployable lightweight optics. Proc. SpIE, 375; doi: 10.1117/12.561485, 2004.

Tong T H, Benjamin J V, Richard D H, Thomas J B. Shape memory epoxy copolymer. US

patent. 20080269420, 2008.

Yuyan L, Chunmiao H, Huifeng T, Xingwen D. Thermal, mechanical and shape memory

properties of shape memory epoxy resin. Mater. Sci. Engg. A, 527 (2010) 2510–2514.

Yuyan L, Chunmiao H, Huifeng T, Xingwen D. Thermal, mechanical and shape memory

properties of shape memory epoxy resin. Mater. Sci. Engg. A, 527 (2010) 2510–2514.


34

Zeng M, Lu C, Wang B, Qi C. Free volume hole size of cyanate ester resin/epoxy resin

interpenetrating networks and its correlations with physical properties. Radiat. Phys.

Chem., 79 (2010) 966–975.

My International publication details (link)

http://eng.scholar.cnki.net/result.aspx?q=AUTHOR:(R.+Biju)


35

Gender Budgeting in Kerala: An Analysis towards Women’s Health A Jayasree

Associate Professor, Dept. of Economics, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The paper attempts to study the share of budgetary resources allotted to

women’s health in budgets of Kerala in relation to Government policy declaration

during the period 2003-04 to 2009-10. The overall objective is to evaluate the gender

sensitiveness of the budget in terms of provisions for women’s health. Even though a

fairly satisfactory allocation is made towards women’s health in terms of total outlay

the actual expenditure on women specific schemes (WSS) is only a considerably lower

fraction of it. In terms of total plan expenditure, the commitments were fulfilled at a

higher level. The gender budgeting exercise also demonstrates that only a small portion

of the non-plan expenditure is specifically allocated towards women's health and the

allotment towards it has not been consistent with time and inadequate in most of the

years

Keywords: Gender budgeting; Women specific schemes; Pro-women schemes.

Introduction

All over the world, both women and men play important roles in society.

However, their positions in the economy and the remuneration they earn are different.

The unequal gender relations that leave women in a subordinated position to men

prevail despite the commitment of governments all over the world to gender equality

(Joachim and Byanyima, 2004). Achieving gender equity requires equality of outcomes

for women and men. Generally speaking, budgets are formulated to address the needs

of everyone in a uniform, apparently neutral way (G B handbook, 2007). It is through

the budget that a government’s commitments to gender equality and women’s

empowerment move from paper promises to practical policies (Sharp, 2007). Unless

budgets are responsive to the needs and demands of women, resources may not be

adequately directed to the achievement of equality and equity goals.

Gender responsive budgeting (GRB) is a means of integrating a gender

perspective into all steps of the budget processes as to ensure that budget policies take

into consideration the gender issues in society and neither directly nor indirectly

discriminate against either women or men (Sharp and Dev, 2004). Therefore it is an


36

important tool for analyzing the gap between expressed commitments by governments

and the decision-making processes involved in how governments raise and spend

money. Gender responsive budgets can contribute to narrowing such gaps.

Historically Kerala has been quite different from the rest of the country in terms

of the indicators of women’s development. Kerala reveals a paradox in terms of gender

development. A much lower gender gap in social indicators and high female

empowerment has accompanied Kerala’s remarkable performance in human

development. Kerala has the highest sex ratio 1084 compared to all India level 914 and

the female population becomes 52.01%, as compared to all India level 48.46%. As

much as 93.91% of the population (after leaving out children below the age of six) is

literate in Kerala and among women 91.98% are literate as against 82.14% for men and

65.46%for women (and overall 74.04%) at all India level (census report 2011).

Despite having only slow rates of economic growth and a state per capita

income lower than many other states of India, the health indicators for Kerala are the

best in India and rival those in developed countries. Most analysts have seen Kerala’s

achievements in health as something of an enigma, specifically termed as ‘Kerala

Model of Health’, worth emulating by other developing parts of the world (Ekbal,

2008). Hence an analysis of budgetary allocations and their actual utilization in

enhancing the health status of women in Kerala assumes significance.

Analysis of budgets at state and national levels shows how insignificant the

women’s share is in the total budget. No study has yet been undertaken based on the

disaggregated analysis of the whole Kerala state budget from a gender lens. Hence an

analysis of budgetary allocations to find the gender sensitiveness of budgets assumes

significance. The present study is concerned with the gender sensitiveness of Kerala

state budget towards health over a period of seven years from 2003-04 to 2009-10.

The specific objectives of the present study are: 1.To estimate the share of

budgetary resources allotted towards women’s health, 2. To examine the share allotted

to women specific schemes, and 3. To bring out deviations, if any, between the budget

estimates and the actual expenditures meant for women.

Methodology and data source

The study focused on only the expenditure part of the state budget. The amount

allocated and spent on Women Specific Schemes (defined as schemes where 100% of

the allocation is meant for women) under the state and central government and the Pro-


37

Women Schemes (defined as those which have at least 30% of allocation earmarked for

women or significantly benefit women) and the total of the two has been designated as

the budget outlay and expenditure meant for women. The study identifies the total

outlay earmarked towards women’s health and nutrition through different

programmes/schemes from both plan and non-plan outlays which are ex ante

earmarked for women. In addition, the present study takes into account the central

government grants provided through central schemes and the matching grants provided

by state government for centrally sponsored schemes. It attempts to analyze the gender

sensitiveness of Kerala budgets taking into account both the budget estimate (BE) and

actual expenditure (AE) of the state budget towards health in order to find out the year

wise variation between the two during the reference period.

Even though gender disaggregated data and informationare essentially needed

for undertaking gender budget analysis in a comprehensive manner, such data is not

readily available for a number of years. Of the two categories, it is relatively easy to

identify WSS and calculate the corresponding allocation/expenditure on women from

the Budget documents, Performance Budgets, Annual Reports of Government of

India, and Economic Reviews of State Planning Board. However, information on the

women’s share on PWS is not specifically available in the budget documents.

Therefore, the gender wise data used in the present study is collected from various

government departments and institutions of Kerala such as Directorates of Health

Service, Scheduled Cast and Scheduled Tribe Development, Higher secondary

Education, Ayurveda and Homeopathy, District Institute of Education and Training,

Medical, Ayurveda and Homeopathic colleges.

Total women’s share on health is analyzed from the 1. total outlay, 2. total plan

outlay and 3. total non-plan outlay. The share on women specific health schemes are

also analyzed from the above categories in Kerala budget during the period from 2003-

04 to 2009-10.

1. Women’s share in total outlay on health

Women’s share in total outlay on health is shown in Table 1. Out of the 45

departments, only four are having beneficiary schemes for women’s health, (Medical

and public health, Family Welfare, Education, Sports, Arts, and Culture and Social

welfare), even though Kerala is recognized as the state having the best health

indicators in India.


38

The central government supported family planning programme, the maternal

and child health programme and universal immunization programme accounts for a

major chunk of the central government’s women’s share towards health. It is found that

among the state’s share on health, a substantial part accounts for the non-plan

expenditure of the state government and that is spent for the day to day administration

and maintenance of rural as well as urban allopathic health services.

The women’s share in terms of total outlay for promoting better health for

women varies between 56 and 61% BE and 58 and 65% AE during the period from

2003-04 to 2009-10 (Table 1 and Figure 1).

Fig. 1 Women’s share as percentage of total outlay on health

It is seen that the amount actually spent is higher than thebudget estimate for the

years, 2003-04, 2004-05, 2005-06 and 2008-09. It is noticed that there is a remarkable

improvement in the amount spent in 2004-05 which is due to the high allotment made

for family welfare programmes by the central government and in 2008-09,due to the

relatively high amount spent by the state government for the SAT hospital, Trivandrum.

AE falls short of BE highly for the remaining period.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

WO

ME

N'S

SH

AR

E

YEAR

AE

BE


39

Table 1 Women’s share in total outlay on health (in Rs. Crores)

Source: Kerala State budget documents

2. Share of WSS in total outlay on health

Share of women specific schemes with respect to the total outlay on health is

shown in Table 2. It is seen that WSS towards health comprises only two departments

(Medical and Public Health and Family Welfare). It is found that there are around 15

schemes spread only through the above two departments exclusively targeted towards

women’s health. Among these, the state’s outlay on WSS on health is found to be spent

mainly as the non-plan expenditure and that is devoted for paying salary and

allowances and other expenditure associated with day to day administration. A major

part of the outlay on WSS comprises the central share which is spent mainly as plan

expenditure towards health.

It is observed that on an average around 6% is accounted as BE and around 9%

is actually spent for this purpose. The actual expenditure exceeds the budget estimate in

2004-05, 2005-06, 2006-07 and in 2008-09.It is seen that the actual expenditure

exceeds highly the budget estimate in 2004-05, mainly due to the allotment for family

welfare programmes and in 2005-06, due to the allotment made for maternity& child

welfare centers of the state.

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Women’s share on health

BE 433.27 524.27 567.03 707.71 764.91 625.02 764.29

AE 446.47 623.98 577.15 583.52 592.37 713.18 585.66

Total outlay on health

BE 747.53 884.64 1018.45 1230.80 1261.68 1106.36 1318.17

AE 766.16 957.60 945.34 990.35 1027.30 1222.74 1000.04

Women’s share as percentage of total outlay on health

BE 57.96 59.26 55.68 57.5 60.63 56.49 57.98

AE 59.27 65.16 61.05 58.92 57.66 58.33 58.56


40

Table 2. Share of WSS in total outlay on health

Source: Kerala State Budget documents

Figure 2. Share on WSS in total outlay on women’s health

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

WO

ME

N'S

SH

AR

E

YEAR

AE

BE

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Total share of WSS on health

BE 18.21 33.90 30.95 117.40 174.68 67.71 73.15

AE 20.74 160.73 148.38 120.65 48.35 105.51 54.05

Total outlay on health

BE 747.53 884.64 1018.45 1230.80 1261.68 1106.36 1318.17

AE 766.16 957.60 945.34 990.35 1027.30 1222.74 1000.04

Share on WSS as percentage of total outlay on health

BE 2.24 3.83 3.04 9.54 13.85 6.12 5.55

AE 2.71 16.78 15.70 12.18 4.41 8.63 5.40


41

3. Share of WSS in total outlay on women’s health

Table 3. Share of WSS in total outlay on women’s health

Source: Kerala State Budget documents

The share of women specific schemes with respect to the total outlay on

women’s health is shown in Table 3.

The share on women specific schemes varies between 4 and 23% BE and 5 and

26% AE during the reference period (Table 3). Actual expenditure is in excess of the

budget estimate in most of the periods (Figure 1). It is well above in 2004-05 and in

2008-09, as mentioned in section 2.

4. Women’s share in total plan outlay on health

Women’s share in total plan outlay during the period 2003-04 to 2009-10 is

shown in Table 4.

It is seen that a considerable amount is spent in favour of women out of the total

plan amount allotted for health during the above period. The actual expenditure is on an

average 69% as against the overall budget estimate 64% (Table 4). It also reveals that

out of this expenditure around 20% is found to be the contribution made by the central

government allocated for family welfare programmes. The amount actually spent

exceeds the budgeted estimate in 2003-04, 2004-05,2005-06 and 2008-09.

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

share of WSS on health

BE 18.21 33.90 30.95 117.40 174.68 67.71 73.15

AE 20.74 160.73 148.38 120.65 48.35 105.51 54.05

Outlay on Women’s health

BE 433.27 524.27 567.03 707.71 764.91 625.02 764.29

AE 446.47 623.98 577.15 583.52 592.37 713.18 585.66

Share on WSS as percentage of total women’s share on health

BE 4.20 6.47 5.46 16.59 22.84 10.83 9.57

AE 4.65 25.76 25.71 20.68 8.16 14.79 9.23


42

Table 4. Women’s share in total plan outlay on health

Source: Kerala State Budget document

Figure 4.Women’s share as percentage of total plan outlay on health and nutrition

5. Share of WSS in total plan outlay on women’s health

The share of women specific schemes in total plan outlay on women’s health is

shown in Table 5.

The share of women specific schemes in total plan outlay on women’s health

ranges between 8% and 79% BE and 10% and 73% AE during the reference period.

The actual amount spent exceeds the budget estimate in 2003-04, 2004-05, 2005-06 and

2008-09. The exceptionally excess of expenditure in 2004-05 is found to be due to the

above mentioned reasons. Actual expenditure is much lower than the budget estimate

for the rest of the period.

0102030405060708090

100

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

WO

ME

N'S

SH

AR

E

YEAR

AE

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Women’s share in total plan outlay on health

BE 9669 10498 6234 15871 20267 8373 14625

AE 10027 24246 18389 14890 7847 9044 5547

Total plan outlay on health

BE 14756 15251 10205 20263 23841 12598 22838

AE 14959 29459 23957 18985 11369 10892 8032

Women’s share as percentage of total plan outlay on health and nutrition

BE 65.53 68.83 61.09 78.33 85.01 66.46 64.04

AE 67.03 82.30 76.76 78.43 69.02 83.03 69.06


43

Table 5.Share of WSS in total plan outlay on women’s health (in Rs. crores)

Source: Kerala State Budget document

Table 6. Women’s share in total non-plan outlay on health

6. Women’s share in total non-plan outlay on health

Women’s share in total non-plan outlay on health during the period from 2003-

04 to 2009-10 is shown in Table 6. Women’s share in total non-plan outlay is found to

be on an average 54.87% BE and 55.51% AE during the reference period. The actual

expenditure is in excess of the budget estimate only in two years 2003-04 and 2008-09.

For the remaining years, the commitment of the authorities could not be fulfilled.

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Plan Share on WSS on health

BE 7.91 22.02 17.07 114.09 160.36 37.76 44.23

AE 9.69 146.01 126.38 109.21 34.46 47.16 26.12

Total plan women’s share on health

BE 96.69 104.98 62.34 158.71 202.67 83.73 146.25

AE 100.27 242.46 183.89 148.90 78.47 90.44 55.47

Plan share on WSS as % of total plan women’s share on health

BE 8.18 20.96 27.38 71.89 79.12 45.10 30.24

AE 9.66 60.22 68.73 73.34 43.91 52.15 47.09

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

Non- plan share on WSS on health BE 336.58 419.29 504.69 549.00 562.24 524.62 605.24 AE 346.20 381.52 393.26 434.62 513.90 580.69 519.31

Total non-plan outlay on health BE 599.97 732.13 916.40 1062.2

7 1023.2

7 980.38 1089.79

AE 616.57 663.01 705.77 800.50 913.61 1113.82 919.72

Share on WSS in terms of state’s non-plan women’s share on health

BE 56.10 57.27 55.07 51.68 54.95 53.51 55.54 AE 56.15 57.54 55.72 54.29 56.25 52.14 56.46


44

7. Share of WSS in total non-plan outlay on women’s health

Share of WSS in total non-plan outlay on women’s health during the reference

period is displayed in Table 7.

Table 7. Women’s Share in Total Non-plan outlay on Health

It is found that women’s share in total non-plan outlay is on an average 4.78% BE

and 5.38% AE during the reference period. Generally the actual expenditure exceeds

the budget estimate and it is found to be allotted mainly for women’s hospitals and

maternity wards in the state.

