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Intercultural inquiry with pre‐serviceteachersYan Guo a , Nancy Arthur a & Darren Lund aa Faculty of Education at the University of Calgary , CanadaPublished online: 27 Jan 2010.

To cite this article: Yan Guo , Nancy Arthur & Darren Lund (2009) Intercultural inquiry withpre‐service teachers, Intercultural Education, 20:6, 565-577, DOI: 10.1080/14675980903448619

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Intercultural EducationVol. 20, No. 6, December 2009, 565–577

ISSN 1467-5986 print/ISSN 1469-8439 online© 2009 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/14675980903448619http://www.informaworld.com

Intercultural inquiry with pre-service teachers

Yan Guo*, Nancy Arthur and Darren Lund

Faculty of Education at the University of Calgary, CanadaTaylor and FrancisCEJI_A_445222.sgm10.1080/14675980903448619Intercultural Education1467-5986 (print)/1469-8439 (online)Original Article2009Taylor & Francis2060000002009YanGuoyanguo@ucalgary.ca

This study examines the intercultural competence of pre-service teachers and waysto prepare them for responding to the needs of diverse student populations. In thisstudy, pre-service teachers provided critical incidents to describe experiences ofmeaningful events in their on-campus and field-placement learning related tointercultural competence. Data were collected through focus-group interviews andwritten questionnaires. Findings indicate pre-service teachers’ multiple andsometimes contradictory understandings of diversity, the importance of self-examination and reflection in the process of intercultural inquiry, and adisconnection between theory and practice. Results demonstrate the positioning ofdiversity within the ‘other’ in contrast to approaching diversity as learning aboutself and others. Implications for supporting students to explore diversity throughreflective practice during pre-service education are also discussed.

Keywords: intercultural competence; diversity; teacher preparation; criticalincidents

Introduction

According to the 2006 Census, almost 20% of the Canadian population was bornoutside the country (Statistics Canada 2007a) and approximately 16% of Alberta’spopulation was foreign-born, representing the third highest proportion after Ontarioand British Columbia (Statistics Canada 2007b). These figures suggest that the studentpopulation in Alberta schools is increasingly diverse. Thus, the preparation of teachersfor diverse school populations is a key issue facing teacher educators. Educationalinstitutions are a primary vehicle for fostering attitudes and behaviours which eitherenhance or pose barriers for social inclusion.

Professionals who work in schools need to be adequately trained in curriculafocused on cultural diversity and inclusive practices (Dei and James 2002; Hesch1999). Teachers have roles and responsibilities as agents of the integration of childrenand youth of immigrant origin, particularly racialized minorities and other marginal-ized students. Research shows that many teachers have little knowledge about how towork effectively with students from different cultural backgrounds (AlbertaBeginning Teachers’ Survey 2002; Guo 2006; Mujawamariya and Mahrouse 2004).Without intentional reflection about diversity, views and people from non-dominantgroups in Canadian society, professionals may inadvertently stereotype people andrespond to them in ways that are oppressive (Arthur and Collins 2010; Solomon andLevine-Rasky 2003).

*Corresponding author. Email: yanguo@ucalgary.ca

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Theoretical framework and prior research

The study was based on three constructs: (a) social inclusion; (b) intercultural compe-tence; and (c) representations of diversity.

Social inclusion

Social inclusion means that all people are able to participate as valued, respected andcontributing members of society. There are five key dimensions of social inclusion:(a) valued recognition and respect for individuals and groups; (b) opportunity forhuman development, nurturing the talents and skills of children; (c) involvement andengagement, having the right and the necessary support to be involved in decisionsaffecting oneself and community; (d) proximity, sharing physical and social spaces toprovide opportunities for interactions and to reduce social distances between people;and (e) material well-being (Freiler 2001). This framework supports the explorationof intercultural competence and how teachers are prepared to create social inclusionwithin the school system.

Intercultural competence

Traditional approaches to the study of culture conceptualized it as fixed and objectivecharacteristics of people sharing a common geographic and historical bond. From thisperspective, teachers are encouraged to gain an understanding of the culture-specificbehaviours of diverse students. However, such conceptualizations represent an essen-tialist and normative understanding of culture and ignore within-group variability.

In the past few decades, conceptions of culture have become increasingly complexand fluid, with attention shifted to the ability to negotiate multiple cultural identitiesand contexts rather than a target culture (Arthur and Collins 2010). The notion ofcultural competence does not imply an end state in which people apply specificcompetencies. Rather, culture is viewed as a composite of salient dimensions ofidentity that shift across contexts and over time. However, the importance of self-awareness as a foundation from which to build intercultural competency isemphasized. Each of us develops a personal culture that influences our views asprofessionals. In turn, the socialization of professionals involves learning about thenorms and practices of specific disciplines (Hall 2005).