Findings

The total women’s share defined as sum of WSS and PWS for promoting better

health for women and girl children is on an average 59% and out of which around 5%

is spent on women specific schemes which is spread on 15 schemes through three

departments during the period from 2003-04 to 2009-10. The share of women specific

schemes in total outlay on health his only 9% during the reference period. An

appreciable amount, on an average 69% is spent towards women in total plan outlay on

health and out of it around 47% is spent exclusively for women. Women’s share total

non-plan outlay towards health is around 56% and out of which, on an average, 5% is

spent exclusively towards women’s health.

Even though the commitment of the state government could not be fulfilled in any

of the years in the case of total women’s shares on health during this period, it is

fulfilled for most of the years in the case of women specific health schemes. A fairly

satisfactory allocation is made towards women’s health in total outlay. However, the

actual expenditure on women specific schemes (WSS) is only a considerably lower

fraction of it. In terms of total plan expenditure, the commitments were fulfilled at a

higher level. The gender budgeting exercise also demonstrates that only a small portion

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

non- plan share of WSS on health BE 10.30 11.88 13.88 3.31 14.32 29.95 28.92 AE 11.05 14.72 22.00 11.44 13.89 58.35 27.93

Total non-plan outlay on health BE 336.58 419.29 504.69 549.00 562.24 524.62 605.24 AE 346.20 381.52 393.26 434.62 513.90 580.69 519.31

Share on WSS in terms of state’s non-plan women’s share on health & nutrition

BE 3.06 2.83 2.75 0.60 2.55 5.71 4.78 AE 3.19 3.86 5.59 2.63 2.70 10.05 5.38


45

of the non-plan expenditure is specifically allocated towards women's health and the

allotment towards it has not been consistent with time and inadequate in most of the

years.

References

Ekbal B, Towards a People Oriented Health Policy for Kerala’, in B.A. Prakash and

V.R. Prabhakaran Nair (Eds), Kerala’s Development Issues in the New

Millennium, Serials Publications, New Delhi, (2008) pp.323.

Gender budgeting handbook for Govt. Ministries and Departments (2007).

Joachim Wehner and Winnie Byanyima, Parliament, the Budget and Gender,

Handbook for Parliamentarians, UNDP, (2004).

Sharp R. and Dev Vas Sanjugta,, Bridging The Gap Between Gender Analysis And

Gender-Responsive Budgets: Key Lessons From A Pilot Project In The Republic

of The Marshall Islands (Eds), The Hawke Research Institute, University of

South Australia, Magill, (2004).

Sharp, R, Gender Responsive Budgets (GRB’s) Have a Place in Financing

GenderEquality and Women’s Empowerment, Expert Group Meeting of United

Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, Oslo, 4-7 September, (2007).


46

Growing Trend in Edible Oil Consumption-An Analysis

S. Suchithra Devi

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala Email: [email protected]

Abstract

India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world and the oilseed sector

occupies an important Position in the country’s economy. The country accounts for 12-

15 percent of global oilseeds area, 6-7 percent of vegetable oils production and 9-10

percent of the total edible oil consumption. In terms of acreage, production and

economic value, oilseeds are second only to food grains. Among different oilseeds

ground nut, rapeseed- mustard and soya bean account for about 80 percent of area and

87percent of production of oilseeds in the country (2010-2011).The domestic demand

for vegetable oils and fats has been rising rapidly, at a rate of 6 percent per annum, but

our domestic output has been increasing at just about 2 % per annum. There has been

a large gap between domestic demand and production. Thus the countries meet half of

its edible requirement through import, which act as a significant drain on foreign

exchange reserves of the country. It increased from 4.9 Mt in 2007-08 to 8.1 Mt in

2009-10.The increase in demand of edible oil is due to different contributing factors

like rising income, growing population and expanding urbanization. The present

scenario calls for some urgent measures to be taken to set up oilseeds production on a

sustainable basis to keep pace with their increasing demand. The present study

attempts to analyze the production and consumption of edible oil both under global and

Indian scenario. The increasing trend in imports over years has also been analyzed.

The NSSO data available from various rounds has been used to examine the trend in

consumption expenditure of edible oil at the household level.

Key words: Edible oil; Domestic demand; Import


47

Introduction

In the agricultural economy of India, oilseeds are important next only to food

grains in terms of acreage, production and value. India accounts for about 13% of

world oilseeds area, 8% of world oilseeds output (Hegde, 2003). As the economy

grows and income rises, the household demand for edible oils increases due to change

in the food consumption pattern. The shift in edible oil consumption is also apparent

among the households as education or awareness increases. Household income and

prices of edible oils are the major economic factors that determine the demand. In

addition, changes in lifestyle, urbanization influence, changes in tastes and preferences,

increased literacy and health consciousness influence the household demand for edible

oils including both type and quantity. The edible oil consumption has been changing in

the recent years in many states of India due to several socio-economic and policy

changes.

Policy induced changes in the consumption of edible oils, especially, among the

poor households in the state. Some of the empirical studies, viz., Bhalla and Hazell

(1997), Kumar (1998), Radhakrishna and Venkata Reddy (2002), and Mittal (2006)

estimated the demand for food commodities including the edible oil for India. These

studies used National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) data to project the demand

for food grains including edible oils.

Hence, in this study an attempt has been made to study the overall production and

consumption of edible oils both at the global and national level, also an attempt has

been made to study the trend in consumption expenditure based on NSSO rounds.

Objectives

1. To analyse the present production and consumption status of edible oil in global

and Indian scenario

2. To study the import requirement to satisfy the domestic demand in the economy

3. To examine the trend in household consumption expenditure on edible oil based on

various rounds of NSSO.

Data source

Secondary data from FAO, USDA and Directorate of Economics and Statistics have

been used for the study. The NSSO publishes data on different edible oils consumed by

the rural and urban households for different states and for different rounds


48

(quinquennial years). Thus various rounds of NSSO data have been used for analysing

the edible oil consumption in Indian households.

Table 1 Major Oilseeds: World Supply and Distribution (in million MT) (Source :

USDA)

Year 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 Jan 2012/13 Feb 2012/13

Production

United

States 89.2 98.9 100.38 92.35 92.71 92.71

Brazil 60.31 71.42 79.03 70.2 85.22 86.22

Argentina 35.51 57.94 54.22 44.75 58.82 57.82

China 58.12 57.84 58.1 59.07 56.58 57.28

India 33.4 32.37 34.95 35.67 35.38 35.38

Other 120.17 125.66 129.04 139.36 137.1 137.47

Total 396.7 444.13 455.72 441.39 465.8 466.87

Imports

China 44.14 52.54 53.66 62.29 65.16 65.31

EU-27 18.03 15.9 16.31 16.75 15.52 15.72

Mexico 4.72 5.2 5.36 5.21 5.09 5.09

Japan 5.74 5.91 5.47 5.35 4.99 5.01

Taiwan 2.22 2.47 2.46 2.29 2.31 2.41

Indonesia 1.63 1.9 2.19 2.22 2.31 2.31

Thailand 1.56 1.73 2.2 1.98 2.02 2.02

Turkey 1.75 2.59 2.34 2.03 1.96 2.01

Egypt 1.6 1.68 1.71 1.87 1.77 1.77

South

Korea 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.32 1.33 1.34

Other 11.26 10.45 11.08 10.27 9.75 9.7

Total 93.95 101.72 104.17 111.57 112.19 112.67


49

Global scenario of oilseeds/edible oil production

Edible oil constitutes an important part of the food cuisine. The demand for vegetable

oils has risen steadily catapulted by a combination of factors. The recent years have witnessed

emergence of important new actors and trends in supply and demand. Global edible oil

production remains geographically concentrated with a relatively small number of production

centers (Indonesia, Malaysia, China, European Union, United States, Argentina, Brazil and

India ) accounting for 79 percent of total output World vegetable oil production is expected to

increase by 35MT compared to 2011 or about 28 percent over the outlook period a rate

exceeding that anticipated for annual oil crop production due to contribution of two perennial

crops, palm and coconut oil (OECD-FAO, Agricultural outlook 2012-2021).

Indian scenario of production of edible oilseeds/edible oils

Production of oilseeds has grown almost double in last 12 years from 176 lakh MT in

2000-01 to 321 lakh MT in 2012-13. In addition, cottonseed has emerged as a significant

source of edible oil for India. Other significant sources of edible oil are copra, palm oil, rice

bran and oil meals.

Table 2 Production of Oilseeds (Source: Directorate of Economic and Statistics)

(Lakh Tonnes)

2000-01 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Groundnut 64.1 91.82 71.68 54.29 82.65 69.33 87.14

Sesamum 5.2 7.57 6.4 5.88 8.93 8.21 7.58

Nigerseed 1.1 1.1 1.17 1 1.08 1 0.87

Rapeseed

Mustard 41.9 58.34 72.01 66.08 81.79 67.76 81.93

Linseed 2 1.63 1.69 1.54 1.47 1.41 2.76

Safflower 2 2.25 1.89 1.79 1.5 1.21 2.79

Sunflower 6.5 14.63 11.58 8.51 6.51 4.99 11.61

Soyabean 52.8 109.68 99.05 99.65 127.36 122.82 126.19

Total 175.6 287.02 265.47 238.74 311.29 276.73 320.87


50

The growing imports

Despite increase in production of edible oils in the country, around 48 % of

domestic demand is being met from imports. Trend of increasing imports over years

may be seen in the following table

Table. 3 Trend of increasing imports (Source: Directorate of Economic & Statistics)

Year

Net availability

of edible oils

(Lakh MT)

Import of

edible oil

(Lakh MT)

Total

availability/

consumption

(Lakh MT)

Proportion of

imported oil in

total consumption

in percentage

Import bill

(in Rs. crore)

2005-06 83.16 44.17 127.33 34.69 8961

2006-07 73.7 47.15 120.85 39.02 9540

2007-08 86.54 56.08 142.62 39.32 10301

2008-09 84.56 81.83 166.39 49.18 15837

2009-10 79.46 79.56 159.02 50.03 26484

2010-11 97.82 68.94 166.76 41.34 29442

2011-12 90.21 83.87 174.08 48.10 45940

Palm oil constitutes around 80% of imported oil in the country. Soybean oil

and sunflower oil constitute remaining 20% (around 10% each).

A study on household edible oil consumption based on NSSO rounds

In India the surveys carried out by the National Sample Survey Organization

(NSSO), a permanent survey organization, set up in the Department of Statistics of the

Government of India in 1950, provides data on time trends and interstate differences in

food consumption Patterns. The NSSO has been carrying out Consumer Expenditure

Surveys quinquennially since 1972-73 (27th, 32nd, 38th, 43rd, 50th, 55th and 61st rounds of

NSS, at roughly 5-year intervals). There has been a decline in the proportion of

expenditure on food items in last three decades in both urban and rural areas. The

proportion of expenditure on non-food items has increased from 24 % to 37.7%.

India has shared rise in oil consumption. Per capita consumption of edible oil

has risen over the last eleven years by as much as 30% in rural India and about 18% in


51

urban India. In both rural and urban India, per capita consumption of oil other than

groundnut oil, mustard oil, vanaspati and coconut oil has more than doubled. The

newer oils such as sunflower oil, soybean oil, other vegetable oil and rice bran oil are

used along with traditionally used sesame, mustard, groundnut and coconut oil. The

percentage of households using groundnut oil dropped in 2004-05 to 21%, one-half of

what it was in 1993-94 (40 %). Among rural households the percentage in 2004-05 fell

to 14% from a 1993-94 level of 30 %.Over time, the monthly per capita expenditure on

edible oils has shown a considerable increase at current prices. Between 1972-73 and

2004-05, the consumption expenditure per month on edible oils has increased from Rs

1.55 to Rs 25.72 in the rural areas and from Rs. 3.07 to Rs. 36.37 in the urban areas.

Table 5 Trends in percentage share of total consumer expenditure on edible oils

from 1972-73 to 2009-2010, all-India (rural and urban)

Temporally, for the rural consumers, the share of expenditure on edible oils in total

consumption expenditure has shown a mixed trend. It increased from 3.50 per cent in

1972-73 to 4.00 per cent in 1983 and 5.00 per cent in 1990-91 and declined

subsequently to 4.60 per cent in 2004-05. In the case of the urban consumers, a steady

decline in the share is evident. According to the report on 64th round NSS the share of

NSSO round and year

All-India

(Rural)

All-India (Urban)

27th round (1972-73) 32nd round (1977-78 38th round (1983) 43rd round (1990-91) 50th round (1993-94) 55th round (1999-2000) 61st round (2004-05) 66th round (2009-10)

3.60

3.50

4.0

5.0

4.40

3.70

4.60

8.4

4.90

4.60

4.8

5.3

4.40

3.10

3.50

6.3


52

food item group such as cereals, milk and milk products, vegetable, sugar , salt and

spices the total consumption expenditure was higher in rural Kerala than in Urban

Kerala. But in the case of Beverages, Processed food and refreshments the share was

higher in Urban Kerala For all other food groups including Edible oil the rural and

urban share over total expenditure was equal.

Table 6 Trends in per capita consumption of different edible oils in India

(kg/month)

Source: Various rounds of NSS household consumer expenditure survey

The monthly per capita edible oil consumption was estimated at 636 grams in

rural India and 840 grams in urban India. The breakup of edible oil consumed percapita

at all India level by type of oil is shown in Table6 for rural and urban sectors. The

schedule of enquiry used four items of edible oils such as ground nut oil, mustard oil,

vanaspati, margarine, coconut oil and a residual item “edible oil others” against which

all other edible oils such as sunflower oil, linseed oil, rapeseed oil, gingely oil, ricebran

oil etc were recorded. It is seen that among the four oils listed in the schedule, mustard

oil had the largest share in both sectors, followed by ground nut oil. The per capita

consumption of edible oil between 1993-94 and 2009-10 has shown an annual increase

of about 3.4% and 2.4%, respectively in rural and urban areas, increasing more rapidly

during 2004-05 to 2009-10, the below table gives a detailed picture based on 66 the

round of NSS.

Groundnut and vanaspati together formed the only category of edible oil that

has witnessed a decline over the years, despite an overall increase in consumption of

edible oil. In 2009-10, their share in total edible oil consumption has reduced to 14% in

rural and 20% in urban areas from 41% and 54%, respectively in 1993-94.

Items

1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05 2009-10

Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban

Coconut Oil 0.120 0.240 0.120 0.230 0.070 0.160 0.054 0.126

Mustard Oil 0.170 0.150 0.240 0.250 0.220 0.200 0.287 0.230

Vanaspati 0.030 0.060 0.040 0.060 0.030 0.050 0.036 0.036

Edible Oil 0.050 0.110 0.090 0.170 0.140 0.250 0.243 0.408

All edible Oil 0.370 0.560 0.500 0.720 0.480 0.660 0.636 0.818


53

Findings and suggestions

Country’s edible oil imports are estimated to surge 33% to 14 million tonnes by

2020 so as to meet the rising domestic demand, India imports about 60% of its

domestic demand particularly palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia and Soyabean oil

from Brazil and Argentina. Due to the high growth in income levels, increasing trend in

spending and better living standards, India promises to continue high growth in

consumption of Edible oil. The consumption of edible oil showed a significant increase

over the years, particularly in the other edible oil category that constitutes edible oils

excluding groundnut, mustard and vanaspati and is mainly palm oil. The consumption

may reach 23 million tonnes by 2020 at 3 percent growth rate. The stagnant domestic

oil production is leading to higher imports to feed the growing Indian demand. In order

to raise oilseed production and reduce the countries dependence on imports, it is

suggested that the government to ensure remunerative prices to farmers through

suitable import duty structure. The duty on crude edible has to be raised from 2.5

percent to 10 percent and for refined oil the duty must be raised from 7.5 percent to 20

percent to protect the interest of farmers and refiners. High yielding quality seeds

should be made available at the times of sowing and farmers has to be encouraged to

shift to oilseeds by offering higher support price. The fullest exploitation of traditional

oils has to be encouraged.

References

Frank Rosillo-Calle. A Global overview of Vegetable oils,With reference to Biodiesel.A

Report for the IEA Bioenergy Task (2009).

Girish Kumar Jha, Suresh Pal, V C Mathur,Geetha Bisaria, P Ambukanni, R R Burman,

Dubey S K. Edible oilseeds Supply and Demand Scenario in India: Implications

for policy. Indian Agricultural Research Institute (2012).

Gurrappanaidu Govindraj, Satrasala Suryaprakash and Nilakantan Sivaramane. Present

status of edible oil consumption and household demand projection for

Tamilnadu (India).Journal of Agricultural sciences (2012).

Mehata B V. India’s Overall Demand and Supply of Edible oil with special Reference

to Rice Bran oil.The solvent Extractors Association of India. Economic Times

(2013).


54

Mittal S. Structural shit in demand for food: projections for 2020. Working paper

No.184, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations,

NewDelhi (2006).

Shalini Gupta. Food Expenditure and Intake in the NSS 66th round, Economic and

Political Weekly. vol xlvii no 2 (2012)


55

Recent Trends in Inflation in India Jerry Alwin

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala


Abstract

The Paper presents the conceptual and theoretical issues of inflation, recent

trends, causes and consequences of Inflation in India and measures to control inflation

for the period 2006-07 to 2011-12. The available evidence suggests that major

contributing factors of inflation are rise in crude oil prices, depreciation of the rupee,

reduction in food grain production and diversion of agricultural land for commercial

crops and high price of manufactured products. In spite of the various measures taken

by the government the rate of inflation is not fully under control.

Keywords: Inflation; Economic growth; Wholesale Price Index

Introduction

Inflation is a process of continuously rising prices or equivalently of

continuously falling value of money (Laider and Parkin, 1975). The main factors that

lead to inflation are building up of inflation expectations and the mismatches in

aggregate demand and aggregate supply. The level of aggregate demand is the total

demand for goods to consume, for new investment, for goods purchased by the

government and for net goods to be exported abroad. The level of aggregate supply is

the amount of output the economy can produce given the resources and technology

available.

Theoretical issues

The role of money in the development process has been important in the context

of stabilization of economic activity and the promotion of growth. Most of the theories

about inflation debates upon the ‘money neutrality’ proposition, i.e., the relationship

between real variables like output, employment and nominal variables like money

supply, whether they are independent or not. Most of the growth theories are non

monetary in nature and assume growth to depend on real factors such as capital

accumulation, population, technology and innovation. In the long run it is technology

and innovations that have a special role in sustaining growth in an economy. But the


56

perception of money neutrality changed with the writings of Irving Fisher (1920),

Keynes (1936) and Tobin (1965). The main reasons of this non-neutrality assumption

were that, since it was recognized that financial system in general and money supply in

particular caused sustained and at times accentuated business cycles and secondly

money supply had an influence on interest rates which in turn had an impact on capital

accumulation.

There are three main theoretical views which examine the relationship between

inflation and output. The first is the Mundell Tobin effect according to which higher

anticipated inflation have a positive impact on output. According to Mundell and

Tobin, inflation leads to a higher opportunity cost of holding money leading to a

portfolio reallocation away from money and towards physical capital. The higher

holdings of physical capital result in a higher stock of capital and therefore a higher

capital labour ratio leading to increase in output. The second theory is by Stockman

(1981) which showed that a higher anticipated inflation would lead to lower output.

According to Stockman a higher anticipated inflation rate raises the opportunity cost of

holding money, which raises the opportunity cost of undertaking all transactions, and

therefore in equilibrium lowers the scale of transaction, leading to lower investment

and lower capital stock and hence lower output. The third is the natural rate hypothesis

according to which inflation have no direct bearing on output. This hypothesis

advanced by Friedman (1968) and Phelps (1968) assumes that money is neutral in the

sense that there is a unique natural rate of unemployment that is independent of the

anticipated rate of inflation. Any trade off between inflation and unemployment is

temporary and best thought of as a tradeoff between unanticipated inflation and

employment.

Many of the developing countries with a few exceptions are of the view even a

slightly more than moderate rate of inflation had a positive effect of growth (Reddy,

1999). But it is a fact that inflation leads to slow growth or stagnation if government

responds to inflation by restrictive aggregate demand policies often leading to high rate

of unemployment, low rate of capacity utilization, investment and productivity growth.

In the study “Inflation and Growth in the World: Some Simple Empirics, 1970-99” by

P.R. Bhramananda and G. Nagaraju which examined the relation between growth and

inflation which covered 178 countries both developing and developed came to the

conclusions that the widely held view that moderate rate of growth and inflation is

positively related is not statistically supported and that correlation between growth and


57

inflation is often negative. Sarels (1996) study “Non Linear Effects of Inflation on

Economic Growth” according to which the relationship between inflation and growth is

not linear. According to the study there exists a threshold inflation rate of 8 percent

below which inflation have does not have any effect on grow or have a slightly positive

effect and above that estimated effect of inflation on growth is negative.

Measurement

The three measures of Inflation which are used in India are the Wholesale Price

Index (WPI), Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the implicit GDP deflator. The CPI

reflects the cost of living for a homogeneous group of consumers. The commodity

basket of CPI is derived from group specific consumer expenditure surveys and

weights for each commodity are proportionate to their expenditure. There are for

consumer price indices namely CPI for industrial workers (CPI-IW), CPI for

agricultural labour (CPI-AL), CPI for rural labour (CPI-RL) and CPI for urban non

manual employees (CPI-UNPE). The GDP deflator is derived from national accounts

as a ratio of GDP at current prices to GDP at constant prices. The WPI, the widely

used measure is calculated as weighted arithmetic mean of price relatives of

commodities. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry introduced a new series of WPI

with 2004-05 as base year in September 2010. Instead of 435 commodities, the new

series had 676 commodities the number of primary commodities being 102, 19 items of

fuel and power and 555 items of manufactured products. In the revised series of WPI

with base year 2004-05, there are 676 commodities of which primary commodities

were accorded a weight of 20.12 percent, fuel and power weight of 14.91 and

manufactured products of weight of 64.97 percent. At present the WPI for all

commodities including manufactured products is released only on monthly basis. But

this was phased out since January 2012.

In this analysis inflation as measured by WPI is used since it takes into

consideration more commodities and hence a more accurate estimate of inflation. As

far as the effects of inflation on output is considered the most convincing explanation is

that any trade off between inflation and unemployment is only for short run and in long

run there is no trade off between inflation and unemployment. If the effect of inflation

on growth is considered in the case of developing countries like India, effect of

moderate level of inflation is less distorting for growth but at a higher levels of

inflation, inflation retards growth.


58

Recent trends in inflation in India

The most important macroeconomic problem faced by India today is the high

rate of inflation. This is clear from Tables 1 and 2. The annual inflation based on WPI

reached 9.6 percent in 2011-11 and stayed around 9 percent in 2011-12. The WPI

moved up from 104.47 in March 2006 to 156.13 in March 2012. We can understand

the trends in WPI based inflation from the year 2005-06 upto 2011-12. From Table 2

we can infer that during 2006-07, 2008-09, 2010-11 and 2011-12 the inflation rate was

high above 6 percent. The lowest rate of inflation during the period was for 2009-10

when inflation was 3.84 percent. The highest rate of inflation was recorded during

2010-11 when inflation was 9.6 percent. The major cause of price rise during these

years was the higher price of crude oil in the international market fuelled by supply

shocks and high demand. The price rise of manufacturing commodities and primary

commodities also contributed to higher prices. During the year 2008-09 there has been

a spurt in oil prices (Table3) which contributed to an inflation of 8.1 percent during the

year. The decrease of crude oil prices and the global economic recession and low

consumption demand has resulted in the low inflation of 3.8 percent in 2009-10.

During 2010-11, 46 percent of inflation can be contributed to primary products, 35

percent to manufactured products and 29 percent to fuel and power. But during 2011-

12 the drivers of inflation has changed and 49 percent was due to primary products, 28

percent due to primary products and 23 percent due to fuel and power (Economic

Survey 2011-12).

Table 1 Wholesale Price Index (Base 2004-05 = 100) (point to point)

Year (Last week

of year)

All commodities

Primary commodities

Fuel power light and lubricants

Manufactured products

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

104.47

111.35

116.63

126.02

130.81

143.32

156.13

104.30

114.33

123.85

137.53

154.94

182.44

200.32

113.58

120.92

120.96

134.95

132.1

148.32

130.07

102.42

108.22

113.39

120.38

123.05

130.07

139.51

Source: Economic Survey 2011-12 and www.eaindustry.nic.in


59

Table 2 Whole sale price index (WPI) variation in percent (point to point)

Year All commodities

Primary commodities

Fuel power light and

lubricants

Manufactured products

Weights 100 20.12 14.91 64.97

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

4.47

6.59

4.74

8.10

3.80

9.60

8.94

4.30

9.62

8.33

11.05

12.66

17.80

9,80

13.58

6.46

0.03

11.57

-2.11

12.3

13.96

2.42

5.66

4.78

6.16

2.22

5.70

7.26

Source: Based on Table 1

Causes of inflation

Rise in crude oil prices

The rise in price of crude oil has been the major factor contributing to Indias

inflation in the recent years. Except for the year 2008-09 in which crude prices was

below 40 dollar per barrel, for all the years 2005-2012 it stayed more than 60 dollars

per barrel (Table 3) in the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) a major

international market for crude oil. The crude oil price which was 61.04 dollar in

December 2005 increased to 145.29 dollars in July 4, 2008. This is reflected in WPI

based inflation of 11.57 percent for fuel and power group in 2008-09. But during 2009-

10 the crude oil prices dipped to less than 40 dollars due to global recession and the

reduction of consumption. This is clearly explained by negative inflation of -2.11 of

fuel and power for the year 2009-10. But inflation stared rising since 2010 and ranged

between 90 to 100 dollars since then.

The causes behind global oil price rise can be explained as follows. One the

one hand there has been a slow growth in supply due to social, political and

international factors. One the other hand there had been an unprecedented growth in

demand for oil due to rapid development of different countries and the population

growth of emerging Asian countries like India and China. The major economic factors

are decline in the discovery of oil fields, fall in global oil production, fall in

underground oil reserves due to rapid extraction of oil, technical difficulties to extract


60

remaining reserves. Another factor is the monopolization of oil by OPEC counties and

their practice of producing less to earn high prices. The emergence of terrorist groups

targeting oil and gas installations in African and Asian counties also curtailed the

production and free transport of oil. These factors contribute to inflation in India since

75% of our oil is imported.

Table 3 International crude oil prices in New York mercantile exchange

(NYMEX)

Month Year Price per barrel (in dollar)

December 30

December 22

December 28

July 4

December 26

February 13

December 31

June 4

December 31

June 3

December 30

July 27

September 14

October 19

November 9

2005

2006

2007

2008

2008

2009

2009

2010

2010

2011

2011

2012

2012

2012

2012

61.04

62.41

96.00

145.29

37.71

37.51

79.36

71.51

91.38

100.22

98.93

90.13

99.00

90.05

86.l07

There are two important factors which affected the domestic price of oil in the country

in recent past. The first is the depreciation of rupee and the second is the dismantling

of the administrative price of petrol. The Table 4 gives the nominal exchange rate of

rupee per U S dollar. From the Table it is clear that the exchange rate of rupee per

dollar which remained at around 45 to 46 rupee started increasing since 2011-12 and

reached 55.56 rupee in August 2012. Since dollar is the international currency this has

caused a rapid increase in the import bill and also increased domestic prices, of

petroleum products. The major domestic factor which influenced inflation rate is the


61

dismantling of administered petrol prices with effect from June 26, 2010. Since then

petrol prices which was around Rs 58 per litre in April 2011 was revised several times

mostly upwards and is around Rs 70 per litre in November 2012. Another factor for

inflation during recent times is that the administrative prices of PDS Kerosene were

revised upwards from Rs 12.73 per litre to Rs. 14.83 per litre. The diesel prices were

also hiked from around Rs 38 per litre in April 2011 to Rs 49 per litre recently. The

prices of LPG cylinders have also been revised upwards in 2012 and the government

has limited the number of subsidized cylinders per household

Table 4 Nominal exchange rate of rupee per U S dollar

Year/Month

U S Dollar

Y-O-Y (%)

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

April 2012

May 2012

June 2012

July 2012

August 2012

45.99

47.41

45.57

47.92

51.81

54.97

56.03

55.49

55.56

14.11

3.26

-3.88

5.18

16.77

21.31

24.99

24.94

22.77

Source: FEDAI Indicative Market Rates (on yearly/Monthly Average Basis) Data from May, 2012 onwards are based on RBI’s reference rate

Increase in the price of primary products

The global as well as the domestic factors have contributed to the inflation in

primary products. Firstly, the impact of high oil prices is directly felt on agricultural

cost because of significance of energy as input in production process for fertilizer and

irrigation, as well as transportation. Based on the carry over effect (of Crude Oil prices

on food prices) estimated by Baffles (2007), 47 percent of the total increase in food

prices between 2003 and March 2008 can be attributed to increase in energy prices and

remaining to other factors. Secondary due to higher oil prices the countries like US,

Europe and Brazil have promoted biofuels which reduced the land for food grain


62

cultivation. Thirdly changing consumption pattern in developing countries is one

popular explanation for higher food prices. The logic behind this argument is the rising

demand for high value agriculture products like pulses, milk, livestock, fishery,

vegetables and fruits which in turn is caused by rising per capita income and change in

dietary patterns (GOI, 2012). Fourthly the impact of policy neglect for the last two

decades is one of the main reasons for the food price rise. The problems relating to this

aspect which needs to be addressed are shift in acerage from food crops to cash crops,

the excessive use of ground water, preserving and regenerating, land soil quality, lack

of attention, overuse of chemical fertilizer which negatively affects productivity,

ecological implications and climate change. It will take substantial time and investment

to reverse these factors. Fifthly there is an impact of changes in market structure which

allow for greater international speculation in commodity futures market which inflates

food prices. Primary commodities are also attracting financial speculators because of

crisis is U S and problems in financial markets.