The development of intercultural competence implies the pursuit of increasedawareness and sensitivity with respect to cultural, racial and ethnic identities (Milner2003). That is not to suggest that one ever really becomes competent, as awarenessand sensitivity are not destinations that pre-service teachers arrive at through specificactivities. Rather, it is suggested that pre-service teachers, regardless of their owncultural identities, can enhance their ongoing awareness and sensitivity. From thisperspective, intercultural inquiry incorporates a wide and complex intersection ofidentities across race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation and other contestedelements of social identity (Dei and James 2002).

In this study, intercultural competence refers to ‘knowledge of others; knowledgeof self; skills to interpret and relate; skills to discover and/or to interact; valuingothers’ values, beliefs, and behaviours; and relativizing one’s self’ (Byram 1997, 34).This view of intercultural competence is consistent with other triad models of inter-cultural competence in which the emphasis is placed on cultural knowledge of self,

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others and effective working relationships (Arthur and Collins 2010). Althoughgeneral knowledge about the cultural backgrounds of students is an important founda-tion, teachers are challenged to avoid stereotyping. Professionals also have a respon-sibility to engage in reflective practice about their personal culture (Arthur and Collins2010). Rather than positioning cultural influences solely on ‘others’, the mirror forcultural learning is reflected on one’s personal socialization and experiences, as theseheavily influence professional beliefs and practices. From this perspective, gainingself-awareness is an essential foundation for intercultural competence. A furtherchallenge for professional education programmes, such as teacher preparation, is help-ing students to translate intercultural awareness into practical strategies for buildinginclusive educational environments for all students.

Pre-service teachers and representations of diversity

There are wide variations in curriculum content and instructional methods aimed atcultural diversity. Most teacher education programmes limit multicultural education toa single course (Mujawamariya and Mahrouse 2004). Research suggests that somepre-service teachers connect with diversity-focused activities; others struggle, whilesome resist (Bullock and Freedman 2006). Resistance to diversity issues occurs whenindividuals are unaware of their own cultural identity and defend discourses thatprivilege those of dominant culture (Bullock and Freedman 2006; Solomon andDaniel 2007). In general, research results suggest that many teachers develop intercul-tural competencies primarily through trial and error practices.

Although the rationale for intercultural competence is clearly articulated in theliterature, there are few accounts of how pre-service teachers ‘test out’ and apply theirlearning. In order to enhance the content of teacher education programmes, it appearstimely to focus on how pre-service teachers develop intercultural competence. Threequestions guided the study:

(1) What are intercultural competencies as perceived by pre-service teachers?(2) What values, conflicts and dilemmas about intercultural teaching emerge for

pre-service teachers?(3) What teaching and learning practices enhance the development of intercultural

competence?

Methodology and procedures

Participants and the teacher preparation programme

The participants were 33 first-year pre-service teachers at the University of Calgary’sMaster of Teaching (MT) programme, a two-year post-degree bachelor of educationprogramme. The pre-service teachers were representative of the nation’s teachingforce, mostly white and female. The MT programme is known as inquiry-based learn-ing, a field-oriented approach and learner-focused. Inquiry refers to a way of learningthat requires the student to explore theories and issues through real-life cases, activelyquestion, conduct research and interpret a wide range of materials (University ofCalgary 2007). This programme is unique because campus and field experiences areinterwoven throughout the two years. Students have a one-week immersion experi-ence in their assigned school in September. Field experiences are two days per weekfor the remaining weeks of semester one, and through semester two.

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The topic of diversity was introduced in two written cases in a case inquiryseminar by university instructors on campus in semester one, with the first case on‘understanding diversity’ and the second on ‘responding to diversity’. These casesserved as a springboard for learning about diversity issues students would face in theclassroom. Some instructors led a class discussion about diversity, while others askedstudents to relate to their field experiences, do library research about diversity andshare their research results in class. Some instructors combined these two cases intoone class and covered the topic quickly. The authors felt that additional research wasneeded to capture the experiences that pre-service teachers were gaining through bothon-campus and field placement settings.

Data collection

The authors selected the critical incident methodology for investigating pre-serviceteachers’ understandings about intercultural competence. Critical incidents are briefdescriptions of vivid events that people remember as being meaningful in theirexperience (Brookfield 1995). Critical incidents support examination of the learningthat occurs when previous experience does not equip people for unfamiliar socialsystems including cross-cultural interactions (Arthur 2003; Pedersen 1995). In thisstudy, critical incidents were collected from pre-service teachers’ experiences ofmeaningful events in their on-campus and field-placement learning related to intercul-tural competence.