Let us now analyze the causes of food inflation for different commodities

during reference period. The rice in price of rice despite higher production (Table 5)

was due to factors like higher exports, high minimum support Price, and lack of sale

under open market system and expectation due to unfavorable climatic condition. The

rise in prices of pulses, fruits, vegetables, spices meat and fish was due to production

shortfall. The rise in price of milk and egg was induced by high inflation of oil cake

due to lower oil seeds production, decline in growth of milk production and higher

demand.

Table 5 Production and growth in production of rice

Year

Production (in MT)

Year on Year Growth

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11

91.79

93.35

96.69

99.18

89.09

95.98

---

1.70

3.58

2.58

-10.17

6.09

Source: Economic Survey, Various Years


63

The prices of tea rose because of lower growth of production, high cost imports and

high production while that of coffee due to production shortfall and higher demand.

The price of sugar was high due to production shortfall, high cost imports and higher

exports.

Increase in the price of manufactured products

If we analyze the trends in prices of manufactured products during 2005-2012

we can see that inflation which was only 2.42 percent in 2005-06 increased to 6.16 in

2008-09. During 2009-10, due to global recession and decrease in the price of crude oil

inflation declined to 2.2 percent in 2009-10 and further increased to 7.26 percent in

2011-12. The increasing demand from emerging economies like china and lower

growth of supplies due to lower investment and delays in bringing new capacities

contributed to sustained increase. These factors combined with raise in prices of crude

oil aggravated the problem and lead to retardation of industrial growth particularly

during 2011-12 and 2012-13 (Table 6)

Table 6 Growth rate of Index of Industrial Production (Base 2004-05)

Year

Mining Manufacturing Electricity Overall

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

April

May

June

July

August

5.2

4.6

2.6

7.9

5.2

-2.0

-2.8

-0.7

0.2

-1.6

2

15

18.4

2.5

4.8

9.0

3.0

-1.8

2.6

-3.1

-0.4

2.9

7.3

6.3

2.7

6.1

5.5

8.2

4.6

5.9

8.8

2.8

1.9

12.9

15.5

2.5

5.3

8.2

2.9

-1.3

2.5

-1.8

-0.2

2.7

Source: Central statistics office

Consequences of inflation

The impact of higher inflation was felt in different sectors of the economy. The

oil price hike has enhanced transport costs of all modes of transport like road, rail,


64

water and air transport. Secondly, it arrested the growth in air transport services and

created recession in transport and energy sectors. Thirdly it has also created a situation

of stagflation where economy persistently suffers from both high inflation and high

unemployment. Since petroleum products account of one third of total imports the

higher prices of these products has reduced the forex reserves. The food inflation has

affected common mans budget adversely and poor people are worse hit. The

manufacturing sector was also affected by inflation. This is clear from Table 6 which

shows the poor growth of index of industrial production during 2010-11and 2011-12.

As mentioned earlier estimates by Sarel (1996) give evidence about the fact that

inflation above 8 percent negatively affects growth. Robert Barro (1997) in a cross

country study found inflation rate 10 percentage points higher is associated with real

growth 0.3-0.4 percentage lower. In India, from 2005-06 to 2011-12 the inflation

ranged between 3.8 to 9.6 percent as shown in Table 7. The effect on inflation on

growth during the period was negative since a small negative correlation of -0.31 was

found during the period.

Table 7 Money supply inflation and growth

Year

Growth Rates

Real GDP Inflation

(1999-2000 prices)

Money supply (M3)

2005 - 06

2006 - 07

2007 - 08

2008 - 09

2009 – 10

2010 – 11

2011 – 12

Correlation between inflation and growth

9.4

9.6

9.3

6.7

8.4

8.4

6.9

4.47

6.59

4.74

8.10

3.80

9.60

8.94

-0.31

17.0

21.3

21.2

18.4

16.8

16.1

12.9

Source: Same as Table 5

Measures to control inflation

The recent measures which were taken to control inflation are the following.

The measures to control inflation include selective ban on exports and futures trading in


65

food grains, zero import duty on select food items, permitting import of sugar and

pulses by PSU’S, distribution of imported pulses and edible oil through PDS, release of

higher quota on non levy sugar etc. Steps were also taken to control hoarding. To

reduce the adverse impact of rising crude oil prices on the consumer, the government

also removed the custom duty on crude oil and reduced import duty of petrol and

diesel. In view of the importance of house hold fuels government decided to retain

subsidy on PDS Kerosine and domestic LPG. As a part of monetary policy, RBI has

taken steps to increase the policy rates and related measures (Table 8) to moderate

demand to the levels with which the economy can maintain growth without high

inflation. There was a curt in repo rates and a hike in different rates of interest as

shown in Table 8. Though these measures had made some impact to reduce the money

supply much needs to be done to reduce inflation to tolerable levels.

Table 8 Monetary indicators

2009-10

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Cash Reserve

Ratio

Bank rate

Repo Rate

Reverse Repo

Rate

5.00-5.75

6.00

5.00-4.75-5.00

3.50-3.25-3.50

5.75-6.00

6.00

5.00-6.75

3.50-5.75

6.00-4.75

6.00-9.50

75 6.75-8.50

5.75-7.50

4.75-4.50

9.50-9.00

8.50-8.00

7.50-7.00

Source: RBI

Conclusion

The main factors that contributed to the inflation are rise in crude oil prices,

reduction in food grain production and shift in production from food crops to cash

crops, high price of certain manufactured products like edible oils etc. The inflation had

an adverse impact on different sectors of the economy. Inflation also has negatively

affected economic growth of the country. In spite of the fiscal measures and tight

monetary policies, the rate of inflation remains without much change


66

References

Baffles, John, Oil spills on other commodities, Development Prospects Group, WPS

4333, The World Bank, Washington DC (2007).

Barro, Robert, Determinants of economic growth : A cross country empirical study,

Cambridge MIT Press(1997).

Batura Neha: Understanding recent trends in inflation, economic and political weekly,

Vol. XLIII, No. 24 (2008).

Bhramananda P.R. and Nagaraju G: Inflation and growth in the world : some simple

empirics, 1970-99 in Ahluwalia, Montek S, Reddy YV and Tarapore S (ed)

Macro Economics and Monetary Policy : Issues for a Reforming Economy,

Oxford University Press, New Delhi (2002).

Chand, Ramesh: The global food crisis : causes, severity and outlook, economic and

political weekly, Vol. XLIII, No. 26 and 27 (2008) Chandrasekhar CP and

Ghosh Gayathri : Global Inflation and India, The Hindu Business Line, (2008).

Economic Survey : Various Issues.

Fischer S, Anticipations and non-neutrality of money, Journal of Political Economy,

87 (1979).

Fischer Irving, Purchasing power of money, New York, Macmillan (1920).

Friedman M, Role of monetary policy, American Economic Review, 58 (1968).

Keynes JM, The general theory of employment, interest and money, London,

Macmillan (1936).

Laidler D and Parkin M, Inflation a survey, economic, Journal 85, (1975).

Phelps ES, Money Wage Dynamics and Labour Market Equilibrium, Journal of

Political Economy, 76), Part II (1968).

Rangarajan C, Development, Inflation and Monetary Policy in Ahluwalia Isher Judge

and Little IMD (ed), Indias Economic Reforms and Development : Essays for

Manmohan Singh, Oxford University Press, New Delhi (2004).

Reddy YV: Inflation in India : Status and Issues, RBI Bulletin (1999).

Sarel Michael, Non linear effects of inflation on economic growth, IMF Staff Papers,

Vol. 43 (1996).

Tobin J, Money and Economic Growth, Econometrica 33 (1965).


67

Rising Health care issues in Kerala Sreerenjini. S. C

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala


Abstract Kerala`s development experience has been distinguished by the dominance of

social sector. The state has achieved hundred percent literacy for both males and

females and the health care indices are comparable to advanced economies of the

World. Kerala enjoys a unique position in the health map of India. We have the lowest

infant mortality and maternal mortality rate with the highest life expectancy in the

country. However, the spread of modern disease has become major crisis in Kerala.

Higher prevalence of mental health problems, suicide rates, death due to road traffic

accidents and other traumas are other dimensions of the health problems in Kerala.

Kerala is facing an alarmingly high morbidity rate at the most productive ages of

people. The ‘health development’ is generally attributed to inter-sectoral factors such

as the spread of education, political awareness, development of road networks and

transportation, and social movements. The tradition of government support for health

development has been a catalyst for the advancement of health care in the state. In

recent years, there has also been considerable growth in private health facilities, so

much so that these now outstrip government facilities in number. There may be a

number of reasons behind this growth, including changes in social and economic

factors such as increasing per capita income and the spread of literacy. But while

certifying the merits of Kerala’s health system, the focus on utilization of health care

services alone may not be sufficient. It has to be kept in mind that in a health care

system, like the one in Kerala, out-of pocket payments constitute the bulk of health

expenditure. In such a scenario, one also needs to take into account how an

individual’s utilization of health care is influenced by affordability and also the

consequences of quality health care in the economic life of the people .Therefore the

paper attempts to examine growing health care issues of the State and to explore a

comprehensive mechanism to reduce the health insecurity dimensions.

Key words: Health care; Health insecurity; Poverty; Health status.


68

Introduction

Health Services have emerged as the largest and fastest growing sector in the

world economy. Health sector is one of India’s largest sectors in terms of revenue and

employment. Kerala, a state on the Malabar coast of southwest India, has been held up

as a model of ‘good health at low cost’ and seen as an example of how to promote

greater health equity. The basic health indicators in Kerala show an increasing trend

which is very high compared to All India average. Thus success of Kerala in human

development is cited as Kerala model of development. Progress is mainly due to the

investment in social capital and also because of the existence of an integrated and

accountable primary health care system. The State has achieved significant success in

reducing fertility and mortality rates and in improving general health status of

population. Large scale vaccination and immunization programmes, expansion of

health care facilities, institutionalization of child birth are important factors that lead to

a health care system that is worldwide acclaimed. But recently health indicators show

an unfavorable trend. High morbidity rate, under nutrition, malnutrition, chronic

diseases, low calorie intake are some of the serious health issues that pose a challenge

to the health care system in Kerala. Declining share of government expenditure on

healthcare and outdated health infrastructure of government run health institutions with

shortage of skilled manpower had lead to the mushrooming of private sector health care

institutions. The escalation of private health expenditure leads to the increasing cost of

health care which is prohibitively high for the weaker sections. It is found that sizeable

section of relatively poor was pushed down to poverty line due to increasing health

expenditure. The Out Of Pocket expenditure in the State is spiraling, people are being

impoverished by the Out Of Pocket spending on outpatient care and drug cost. High

burden of noncommunicable diseases, ageing of population and increasing use of

technology in health care were some of the factors that pushes the health cost in the

State. In this context the study concentrates on growing health insecurity dimensions of

the State.

Objective

One of the prime objective the study is to examine the health related

insecurities of the State and also to examine the relation between increasing health care

cost and poverty in Kerala.


69

Methodology

The study is based on the secondary data collected from the published records

of National Research institutions, and from various government departments of both

centre and state governments.

Health scenario of Kerala

Health status of Kerala is comparatively far better compared to other Indian

states,

Kerala still ails in the health front. The Kerala has been identified as the state with

highest morbidity prevalence in India. Morbidity rate in Kerala is twice the All India

average with urban Kerala records the highest male morbidity prevalence rate. Thus the

paradox is that on the one side, Kerala stands as the state with all the indicators of

better health care development in terms of infant mortality rate, perinatal mortality rate,

neonatal mortality rate, birth rate, death rate etc. On the other it outstrips all other states

in India in terms of morbidity, since high morbidity prevalence is the basic issue of the

Kerala’s health sector, greater attention is needed to reduce the intensity of morbidity

prevalence. This hike in morbidity is mainly due to emergence of communicable and

non communicable diseases. Emerging diseases like Chikungunya have taken on

epidemic proportions; dengue is spreading; traffic accidents are increasing; and

generally lifestyle diseases have begun to take a heavier toll. Thus the increasing

incidence of non communicable and life style diseases and disease caused by lack of

awareness are some of the most serious disturbing trends that the State is now facing.

Major social determinants of health care in Kerala are the following

Water supply and sanitation;

Even though Kerala gets over 3000 cm of rain in a year poor management

reduces the state of near drought conditions in the period between January and May.

The failure to provide safe drinking water in hilly regions, coastal and water logged

areas results in outbreaks of water borne diseases such as Cholera and Hepatitis A.The

availability of sanitary toilets has improved in most parts of the state except backward

regions like coastal areas, hilly, tribal areas and urban slums. Problems of toilet

construction in water logged areas and areas below sea level in Alappuzha district

(Kuttanad areas) and the absence of appropriate models for areas with water scarcity

are unresolved technological issues of this field. First generation sanitary toilets were

without septic tanks (with ordinary pit)) contaminating the nearby drinking water


70

sources including the wells. The increasing population density and the migrant situation

further complicate this issue.

Solid and liquid waste management system:

For last few years this is the most burning issue with administrative, ecological

and public health dimensions. It is a major problem in Municipal corporations of

Trivandrum, Ernakulam, Kozhikode and Thrissur. This is becoming a major threat to

public health in urban areas and urban townships of the rural areas also. Accumulation

of the plastic waste and the issue of thin plastic carry bags which is still being used

even after repeated legal measures further complicate the scenario. Ecological

degradation and the contamination of the water bodies and ecosystem in general due to

the unscientific use / misuse of pesticides pose a serious health hazard. Health problems

due to occupational pollutants, asthma, allergy, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases

especially in the context of raising urbanization and increase in the automobile use are

other related issues to be addressed.

Climate change and public health.

The changing climate will inevitably affect the basic requirements for

maintaining health, clean air and water, sufficient food and adequate shelter. Climate

change also brings new challenges to the control of infectious diseases and public

health. Many of the major killers are highly climate sensitive as regards to temperature

and rainfall, including cholera and the diarrheal diseases, as well as diseases including

malaria, dengue and other infections carried by vectors. Also the issues of seasonal

changes in the availability of fresh water, regional drops in food production, and rising

sea levels etc has the potential to force population displacement with negative health

impacts.It leads to change in pattern of infection, emergence /resurgence /of diseases

like H1N1, Malaria, Dengue, Chikungunia. Kerala with a long coastal line and parts of

Western Ghats covering almost all districts except Alappuzha is very much disaster

prone

Emerging /re-emerging communicable diseases;

Waterborne diseases like diarrhea diseases, Hepatitis, Typhoid fever and vector

bone diseases like Dengue fever, Malaria remain a major problem in

Kerala.Leptospirosis which was a problem for few southern districts in the last decade

has become a major communicable disease in the whole state and causing much

morbidity and mortality throughout the year. These diseases follow a seasonal pattern.

Outbreaks of waterborne diseases like diarrhoea cholera are always more in the


71

monsoon season extending from May to August. Higher incidence of acute viral fevers

along with diseases like Dengue, Chikungunia, leptospirosis etc makes this as the

“season of epidemics”.

Non communicable diseases:

In Kerala NCDs account for more than 50% of total deaths occurring in the age

group between 30 and 60. With 27% of adult males and 19 % of adult females being

diabetic, Kerala is considered to be the diabetic capital of India. Recent survey

estimated that there are about 1.5 million diabetic patients and 35000 new cases of

cancer every year, nearly one lakh people are under treatment every year. The

percentage of Hypertension, Cardiovascular diseases and Cancer is also very high in

the community across all sections of the society It is estimated that one out of three

adults are hypertensive. Cancer and cardio vascular diseases forms 44% and 53% of all

deaths and disability(economic survey).According to WHO there are about two billion

people who consume alcohol and 76.3 million people in the State have some form of

alcoholic disorders.

Women’s health:

In Kerala atrocities against women, domestic violence, and other related issues

are comparable to the national level. Rising trends of under nutrition, anaemia, obesity,

infertility etc. among women also need to be addressed. The declining child sex ratio

reported in the 2011 census of India points to the possible existence of child sex

selection and foeticide in some parts of the state. Suicide rate of women in Kerala is 31

per lakh highest anywhere in the world .Though the maternal mortality rate of Kerala is

better than the all India average it is unacceptably high compared to the international

standards and has been relatively stagnant for the past few years. Government intends

to reduce the MMR by 50% of the current rate by the end of the 12thFive year plan.

Since most of the deliveries in Kerala take place in institutions the quality of obstetric

care has to be improved. For the last one decade both government and private sector

hospitals are reporting a rising trend of caesarean section touching 40%. Though some

administrative and technical measures have been taken up at the state level, so far it has

not made any major impact. Other issues like maternal anaemia, early marriage, and

teenage pregnancy in some of the districts and tribal areas also remain intractable.

There is an urgent need for addressing the issue of social determinants of health in a

comprehensive and time bound manner. Factors like food and nutrition, regular


72

employment housing, women empowerment etc are very significant in achieving better

health.

Health care financing

Even before independence the expenditure for health by the Maharajas of

Travancore was significant. As early as in the 1860s the government of Travancore

allotted a little over 1% of its total expenditure to health sector and the proportion

increased to 2% by the close of the century. The governmental support for the welfare

sectors till the mid 1980s served as a catalyst for the development of health services in

Kerala. This was also reflected in the expansion of health infrastructure. During the

periods between 1960s to mid 1980s the number of beds in public sector institutions

increased from 13000 in 1960-61 to 36000 in 1986.Health sector investments continued

till the mid 1980s but thereafter the pace of growth of public health care system slowed.

The shortage was made good by the private sector., Public health spending as a

percentage of GDP in 1990 is 1.3%,in 1999 it is 0.9% and in 2009 it is 1.1%. The

decline in public sector spending for health resulted in an overwhelming expansion of

the private sector. According to National Health Accounts (2009) only 20% of health

expenditure was financed by Government (centre 7%, State 12%, local 1%).Remaining

71% of health financing was done by private individuals,7% by private firms and 2%

by external aid. This shows that large portion of health expenditure was financed

through out of pocket (OOP) of the individuals.

Desirable limit of out of pocket expenditure as a part total of health spending

according to Global standard is-less than 15% in India it is 71 %.India`s Per capita

public spending is low and among the 5th lowest in the world About 72%of Indians

spend entire income on healthcare and purchasing drugs. This is only 30-40% in other

Asian countries like Sri Lanka.(WHO) Planning Commission estimated that around 39

million Indians are pushed below poverty because of ill health every year.30% in

rural&20% in urban go untreated due to financial constraints 47% of rural population

and 31% of urban population finance their treatment through loans and sale of assets.

Kerala one of the states with the highest reductions in public sector

contributions and the highest increase in private funding for health care. Among all

other States in India Kerala has the highest percentage of OOP expenditure. Kerala

OOP spending as a percentage of total expenditure is 7.5%.It is high in rural Kerala that

is 7.8% and 6.8% in urban Kerala. The high OOP spending often leads to Catastrophic

Health Expenditure(CHE) which is described as health spending which exceeds forty


73

percent of households annual non food expenditure. High OOP & CHE are critical in

leading the household to poverty and debt trap. The process has been explained in the

figure below.

Figure. 1 Catastrophic Health Expenditure and Poverty Trap

This figure describes the primary and secondary pathways by which low-, middle-, and

high-income households experience Catastrophic Health Expenditure (CHE) and get

trapped in a vicious cycle of illness, debt and poverty. Households enter this cycle

through their first acute coronary syndrome (ACS) event. The cycle is divided into four

segments: 1) illness - treatment: factors that prevent households from receiving

adequate treatment; 2) treatment - distress financing: aspects related to treatment

financing particularly with respect to hospitalization and interventions as well as the

adverse effect of the illness on employment, all of which tend to increase non-

compliance and lead to repeat acute events; 3) distress financing - consequences: means

of distress financing that increase the intensity and duration of CHE; 4)consequences –

illness: short- and long-term consequences of CHE experienced by households in their

journey through the cycle. The events grouped together in this segment aggravate CHE


74

as the cycle repeats itself, at the same time, households experiencing CHE are at higher

risk of undergoing these consequences leading to prolonged indebtedness and (or)

impoverishment.

Poverty and health care

The relationship between poverty and health has held the attention of public

health researchers and activists throughout history (Rosen, 1993; Waitzkin, 1981).

Poverty continues to be of primordial importance, particularly in the developing world

(Wagstaff,2001). This powerful linkage between poverty and health has been

characterized as bi4 directional and synergistic (Das Gupta & Chen, 1996; Leon, et al.,

2001; Wagstaff,2002). First, poverty exacerbates ill-health. The poor have limited

access to health inputs (e.g. nutritious foods, health services, non-toxic environment),

and little capacity to convert (e.g. through education) the inputs they do have into

health. Therefore, the poor have lower health productivity than non-poor, and

consequently limited outputs. This is supported by global studies, which have shown

that the poor suffer more from ill health (Gwatkins et al., 2000). Second, poor health

may lead to impoverishment and downward mobility. Poor health restricts economic

growth by reducing the availability of labour, limiting the productivity of workers,

creating dependency on others, and wasting resources (Abel-Smith, 1990).A household

member who falls ill reduces their capacity to earn income, or perform necessary

household tasks, thereby increasing economic vulnerability of the household (Wagstaff,

2001). Moreover, the burden of medical costs is higher for the poor, and in extreme

cases, may push families who are just above the poverty line, into destitution

(Krishnan, 1999). Thus the concept of medical poverty trap came into existence. This

concept was developed by researchers considering the studies in different countries.

This phenomenon arises when high treatment cost goes together with loss of earning

power. Approximately there are about 3.7% Indians who are at the risk of falling in this

medical poverty trap. As per the official figures 12.72 % of the population of Kerala is

below poverty line. But studies have shown that relative poverty, more than absolute

poverty, leads to poor health outcomes. In Kerala according to WHO study 16% of

families are at risk of falling below poverty line due to high medical expenses. In this

context an effective tool to finance healthcare is health insurance .It Provides financial

risk protection and reduces financial barriers of quality healthcare. Different forms of

Health insurance schemes are available in India. Health insurance coverage at the All

India level is only 25% of total population. In Kerala only 7% of population is covered


75

under any form of health insurance schemes. So a purposive action is urgently required

for the provision and regulation health insurance mechanism so that quality health care

is affordable to all.

Conclusion

Thus the state of Kerala for more than a decade now, has received attention

from world over for its remarkable achievements in human development. The human

development and the social indicators have placed Kerala not only among the top

performers within the country but the indicators are also comparable to those of the

developed countries. But the State is also experiencing setback in terms of higher rates

of morbidity, increasing incidence of life style, communicable and non communicable

diseases etc. Mushrooming of private health care institutions and ever increasing health

care cost had pushed a section of population under poverty trap. In such a situation

government and private sector should join together to provide better and quality health

care which is accessible to all. Government should also evolve a policy to regulate the

private sector health cost and introduce new reforms in the insurance market so that

health care should be affordable to everyone.

References

Government of kerala, Health and family welfare department, Draft health policy-

Kerala (2013)

Government of Kerala. Economic Review Thiruvananthapuram, State Planning

Board(2003)

Govinda R M and Mitachoudhary. Health care financining reforms in India. working

paper no-100(2012)

Hema R and Muraleedharan U.R. Health and Human Resources Development,

Economic and Political Weekly, Vol28: 2328-30 PP (1993)

Krishna, Anirduh. Pathways Out of and Into Poverty in 36 Villages of Andhra Pradesh,

India. World Development Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 271–288, (2006)

Ramankutty V. Historical analysis of the development of healthcare facilitie in Kerala

state,India. Health policy and planning, Oxford University (2000)

State Planning Board ,Planning Commission Report,Kerala (2012)

Udaya Shankar, Vijaya K K, Ramankutty V, Social determinants of health in Kerala

State, Health sciences (2012).


76

Kerala Model of Development: A Critique: Issues of Attapady Tribal Village in Palakkad and Aralam Village in Kannur District.

Namitha K.Bhat

Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, S.N. College, Sivagiri, Varkala


Abstract

Serious discussions and debates are going on about whether Kerala Model of

Development is really sustaining. Politicians, Economists and Social Scientists are

arguing about this topic since decades. Earlier it was concluded that Kerala stands

first in every health aspects compared to that of every states in India. Figures also say

so. But some regions of the State are excluded from this data. Public Accounts

Committee in Palakkad District in Kerala, this Year had one meeting and data was

published regarding the birth and death rates of the Attapady Region. Around 600

births were reported last year. But there was nearly 1000 deaths in the region last year.

This itself means Birth Rates among tribals is less than their death rates. Moreover

nearly 54 infants died this year itself due to malnutrition and lack of medical facilities

in the area. The same situation is been seen in the area of Aralam also. In the wake of

this a study is been conducted to analyse the situation in Attapady and Aralam areas.

Key words: Kerala Model of Development; Health indicators; Infant Mortality Rates;

Medical and health care facilities.

Introduction

The Kerala model of development has attracted both national and international

attention. Unlike the other states of India, Kerala has followed a path of development

different from rest. Kerala followed the policy of promoting welfare of the people by

giving high priority to social services. In short from “welfare to growth policy”. Kerala

has made remarkable achievements in the fields of education and health. Among all the

states of India, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%). The infant mortality rate is

17and the life expectancy for men is 69 and 71 years for women. It is by taking these

three factors Human development Index is calculated of a country. Kerala has a high

HDI when compared to other states. Even Kerala’s HDI is much more than that of

India’s. This high HDI of Kerala is a matter of great interest to social scientist as this

has been attained with a low per capita income. But it is been criticized for its health


77

conditions over past few years. Many social activists and economists of the State are

continuously highlighting the issues related to increasing death rates among infants and

mothers of very young age.

Scope of the study

The world development report had recommended the Kerala model of

development as a working model adaptable for the poor income countries to raise their

standard of living.. Kerala has a high HDI when compared to other states. Unlike the

other states of India, Kerala has followed a path of development which is quite

different. Kerala ranks first in terms of education and health indicators. But it is to be

noted that the per capita income of the State is very low. But the dilemma is that the

infant deaths in different districts of the State are on the rise and the weight of a tribal

child at birth is less than 2 kg as against the required 3 kg. Even the studies of different

social activists shows that there was a total failure of welfare schemes at different tribal

colonies, and if preventive measures were not taken, this would result in genocide and

eventual extinction of tribal. It is in this context that the study is conducted to analyse

the facts and figures of living conditions of tribal in Attapadi and Aralam areas of

Kerala.

Objectives of the study

1. To analyse the Kerala Model with development of India over different years.

2. To study the problems and issues related to health and other human

development indicators of Attapady in Palakkad and Aralam in Kannur Districts

of Kerala.

Methodology of the study

Only secondary data has been used for the study. Information from different

journals, articles, books etc. has been used to conduct the study.

Limitations of the study

1. Time constraint is an important limitation of the study.

2. The study is strictly based on Secondary data, so information may vary.

3. Budget constraint is also another limitation of the study.

Kerala model of development: A brief review

The Kerala model of development, based on the development experience of the

State of Kerala, refers to the state's achievement of significant improvements in

material conditions of living, reflected in the indicators of social development that are


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comparable to that of many developed countries, even though the state's per capita

income is low in comparison to them. Achievements such as low levels of infant

mortality and population growth, and high levels of literacy and life expectancy, along

with the factors responsible for such achievements have been considered the

constituting elements of the Kerala model.

Table 1 Health Development indicators-Kerala & India Indicators 2011 2009 2001 1990

India Kerala India Kerala India Kerala India Kerala

Birth rate (Per 1000 population)

22.5 14.7 22.80 14.60 25.4 17.1 29.5 19.6

Death rate (Per 1000 population)

7.3 6.8 7.40 6.60 8.4 7.0 9.8 6.0

Infant mortality rate(Per 1000 population)

50 12 44.00 6.70 66 15 80 16

Maternal mortality rate (Per lakh live births)

212 81 301 40 310 48 398 38

Life at birth (Male)

62.60 71.40 62.60 71.40 61.8 71.2 60.6 70.2

Life at birth (Female)

64.20 76.30 64.20 76.30 63.5 74.5 61.7 73.5

Life at birth (average)

63.50 74.00 63.50 74.00 62.65 72.85 61.15 71.85

Literacy rate (%)

74.04 93.9 65.38 90.92 65.38 90.92 43.57 78.85

Source: Directorate of Health Services, Kerala, Sample Registration System, Office of

the Registrar General of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kerala and India.

More precisely, the Kerala model has been defined as:

• A set of high material quality-of-life indicators coinciding with low per-capita

incomes, both distributed across nearly the entire population of Kerala.

• A set of wealth and resource redistribution programs that have largely brought

about the high material quality-of-life indicators.

• High levels of political participation and activism among ordinary people along

with substantial numbers of dedicated leaders at all levels. Kerala's mass


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activism and committed cadre were able to function within a largely democratic

structure, which their activism has served to reinforce.

Table 1 shows that Kerala is far ahead of India in terms of Human Development

indicators. Economists all over the world are also very keen to study the development

process of the State. But a few insights to certain areas of the State show us a different

figure. Tribal areas like Attapady and Aralam are the best examples where human

indicators are very low.

Attapady and Aralam tribal villages: An overview

Situated on the north-eastern side of the district and spread over an area of 745

sq km. Attappady is one of the largest tribal settlements in the State. There are 171

hamlets in Attapadi. The population of the valley includes mostly tribal like Muduga,

Irula and Kurumba tribal people with a small section of settlers from Tamilnadu and

Other Districts of Kerala though the density of their population is very low. As far as

heath care facilities in the area is concerned there are three government primary health

centres (PHC), one community health centre (CHC) and 27 subcentres in this 745-km²

block. All hamlets are serviced by an effective government health extension program

using trained tribal health volunteers. The tribal women of 80 Attapadi hamlets are

conducting a vocal campaign against liquor and ganja which has received public

support from the Governor. The Society of the Missionaries of St. Thomas operates the

St. Thomas Ashram in Nelippathy for providing services to the tribal people of

Attapadi including a 15-bed Hospital and health clinic with Lab, X-ray, Dental X-ray,

ECG, Pharmacy and ambulance. There is a Tribal Super Speciality Hospital in Agali

for the health care of the people with some operation theatres and facilities. The

Government of Kerala has taken many initiatives in order to improve the welfare of

adivasis. In 1970 the State Planning Board assessed Attappadi as the most backward

block in the state and the first Integrated Tribal Development Project in Kerala was

initiated there. Since then, the state government has implemented several special

development projects including the Attappadi Co-operative Farming Society, the

Western Ghats Development Programme, the Attappadi Valley Irrigation Programme

and the People's Planning Programme implemented in Attappadi in 1997–2002.

A monumental palace-like "Bharat Yatra Centre" at Agali was established in

1984 by the former Prime Minister, Sri.Chandra Shekhar, to provide employment

training in weaving, pottery, embroidery and food processing to the women of this rural

area. The property was occasionally occupied personally by Sri.Chandra Shekar but


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employment training never happened. The leaders of Girijan Sevak Samaj (GSS), the

major tribal body in Attappadi, stated that the center was built on original tribal lands

possessed illegally. In 2000 The Centre at Attappadi and its huge building were

deserted and unoccupied.

The fact is that many of these projects were not well adapted to traditional

adivasi culture and beliefs so about 80 per cent of the tribal population is still living in

abject poverty. Attappadi demonstrates how difficult it is for a modern government

development process to succeed in a traditional self-sustaining indigenous peoples

(adivasi) community. Tribal people are a majority of the Attappadi population but have

a high illiteracy rate of 49.5 per cent and a lack of political and administrative

awareness. The majority of project managers and new land owners are from other parts

of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and other states.

Aralam is situated in Kannur district with a beautiful geographical condition

and with an extremely pleasant weather. Aralam is considered to be Asia's largest

tribal-rehabilitation region and it has a wild life sanctuary to boast off. The sanctuary

area falls in Aralam, Kelakam and Kottiyoor revenue villages and is located in the

Northwest slopes of Western Ghats contiguous with the forests of Coorg (Kodagu)

district of Karnataka state.

There are several tribal colonies situated around the wildlife sanctuary. There

are more than 200 tribal houses situated in the North West and Southern part of the

sanctuary. The main tribal include Kurichiar and Paniyar. Even as crores of rupees had

been sanctioned for projects for improving tribal’s’ lives, their living conditions had not

improved a bit, The tribal rehabilitation centre at Aralam Farm was devoid of basic

facilities such as clean toilets and proper houses. The houses built by the Nirmiti

Kendra and private contractors had leaky roofs and every announcement of emergency

aid and packages for the tribals had remained on paper. The tribal population had to

travel some distance to reach the nearest public distribution outlet and primary health

centre situated a few kilometer away at Keezhpalli. Raw rice was being distributed at

the outlets, that too in insufficient quantities. The housing facilities arranged at the 9th,

10th and 13th block of the farms were situated on hilly areas where crops could not be

cultivated. The areas were prone to attack by wild animals. The tribals were digging

small pools near their houses for drinking water during the monsoon. The family

members and the people working in the tribal community points out that the health


81

department often ignores them and that resulted in tragic incidents like infant deaths

and maternal deaths.

It is clear that all the promises of the Ministers had been unmet till date and it is

slowly changing into another Attappady. But several NGOs including Adivasi Samara

Sangham and Adivasi Vimochana Munnani are demanding the renovation of their

dilapidated houses; action against contractors who have not completed the construction

of their houses; toilet facilities for all houses; wells for drinking water; power supply;

hospitals and proper transportation facilities from the farm to outside.

The major issue of Attapady and Aralam: Increasing infant mortality rates.

Kerala is considered to be a very rich state as far as its health indicators are

considered. If we consider the State as a whole major developments have taken place in

the areas such as literacy rates, health status of the people etc. But several regions like

tribal colonies and the colonies where migrants have occupied is having major trouble

where they are not able to avail different Programs initiated by the Government. The

figures also are showing the same conditions. Even though the State is taking initiatives

to develop these areas, these people are not able to adapt the programs or are they

interested to follow the latest technologies. The best example for this is the study areas

itself, Attapady and Aralam tribal villages. More than 49 % of the tribal are illiterate

and this is the major factor which is dividing them from the rest of the World. The

living condition of the people is very worse and it can also be seen that the areas are

very unhygienic with least basic facilities. The educational facilities provided in the

area are also very poor compared to that of the rest of Kerala. The women are also not

literate and this causes in increase in the maternal mortality rates and infant mortality

rates in these areas. If these areas are studied, one would find that The Kerala Model of

Development stands still. And the question arises whether such a Model exist.

In 1951, the population in Attapady region was 11,300. Out of this 90.92% were

tribal. Because of the development of roads, the percentage of migrants’ increased. In

2001, the population in the region increased to 66,171. But in this, % of migrants was

very high. The percentage of tribal decreased to just 41%.In 1950s, Attapady region

had a forest coverage of 82%.But in 1970s this got reduced to 74%. But in 80s it was

drastically reduced to 20%.The habitat of tribals were continuously destroyed. The

ironical situation is that the land area possessed by the tribal was not even one-third of


82

the total. The tribal lost over 10,000 acres of farmland to settlers, for little money and

by 1996 the first series of malnutrition.

A serious Question is being asked by different politicians and bureaucrats

regarding why tribals are not ready to buy rice distributed through PDS. The reason

may be two- First being the tribals do not have enough money to buy rice, or the

second being tribals are fond of taking ragi and other grains as their main food and not

rice.

The rising Infant Mortality is the main concern of the area. Attapadi alone

witnessed 54 infant deaths due to malnutrition in the last one-and-a-half years. The

reason behind this according to the Government is the improper care for women and

that the increasing number of malnutrition deaths in Attapadi was because of the poor

eating habits of tribal. The weight of a tribal child at birth was less than 2kg as against

the required 3kg. It is also a fact that alcoholism is rampant among the tribal and this

also is considered as the reason for increasing the death rate in these areas. However,

the government has failed in checking illicit brewing of arrack and ganja cultivation in

Attapadi hills. A majority of the tribal families do not get adequate supply of ration, nor

do they have access to medical facilities, despite the state spending crores of rupees in

the name of welfare projects. Both the Centre and state had announced a slew of

packages in the last two months, but the fact remains that the number of infant deaths is

still on the rise. Several measures announced to upgrade the Kottathara tribal specialty

hospital on still on paper. The distribution of iron folic tablets to tribals has been

stopped for the past two years. Even after the reporting of increasing malnutrition

deaths, the government has not taken the issue seriously.

According to the tribal activists in Aralam area, proper medical facility is still

denied there and the plan to start a permanent public health centre and also a homeo

clinic is still caught in the red tapes. They also said the ration distribution is also not

proper in the area often leading to issues of malnutrition. The reality that almost all the

babies that were died on birth were underweight shows that the mothers were

malnourished.

Suggestions and recommendations

1. Rehabilitation of pregnant women and providing them with nutritious food and

adequate medical treatment in these areas should be the foremost consideration


83

of the State. Health workers point out that a mother care centre needs to be set

up urgently where anemic mothers and newborns can get proper nutrition.

2. Ragi being the main food of tribal, its even distribution of ragi should be met

with success.

3. Till two decades ago the tribals used to grow ragi, pulses and vegetables in their

farmlands, but with the alienation of tribal land they not only lost their farm-

lands but even their food security, and were forced to depend on the erratic and

corrupt PDS system. In order to solve this problem, the PDS should be made

very strong and effective in these areas.

4. There is a serious gap in the implementation of development projects in these

areas. The state should constitute a monitoring committee to audit these projects

on a regular basis. The proposals regarding the development projects can be

effectively implemented only if a monitoring committee oversees the disbursal

of funds.

5. The social activists pointed out that the families who lost children should be

financially compensated as their lives are in a disarray.

6. Multispecialty medical camps should be organized in the areas where such

tragic incidents are on a rise.

7. Tribal should be motivated to increase the cultivation of Ragi , vegetables and

other grains and they should be provided with latest agricultural techniques to

increase the productivity. Training facilities also should be provided for better

use of these techniques.

8. Government should take serious steps to stop the illicit brewing of arrack and

ganja cultivation in Attapadi hills.

References

Franke, Richard W.; Barbara H. Chasin. "Is the Kerala Model Sustainable? Lessons

from the Past, Prospects for the Future" In M.A. Oommen. Rethinking

Development: Kerala's Development Experience, Volume I. New Delhi:

Institute of Social Sciences (1999).

Mathrubhoomi Daily, dated 5th, 6th, 8th, and 21st August, (2013).

Parayil, Govindan. "Introduction: Is Kerala's Development Experience a Model?"

In Govindan Parayil. Kerala: The Development Experience: Reflections on

Sustainability and Replicability London: Zed Books (2000).


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Prakash B.A (ed) Kerala’s Economic Development:Performance and Problems in

the post-liberalisation period. Sage Publications, New Delhi (2004).


85

Social Media Marketing: A Paradigm Shift in Business S. V. Jubilie

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Commerce, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala


Abstract

This paper is produced to find the internet users preferences for social media marketing. For this purpose, an empirical study using questionnaire having three segments (attract, engage and retain) were adopted and made required changes according to find the customer’s response. The result shows that ‘branding’, ’promotions,’ advertising’ and ’adequate bandwidth’ are the best tools to attract customers. In engagement segment results interpretation, ‘lucky draws/contests’, ’informative and useful content’, ’transaction capabilities’, and’ creative programming’ are the preferred perceived tools by respondents. Retain segment analysis states that ‘security features’, ’dynamic content’, ’rapid information loading time’ and ’provide online order tracking’ in websites assist the business to retain their customers. Study revealed that businesses should invest more on online contents of websites, because fast pace living style enable customers to attach more to cyber world and they preferred to be the part of virtual globe.

Keywords: Social media marketing; Marketing; Internet user preferences.

Introduction

Signifying a new version of Worldwide Web after the dot-com bubble burst in

2001, Web 2.0 brought an unprecedented change in the online users’ behavior. Twenty

first century websites are collaborative, interactive, vibrant and dynamic, construct on

web 2.0, according the needs and demands of users. This customization called social

media in which as per user perspective compels companies globally to use the web

contents and sites as a new tool to communication. Without time and space barriers in

thevirtual world, social media can offer consumers instant and insightful content.

Businesses are increasingly using the internet for commercial activities. The

importance of social media as platforms of social interaction, communication and

marketing is growing. Social media marketing is now integrated to organizations’

marketing communications plans. Integrated marketing communications is a practice

organizations follow to connect with their target markets. According to Vargas

promotional elements like, advertising, personal selling, public relations, publicity,

direct marketing and sales promotion are parts of integrated marketing

communications.


86

Social media defined by Garnyte and Pérez as “the democratization of content and

the shift in the role people play in the process of reading and disseminating information

and thus creating and sharing content”. Gunelius defined social media marketing as

anyform of direct or indirect marketing that is used to build awareness, recognition,

recall, and action for a brand, business, product, person, or other entity and is carried

out using the tools of the social Web, such as blogging, micro-blogging, social

networking, social bookmarking, and content sharing. Social networking and social

media specifically, have been painted as the new marketing landscape for businesses to

engage with their communities of customers wherever they congregate. The evolution

of social networks allows for personalized interactions between advertisers and

consumers. By using social media as a marketing tool business can integrate

community marketing and learning from online user behaviors to engage, share and

drive conversations with customers and partners online. Social media is a

complementary extension of all marketing efforts. Social media is more of a mindset

than a true channel. Social networks and social media are permitting society more and

more every day. In fact, recent research has revealed that the scope of social networks

spans much of the globe and is comprised of more than just Facebook, Twitter, blogs,

YouTube and Flickr.

Literature Review

In between 2007 and 2009, social networking marketing spending increased

165.8 % from $884 million to $ 2.34 billion (Burson-Marsteller, 2010) which shows

that how companies relies on social media marketing. Leena (2010) have studied

important aspects of marketing through social media. Leena (2010) conducted

empirical study on a targeted market and suggests realistic conclusions to increase the

competitive advantage of and provide a concrete strategic viewpoint to reach target

customers through social media. Mabry (2010) study results provided background on

social media usage in advertising and valuable insight for current practitioners and help

to reduce academician -practitioner gap and author posited that that advertiser’s use

social media differently than they do traditional forms of advertising media. Solis and

Breakenridge (2009) postulated about the social media that social media as opposed to

traditional media, social media involves a shift in the way people discover, read, and

share news: from broadcasting to a many-to-many communication model.

Khan (2010) concluded that the social networking websites are still one of the

inventions of the modern era because they connect so many people, furthermore Khan


87

Social media

Social networks

Blogs

Wikis

Media sharing

Social bookmarking

(2010) assumed that through social networking sites companies can use social networks

and blogs to communication their offerings to potential employees, market new

products and get feedback on their current products as well as new ideas for future

products. Frey and Rudloff (2010) stated that basically companies approve social media

as an effective tool to exceed and support marketing communication. Social media still

has huge growth potentials regarding the differentiation and specification of different

platforms. Alex Garcia CCO and founder of social media agency, ran successful

campaign of social media marketing for a popular beauty and barbershop ‘Emerson

Salon’ in Seattle said "Social media has allowed us to really reach into our local

community, build relationships and drive traffic into the salon" (Pullen,2011)

Key social media categories The key social media categories are defined below:

Blogs

Blog is a website that contains an online personal journal with reflections,

comments and often hyperlinks provided by the writer. Blogs provide a variety of

social features, including comments, blog rolls, trackbacks and subscriptions that

make it perfect for marketing purposes. They are online journals that can be personal

or corporate, where people can post ideas, images and links to other websites.


88

Social networks

A social network is a website where people connect with friends, both those

they know offline and those who are online-only buddies. Web based services that

allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semipublic profile within a bounded

system (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection and (3)

view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the

system. Some famous social networks are:

My space- One of the first widely accepted social networks, MySpace brands itself as

“A Place for Friends” Users create personalized profiles with pictures, interests, and

favourite songs, and invite others to join their personal network. MySpace users

access the site to search for music, old classmates, or new friends, creating a personal

online community. MySpace has more than 100 million users worldwide. MySpace is

localized in30 countries and translated into 16 languages.

Facebook- Facebook is one of the most popular social networks. Facebook currently

reaches over 500 million active users. About 50% of the active users log on to

Facebook in any given day and spend over 700 billion minutes per month on

Facebook. Entrepreneurs and developers from more than 190 countries have built

their business Platform with Facebook. Operating with a similar structure as

MySpace, Facebook users create a personalized profile with pictures. Facebook also

created numerous applications that users can add to their profile.

Twitter- Twitter is a real-time information network that connects you to the latest

information about what you find interesting. Simply find the public streams you find

most compelling and follow the conversations. Acting as a live news feed, Twitter

allows users to continuously update their profile with a new line of text. Twitter is a

real time short-messaging system. Twitter connects businesses to customers in real-

time. Businesses use Twitter to quickly share information with people interested in

their products and services, gather real-time market intelligence and feedback, and

build relationships with customers, partners and influential people. From brand lift, to

CRM, to direct sales, Twitter offers businesses a chance to reach an engaged

audience.

Linked In- LinkedIn operates the world’s largest professional network on the Internet

with more than 100 million members in over 200 countries and territories. More than

one million companies have LinkedIn Company Pages. This network allows you to

connect with colleagues, clients, and potential employers to accomplish professional


89

goals. Users create a public profile, can send and receive professional

recommendations, and join groups with those of similar interests.

Flickr- This online photo management program allows users to store and share

content while also organizing mass amounts of photos and videos. Flickr users can

upload, edit, organize, and share photos. Through the creation of a profile, users can

keep in touch with family and friends through their digital photos. In addition, many

use this service as a web-hosting database for pictures for their website or personal

blog.

Social bookmarking

Social bookmarking is the practice of saving bookmarks to a public website

and taggingthem with keywords. Bookmarking, on the other hand, is the practice of

saving address of a web site you wish to visit in the future on your computer.

Media sharing

Media-sharing sites such as YouTube allow users to create and upload

multimedia content. Media-sharing sites have become extremely popular as users and

marketers can create videos with very little expertise and upload them to YouTube or

other video-sharing sites to reach millions of users. Even though these sites include

social features for members, most of the users of media-sharing sites are not members

but are viewing the content. On social photo and video sharing platforms users can

upload their own videos and photos and share them with other users. Everyone or

only a selected audience can see these videos/photos.

Youtube founded in February 2005, YouTube allows billions of people to discover,

watch and share originally-created videos. YouTube provides a forum for people to

connect, inform, and inspire others across the globe and acts as a distribution platform

for original content creators and advertisers large and small. More than 13 million

hours of video uploaded and 35 hours of video are uploaded every minute. YouTube

is localized in 25 countries across 43 languages.

Wikis Wikis are websites, which provide a database or a public document, where

people can add or change content found on the website. Wikipedia the online

encyclopedia, which is probably the best known wiki, provides users with definitions

and explanations in a wide variety of languages on almost every topic. Each user can

share new information on the wiki or change already existing content on the page.


90

Objectives of the study Major objectives of the study include;

• To identify the various sources of social media marketing.

• To identify the factors which attract customers towards social media

marketing.

• To evaluate the factors which prompts customers to visit the site

frequently.

• To examine the choices of the customers which keep hold them to

associate with firm’s website.

Research methodology

Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. Secondary data for the

study were collected from the marketing books, journals and magazines. Primary data

for the study were collected by using a structured interview schedule. To find the

preferences of internet users in social media marketing perspective, a questionnaire

consist of three segments (attract, engage and retain) were adopted and made required

changes according to customer’s perspective. The target audience was internet users

and data was collected from the different outlets of internet providers’. The

questionnaire can fill by customers on franchise outlet, if customers face some

difficulties to fill out the questionnaire, the representative perform duties to ask

questions and note the response. For the purpose of analyzing data statistical

techniques such as percentages were employed.

Data interpretation and results

Attract variables for customers

Table 1 shows the customers’ preferences of the marketing variables on the

website of the companies. This also explains the perception of the customers

regarding marketing tools on the website. The most preferred tool according to

internet user is ‘mnemonic branding’ in which company’s name use in the URL of

company official website. This easy accessing tool help user to find the company’s

website just insert name in address bar of the browser. The second most accepted tool

to attract customers is ‘promotion’ activities, such as, onfirm website or other

different website. Publicizing the firm on different web channels enforced the

internetuser to visit the particular website. The third most favorite tool is ‘piggyback


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advertising’, people influence by the firm’s URL address visibility on different stuff.

‘Adequate bandwidth’, ‘listing in search engines’, ‘banner ads’ and ‘affiliate program’

are the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh preferred tool by respondents.

Table 1 Attract variables for customers

Variables No. of customers Percentage

Mnemonic branding 35 35

Promotions 20 20

Piggyback advertising 15 15

Adequate bandwidth 10 10

Listening in search engines 7 7

Banner ads 7 7

Affiliate programmes 6 6

Total 100 100

Engage variables for customers

Table 2 demonstrates that ‘lucky draws/contests’ is the most important factor

which attract customer to test their lucks or skills. It encourages the audience to try

time after time and get possible reward. Second most influence factor on engagement

of customer is ‘informative and useful content’ on the website. As new generation

want to up to date on new development in technology and entertainment, and mature

people take interest in current affairs. ‘Transaction capabilities’ is the third choice of

respondents. This allows customers to purchase the product/service instantly or paid

their liabilities/bills/payments and book their preferred product or service. The forth

selection by respondents are ‘creative programming’ in websites. Unique features and

options facilitates the attract customers, which enable them to enjoy the website

experience inner way. ‘Multilingual website’, ‘create forums/discussion groups’,

‘virtual communities’ and ‘unique content’ are the fifth, sixth, seventh and eight

chosen tools by customers. Results proved that internet users like to have the forums/

discussion groups on firms’ website which can give them to share their experiences or

express their views. Limitation of marketing budget could be the other reason to

formulate more investment pool for engage contents like ‘multilingual website’,

‘create forums/discussion groups’, ‘virtual communities’ and ‘unique content’.


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Table 2 Engage variables for customers


Lucky draws/Contests 25 25

Informative and useful content 23 23

Transaction capabilities 12 12

Creative programming 10 10

Multilingual website 9 9

Forums/Discussion groups 8 8

Virtual communities 8 8

Unique content 5 5

Total 100 100

Retain variables for customers

Table 3 exemplifies the choices of the respondents which keep hold them to

associate with firms’ website. The first choice is ‘security features’ which shows that

customers preferred the Maslow’s theory’s second need. Dynamic content, ‘rapid

information loading time’ and ‘provide online order tracking’ are the second, third

and fourth choice by targeted respondents. Respondents like to experience new

contents in website, and firms should keep their website alive for their demanding

customers. Third and fourth selection of customers argue about the fast pace life of a

human, that customer required latest information in fast and swift way, and they like

to follow their order status about product or service on firms’ website. Hyperlinks to

related sites’, ‘loyalty programs’, ‘privacy statements’, ‘create switching costs via

communities’ and ‘interactive functions’ are the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth choice

respectively. Apart from ‘security features’ and ‘provide online order tracking’, all

other choices show the momentous differences between perceived effectiveness and

usage of the retain contents. The first reason could be technical recourse lacking to

upgrade the website, second reason could be the additional cost which associates with

these features as like loyalty programs required and third may be lacking or cost of

new contents which can be add time to time in website.


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Table 3 Retain variables for customers


Security features 23 23

Dynamic content 18 18

Rapid information loading time 16 16

Provide online order tracking 14 14

Hyper links to related sites 8 8

Loyalty programmes 7 7

Privacy statements 6 6

Craeate swicthing costs via communities

5 5

Interactive functions 3 3

Total 100 100

Conclusions

This study concludes that social media marketing is vital in twenty first

century and how websites can generate more revenue; attracts more customers and

escalate retention rate by engaging their customers to theirwebsites. Results show that

customers perceive that ‘mnemonic branding’ (having website URL as firm’s name)

are the best tool to attract customers. Customers feel that ‘promotion’ activities can

pull customers, ‘adequate bandwidth’ and ‘piggyback advertising’ of website are also

the effective tools to attract customers. The other findings show that ‘lucky draws/

contests’ enable user to visit website and test their luck/ skillswhich ultimately engage

them to website. The other perceived engage tool for particular firm are ‘informative

and useful contents’ of website, ’creative programming’ which make website

interesting and unique and‘transaction capabilities’ which allows customers to give

orders or buy/ book product or services perceived important by customers to get

engage to particular business website. The results about the retention strategy tools for

customers suggested that ‘security feature’ is the main preference of customers. This

enables them to visit website more confidently and enter their personalin formation

and preferences freely. ‘Dynamic contents’ allows customer to sense better, and they

required latest information in lesser time regarding the product or service. Online


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tracking system to get update aboutproduct and service order is the other tool which

customers want to see on website.

References As’ad, I., and Ahmad, F. An Empirical Study of E-Commerce Implementation among

SME in Indonesia. International Journal of Independent Research Studies, 1

(2012) 13-22.

Boyd, D. M., and Ellison, N. B.. Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and

Scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13 (2007) 210-

230

Brown, E. Working the Crowd, Social Media for Business, British Informatics

Society Ltd, Swindon, United Kingdom (2010).

Chan, N. L., and Guillet, B. D. Investigation of Social Media Marketing: How Does

the Hotel Industryin Hong Kong Perform in Marketing on Social Media

Websites? Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 28 (2011) 345-368.

Chevalier, J. A., and Mayzlin, D. The Effect of Word of Mouth on Sales: Online Book

Reviews. Journal of Marketing Research, 43 (2006) 345-354.

Constantinidesa, E., and Stagnoa, M. C. Z. Potential of the Social Media as

Instruments of Higher Education Marketing: A Segmentation Study. Journal

of Marketing for Higher Education, 21 (2011) 7-24.

Evans, D.. Social Media Marketing- The Next Generation of Business Engagement.

Wiley publishing Inc. Indiana (2010).

Gunelius, S. 30 Minute Social Media Marketing. Mc Graw Hill Publication, New

York (2011).


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Environmental Impact on the Beach Tourism Industry in Kerala Parvathy Nand

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Commerce, S N College, Sivagiri, Varkala Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Environment and beach tourism are closely related. The quality of the

environment, both natural and secondary is essential for the growth and development

of beach tourism industry of the state Kerala. Its relationship with the tourist activities

are complex and these impacts are linked with the construction of infrastructural

facilities, tourism facilities like resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops etc. It is the

environmental quality of a place that will determine the success of the beach tourism

industry, since it is the principal attraction. It is therefore pertinent to study the

relevant factors and its features that arise on account of impact of environment to the

beach tourism industry. This paper analyses the impact of environment to the beach

tourism industry and suggested various measures to be taken in the beach tourism

industry so as to tackle the situation.

Keywords: Beach tourism; Medical tourism;

Environmental impact on the beach tourism industry in Kerala

The State Kerala (so called Kerala), located in South Western India was created

in 1956 on a linguistic basis (Malayalam) .It is increasingly rated as one of the must

visit destinations not only but the highly discerning foreign tourists but also by the

domestic tourists. Kerala is famous for different facets like Pilgrimage tourism,

Cultural tourism, Beach tourism, Backwater tourism, Heritage tourism, Responsible

tourism, Ecotourism, Medical tourism, Mountain tourism. Kerala named as the ‘Ten

paradises of the world’ and “50 places of lifetime” by the National Geographic Traveler

Magazine. Kerala is generally known as “God’s own Country”.

Among the service industries in Kerala, tourism occupies a predominant place.

The industry plays an important role in terms of generation of more employment

opportunities, earning foreign exchange, effective utilization of indigenous natural

resources etc. Above all, one of the important facets of Kerala tourism is Beach

tourism. Kerala beaches, most of the India’s finest beaches are in Kerala. Its entire 700


96

kilometer length coastline is lined with sandy beaches, rocky promontories and coconut

palms. Every year a large number of tourists, both domestic and foreign tourists visited

there in search of tranquil, palm fringed beaches and also for the various packages

linked with beach tourism like Ayurveda tourism or commonly called health tourism.

The various factor that stimulates a beach tourism sector include scenic splendor,

moderate climate, a friendly and peace loving people with high tolerance or cultural

diversity and the potential for creating unique tourism products like home stay

amenities, beach resorts, spas, ayurvedic centers, etc.

some of the popularly visited beaches in the state include Varkala beach, Kovalam

beach, Allapuzha beach, Cherai beach, Kappad beach, Muzhappilangad beach.

Environment and tourism are closely related especially beach tourism. It is the

foundation stone in which the entire superstructure of tourism is built. Not only natural

environment, some other factors were also present there to promote beach tourism. The

other factors include infrastructure, super structure, man – made, cultural, human,

economic, social and political environment. Beach tourism products are the

combination of different types of environments that a tourists experiences from each

destinations, providing different tourism products.

The present study focuses to understand the environmental impact on the beach

tourism industry of Kerala implies the influence level of environment on the

development and growth of beach tourism industry and to evaluate the satisfaction level

of tourists visiting Kerala on various tourism products of the state and based on their

opinion which influences beach tourism development of the state.

Statement of the problem

Beach tourism industry in Kerala is growing at faster rate. Almost all tourism

products available in this world are also available in this small state Kerala. For

sustainable growth and development of beach tourism in the state, tourism visiting

Kerala are to be satisfied with the tourism products, amenities and services of the state.

Therefore a study on how far the different environmental factors, both primary and

secondary products and its features, framing different beach tourism products, affect

the development of beach tourism industry of the state is imperative.

Objectives

• To evaluate the relationship between environment and beach tourism in

developing tourism industry of the state.


97

• To ascertain the environmental factors that directly contributed to the

development of the beach tourism industry of the state.

• To identify the most attractive primary tourism products of the state that

promotes tourism development of the state.

• Evaluate the positive and negative impact of environment in developing

the beach tourism industry of Kerala.

Environmental problems

The various environmental problems or impact in beach tourism can be problem

of salinity, water pollution from various sources, air pollution, and pollution due to

solid wastes, thermal pollution, and soil pollution.

Database and Methodology

Data for the study consists of both primary and secondary data were the primary

data was collected by multi stage deliberate sampling method. Hundred samples were

collected from both domestic and foreign tourists who visited the state of Kerala in

various beach destinations particularly Kovalam, beach, Varkala beach, and Allapuzha

beach on a questionnaire basis. Secondary data were collected from the published

records of the government, periodicals, journals, thesis and unpublished sources. For

the analysis of the study, tourist’s products are mainly divided into two categories as

primary and secondary. The primary tourism products of beach destinations are further

divided as natural, symbiotic, manmade and cultural environment products. The

secondary beach tourism products are classified as built environment products

consisting of superstructure and infrastructure environment products, human,

economic, social and political environment products


Many tourists were reluctant to spare time to give relevant information because

of their busy schedule. Number of tourist arrivals in Kerala estimated by the department

of tourism is found to be incorrect as tourists using accommodation at different places

are counted in more than one time.

Results and discussions

1. A significant relationship exists between environment and tourism in

developing beach tourism industry of the state.


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2. Geographical diversity and natural scenic beauty are the main factors that

attracted the tourist to visit different beach destinations of Kerala from all over

the world.

3. The most attracted primary tourism product of the state is beach tourism.

4. All the primary products such as natural, symbiotic, manmade and cultural

environment products have a positive impact on the beach tourism development

of the state.

5. The major problems or challenges of faced by the tourists on primary product of

the beach destinations of the state is the problem of improper waste

management system, waste accumulation, bio non- degradable waste like

plastic carry bags and bottles.

6. Almost all tourists are also satisfied with the availability of secondary products

stating it as one of the major phenomenon in developing the beach tourism

industry of the state.

7. Among secondary products ,the tourists are not satisfied with the availability of

the infrastructure environment products like locker facilities, waiting sheds,

parlors, parking facilities, information centers, sigh board showing the major

attractions of the place, public comfort stations, sewage and drainage facilities,

street lights drinking water facilities. Therefore, infrastructure environment

products have negative impact on the beach tourism development of the state.

8. Tourists are comfortable with the majority of the human environment products.

Even though, the total tourists both domestic as well as foreign were dissatisfied

with the hygienic and cleanliness of people regarding the hospitality of the

services provided from various hotels, motels and restaurants.

9. Tourists are satisfied with social and political environment products but they are

indifferent to the issue like Harthal, strikes etc.

10. The tourists are satisfied with primary and secondary products but the major

challenge faced by means of environment aspect towards beach tourism

industry is infrastructure environment products. Hence, environment of Kerala

beach destinations has positive impact on tourism development of the state.

Suggestions

1. Provide special attention and care to the tourists, both domestic and foreign

while they are visiting beaches by setting up of Information centers, Help me


99

desk, trained staff and guides, Medical care facilities in order to support the

tourists and tackle the issue and improves the beach tourism in Kerala.

2. New attractions, potentialities must be identified and properly designed to suit

the needs of the tourists with necessary amenities and facilities.

3. Maintain smooth law and order and proper enforcement ensuring the safety and

security of those using various beach destinations of Kerala.

4. Proper steps must be taken by the Government to overcome the inconvenience

faced by the tourists due to Harthal.

5. Special training should be given to employee working in hotels, motels and

restaurants to improve the quality of service. Moreover, cleanliness and hygiene

should be promoted among the host community particularly those who are

working in tourism relates services and industry.

6. The availability of affordable hotels, restaurants, spa centers to the foreign

tourists as well as domestic tourists is an inevitable one which makes beach

destinations a popular one. So in order to cope up the demand the Government

should take initiative so as to provide those facilities booth on peak season as

well as off seasons.

7. Proper system of waste management and barring of use of plastic are suggested.

A separate department for environmental studies, under the department of

tourism must be set up for studying the environmental problems related to

beach tourism of the state.

8. Geographical diversity and natural beauty of the various beach destinations of

the state must be kept as such because it is the main factor that initiated and

attracted the tourists to visit and most attracted primary tourism products based

on Nature. Hence much more interference on the Nature which will destroy the

natural beauty of the destinations shall be strictly restricted. Construction of big

building near the destination should be prohibited.

9. Promote quality services such as personal care facilities, transport facilities,

accommodation facilities to the tourists visiting different beach destinations.

10. Development of infrastructural facilities like locker facilities, drinking water

facilities, system of proper power supply, sign board showing important places

and spots, parking facilities, street lights, measures of safety and security to

tourists, road ways, and public sanitation is to be initiated. Therefore, it is


100

suggested that these facilities should be improved and to be provided at

standard.

11. It is very important to get the feedback from the tourists visiting different beach

destinations in order to know what the experiences that they got from the

destinations are. For that a mechanism should be developed, reported and

maintained about the feedback so as to improve the beach tourism in Kerala.

Conclusions

Beach Tourism in Kerala is growing at a faster rate than Indian and world

tourism. More than ninety five percent of the tourists visited Kerala stated that they will

visit again and advice their friends and relatives to visit the various beach destinations.

In the forth coming years, beach tourism will develop in an exorbitant stage which

makes Kerala an identifiable and attractive destination among the world. However

certain constraints like political instability, terrorism, inadequate infrastructure etc have

hampered the growth of beach tourism in Kerala as well as in India. As such

Government should take necessary initiatives and policies so as to tackle the situation

in order to boom the beach tourism industry of the state. Kerala is blessed with so many

potentials to a great extent and only way that we to promote beach tourism are to

protect, promote and preserve the beaches of Kerala so that Kerala, God’s Own

Country will be a place of beach tourism.

References

Anurag Fadia, International Trends in Nature Based Tourism, Cyber Tech

Publications, First Edition, New Delhi, (2009).

Jagmohan Dr, Eco Tourism Planning, Yojana, Ministry of Information and

Broadcasting, (2002).

Kumar . A, Tourism Management, Common Wealth Publishers, New Delhi, (1997).

Research and Development Division, SAJOSPS, Indian Tourism:Kerala Shows the

way, SAJOSPS, 7 (2006) 89-97.

Romila Chawla, Tourism Research Planning and Development, Sonali Publications,

New Delhi, (2003).

Singh, L.K., Ecology Environment and Tourism, Isha Publications, New Delhi, (2008).

Supra Mukhopadhyay, Tourism Economics, Ane Publications, Kolkata, New Delhi,

(2003).


101

FDI Opportunities in India for Infrastructure Development Simu Rajendran

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Commerce, S N College, Sivagiri,Varkala.


Abstract

The past three decades have witnessed enormous growth in global diversification by multinational firms. From 1980 to 2007, FDI inflows worldwide grew by about 14% in real terms while real GDP growth and exports increased annually only at 3.2% and 7.3% respectively. Significant chunks of these inflows have been into developing economies, especially the BRIC economies. Between 2000 and 2006, FDI inflows into the BRIC economies grew annually at 41.3% when compared to 24.1% in the US, which is the single biggest recipient of FDI, and 22.7% in the EU, which is the largest regional destination. As a result, the inward stock of FDI in the BRIC countries grew from 8% to 13% of the global stock of FDI. The strong population growth in India and its booming economy are generating enormous pressure to modernize and expand India’s infrastructure. The creation of world-class infrastructure will require large investments to address the country’s deficit in quality and quantity. The road sector in India will call for investments in the range of US$75-90 billion over the next five years and India’s construction sector is anticipated to grow at about 35 percent between the 2008–09 FY and the 2012–13 FY. The private sector is likely to contribute 44 percent of the country’s total projected spending of US$100 billion on roads and highways during the 12th Five-Year Plan period. The government provides various incentives for private and foreign sectors investment in the road sectors. With the Government 100% FDI in the road sector most foreign investors in road sectors have formed consortium with the Indian companies to participate in the development of road projects in the country. Some of the foreign investors that have entered into road and Highway construction are Isolux Corsan, Vinci, Lighteon of Australia and a few Russian, Chinese, Malaysian companies. This topic named “FDI Opportunities in India for Infrastructure Development” deals with different opportunities that government put forward for investing in infrastructure sectors in India. This paper includes introduction, its scope of study, methodology, analysis, findings and conclusions. The study is limited to Roads only in infrastructure sector. Keywords: Infrastructure; FDI; Public Private Partnership


102

Introduction

The basic physical system of a country’s or community’s population including

roads, utilities, water, sewage etc. These systems are considered essential for enabling

productivity in the economy. Developing infrastructure often requires large initial

investment, but the economies of scale tend to be significant. Infrastructure is generally

defined as the physical framework of facilities through which goods and services are

provided to the public. Its linkage to the economy is multiple and complex, because it

affects production and consumption directly, creates positive and negative spillover

effects and involves larger flows of expenditure. India’s economy is big and getting

bigger. PricewaterhouseCoopers estimates that India will become the world’s third

largest economy by 2050. Nearly all of the infrastructure sectors present excellent

opportunities, with roads and highways, ports and airports, railways and power

standing out as particular bright spots, with staggering sums of investment planned.

Public private partnerships (PPPs) are gaining in importance, and are benefiting from

government support – targeted PPP participation is US$150 billion.

Companies experience in structuring these types should be able to use their

expertise to good effect in the Indian market place.

The Indian economy is booming, with rates of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

growth exceeding 8% every year since 2003/04. This ongoing growth is due to rapidly

developing services and manufacturing sectors, increasing consumer demand (largely

driven by increased spending by India’s middleclass) and government commitments to

rejuvenate the agricultural sector and improve the economic conditions of India’s rural

population. Construction is the second largest economic activity in India after

agriculture, and has been growing rapidly. In the fiscal year ending March 2008,India’s

GDP grew by more than 9%. This robust rate of expansion was initially forecast to

continue in the 2008-2009fiscal year. In summer 2008, however, the combined impact

of slowing Indian consumption, a higher domestic cost of capital and reduced capital

access from international capital markets raised concerns by some analysts that the rate

of growth might be slowing.

In October 2008, India’s Prime Minister, Mr. Manmohan Singh, affirmed the

Government’s view that a rate of growth of 7-7.5% remains realistic, even given the

global credit crunch, and assured observers that the country’s Government will take

action if necessary to support businesses and the financial markets. Mr. Singh has also


103

singled out infrastructure investment as particularly vital progress. The country’s

capacity to absorb and benefit from new technology and industries depends on the

availability, quality and efficiency of more basic forms of infrastructure including

energy, water and land transportation. In some areas, roads, rail lines, ports and airports

are already operating at capacity, so expansion is a necessary prerequisite to further

economic growth.

Scope of the study

There is no unanimity among development economists with regard to the list of

items to be included in infrastructure. A large number of items extending from transport

and power to education, law and order and social values have been included in

infrastructure. The relationship between infrastructure and economic development is

now well accepted so much that it is regarded by most of the development economists

as a necessary pre condition and strategy of development based on prior development

of infrastructure has been advocated generally. Traditionally infrastructure was the

exclusive province of the public sector. Since the mid-1980s,

However, governments around the world have pursued policies to involve the

private sector in the delivery and financing of infrastructure services. Encouraged by

international organizations such as the World Bank, privatization has been a major

component of the economic reform programmes pursued by many developing countries

over the past two decades (Parker and Kirkpatrick, 2004). This study points out various

aspects of investment opportunities in infrastructure in India.

Objectives of the study

1. To study the recent growth in private participation in infrastructure

development.

2. To understand the opportunities in FDI in road sector.

3. To analyze the growth potential of road sector in india through Public Private

Partnership.

4. To study the various incentives provided by the Government for FDI in

Infrastructure in India

Methodology

Only Secondary data are used for the study. Secondary data are collected from

the publications of Government and other agencies, annual report and other

published reports.


104


This study of FDI opportunities in India for Infrastructure development in India

is limited to Road sectors only.

The infrastructure sector general overview

• Over the past four years, the Indian Economy consistently recorded

growth rates in excess of 8.5% p.a resulting in rapidly increasing

infrastructure spending.

• Total infrastructure pending is expected to increase from US$ 25 billion

in 2005 to US$ 47 billion in 2009 (FICCI)

• It is estimated that the infrastructure Sector needs to grow at a CAGR of

15% over the next five years to support the growing requirements of

virtually every sectors of economy.

Road sectors in India.

India’s road network of 3.34 million km is the second largest in the world. Out

of this, national highways account for 65,569 km, state Highways for 130,000km, and

major district roads, rural and urban roads collectively account for 3.14 million km, as

per statistics with the Ministry of Roads Transport and Highways. According to the

ministry roads remain the most important means of transport, accounting for 85% and

65% of passenger and freight traffic, respectively, in India National Highways account

for a mere 2% of the total road length, but carry 40% of the total road traffic. Between

2006 and 2009, the National highway network increased by 4,000 km and the state

highway network increased by 17000km.

The 11th Five-Year Plan (2007-2012) has projected an investment requirement of

USD 8,613.95 million for the development of rural roads under the Pradhan Mantri

Gram Sadak Yojana.

FDI in Indian transport sector

Foreign Direct Investment up to 100 percent is allowed in road sector under the

automatic route in Construction and maintenance of roads and highways offered on

BOT basis including collection of Toll. To attract foreign investors in this sector,

Ministers had bilateral meetings and also visited many countries to meet the investors

and apprised them about project opportunities in road sector. Delegations of the


105

Ministry of Road Transport & Highways have also conducted road shows to explain

Government policy and guidelines to foreign investors. Government has also

announced the setting up of Infrastructure Debt Funds (IDFs) to provide long-term,

low-cost debt for infrastructure projects. The funds would allow infrastructure

developer’s access to domestic and offshore investors on a long-term basis. Several

foreign companies have successfully participated in the award process for developing

highways.

Roads and highways

India’s roads are already congested, and getting more so. Annual growth is

projected at over 12% for passenger traffic and over 15% for cargo traffic. The Indian

Government estimates around $90billion plus investment is required over FY07-FY12

to improve the country’s roads infrastructure. Plans announced by the Government to

increase investments in roads infrastructure would increase funds from around US$15

billion per year to overUS$23 billion in 2011-12. The quantum of funds invested as

part of these programmes will significantly exceed that invested in recent history. Such

programmes would be funded via a mix of public and private initiatives. The Indian

Government, via the National Highway Development Program (NHDP), is planning

more than 200 projects in NHDP Phase III and V to be bid out, representing1 3,000 km

of roads. The average project size is expected to US$150million-US$200 million.

Larger projects are likely to reach the US$700 million-US$800 million range. About 53

projects with aggregate length of 3000km and and cost of around US$8 billion are

already at the pre-qualification stage. procurement process favours players with good

experience and sound financial strength opportunities do not stop there. More than 10

states are also actively planning the development of their highways. While the average

size of these projects is smaller than the NHDP projects, most will be substantial, in the

US$100 million-US$125 million range. All told, more than 4,500 km of state highways

are likely to be awarded by the end of 2010.

Public private partnerships Funding India’s wide-ranging, US$500 billion program of infrastructure

expansion over a five-year period is likely to be beyond the means of total government

funding, so policies have been designed to facilitate private investment to the maximum

level possible. If the Indian Government’s targeted level of private sector involvement


106

and investment are met (approximately 30%), the quantum of funding required would

be around US$150 billion-dwarfing the investment achieved over the past decade by

comparison. Achieving this level of investment is ambitious. Several frameworks and

plans are already in place, however, that may facilitate reaching these goals. The

PPP/PFI market in India is still at a relatively early stage. However, over the past

decade or so, there has been an increasing trend at the central as well as the government

level to use PPPs for meeting critical infrastructure gaps. The results have been quite

encouraging. Establishing a PPP is now considered to be the default option for major

infrastructure projects in sectors such as roads, railways, airports, ports and other

transport segments. First preference will be given to the PPP model, and only in cases

where projects are expected to fail to attract private sector interest will more traditional

models be considered.

Sector specific opportunities

Roads

� India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to

approximately 3.34 million kilometers. (Economic Survey 2007-08)

� The Government has laid down ambitious plans for development and

upgradation of the domestic road network. Private sector participation through

PPPs is being actively encouraged to achieve greater efficiencies in

development, operation and maintenance.

� It is estimated that the total investment requirement for development and

upgradation of the country’s road network over the next five years is

approximately US$ 55 billion. (Economic Survey 2007-08)

Findings

• There has been an increasing trend shown both at the central as well as the

state government level in infrastructure development through PPP.

• The government has provided different long term and low cost projects for

infrastructure development.

• Recently the Government has approved nine road projects, which are

estimated to cost around 11,600 crores.

• Different investment policies are updated by the government for

development of Roads in India.


107

• A liberalized regulatory framework are also been provided by the

government for improving the quality of infrastructure.

References

Dash L.N. Economies of infrastructure-growth and development: Regal Publication,

New Delhi (2007).

Jetil K.N. Infrastructure development in India: New Century Publications, New Delhi

(2007).

Josh B.M, Infrastructure Development in and economic India : Ashish Publishing

House, New Delhi (1990).

Manjuunder R. New Delhi, Infrastructure and Development in India, Interlinkages

Policies and Issues: Rawat Publications, New Delhi (2008).

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