Critical incidents were collected through targeted probes using questionnaires andfocus groups. The authors intentionally did not define diversity, but let the meaningsof the term emerge through the responses of participants. The critical incident probesincluded the following: (a) Describe a scenario in your programme that made youthink about cultural diversity or a reaction to an experience related to cultural diver-sity; (b) What was the significance of this experience? (c) What were the main issuesrelated to cultural diversity? (d) What values issues or cultural conflicts were evidentin this scenario? (e) How were the issues resolved or not resolved? (f) How did thisexperience impact your thinking? (g) What is the relevance of this experience for yourrole and responsibilities as a teacher? (h) What was your main learning from thisscenario? and (i) What questions or issues about cultural diversity are unresolved foryou? Sixty-seven questionnaires were collected during the 2005–06 academic year.

Focus groups were conducted at the end of semesters to discuss the questionsnoted above in a group format. The focus group works well in situations that involveinvestigating the attitudes and experiences of a homogeneous group of people regard-ing a specific issue (Krueger and Casey 2000). It allows for meanings to be shared andelaborated upon through group interaction. Therefore, focus groups provided acomplementary methodology to expand upon the questions posed in the criticalincident questionnaire. Three focus groups were conducted, including seven, four andtwo students in each group, and an interview with one individual whose schedule didnot permit attending the focus groups.

Data analysis

Information from the written and focus group critical incidents was reviewed using aconstant comparison method of ‘content analysis’ (Denzin and Lincoln 1994). Theinterview data were reviewed initially by one member of the research team to begin

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building a taxonomy of emerging themes and subthemes. New interview andquestionnaire data were compared with this taxonomy, adding new content whenrequired. In the second review of the data, themes were reviewed by two additionalmembers of the team and synthesized using interpretive phenomenological analysis(Smith, Jarman, and Osborn 1999). During the data-analysis process, the criticalincidents were read several times so that each of the members of the research teamcould become submerged in the data. This review also supported researchers todevelop a holistic understanding of the phenomenon. The authors then used vanManen’s (1990) selective reading approach to isolate thematic statements from thetranscripts. This entailed identifying key statements or phrases from the interviewtranscripts and questionnaires that seemed essential to pre-service teachers’ experi-ence of cultural diversity. The authors then compared themes to make sure they fittedthe context of the topic of inquiry. All themes and subthemes were then resorted toreduce duplication and to synthesize the data. The essential themes that were identi-fied were organized to describe the experience and reflected meanings about thephenomenon of cultural diversity.

Findings

Three major themes emerged from the critical incidents: (a) multiple understandingsof diversity among pre-service teachers; (b) the importance of self-examination andreflection in the process of intercultural inquiry; and (c) a disconnection betweentheory and practice.

Multiple understandings of diversity among pre-service teachers

In the questionnaires, most pre-service teachers indicated that they had limited contactwith diverse populations. They identified diversity as people who were not fromCanada. One teacher described her experience working with diverse students in herfield placement:

The first experience that made me think a lot about cultural diversity was in my fieldexperience … When I got to my Grade 4 class I was surprised to find out that most ofthe students were not from Canada. Most of the students were not visible minorities so Ididn’t really think about it. My partner teacher told me that 12 of the kids were ESLstudents. We started talking about Halloween and Thanksgiving, and immediately kidsstarted putting up their hands. Some didn’t celebrate these holidays, others had importantholidays, and others had questions about holidays. This experience was significant to mebecause I grew up in a fairly mono-cultural town. At home and at school wecelebrated ‘normal Canadian’ holidays. When I got to this classroom and thought aboutall of the other holidays that could be discussed and incorporated, I was overwhelmed.(questionnaire)

It was culture shock for this student teacher to discover that ‘most of the studentswere not from Canada’. This did not make her think about diversity because thesestudents ‘were not visible minorities’. In other words, she defined diversity on thebasis of skin colour. Students’ questions about holidays reminded her of diversity.This pre-service teacher focused on ‘normal’ Canadian holidays, but failed to questionwhat is normal. She also felt overwhelmed to learn about ‘other’ holidays.

To some pre-service teachers, cultural celebrations became a major activity ofresponding to diversity, illustrated in the following excerpt:

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Shouldn’t the point of cultural celebrations be to celebrate diversity and to acknowledgedifferences and not try to group everyone into one homogeneous group? And why aren’tthe white students putting on presentations about their cultures? … Why is it that thevisible cultural minorities are the only ones asked to put on shows? (questionnaire)

Many of the participants shared a similar attitude: acknowledging differences meantcultural celebrations. This white teacher also expressed the discrepancy of expectationsfor people from visible cultural minorities. She complained there were different postersfor celebrating ‘Chinese Day, African Canadian Day …’ but not for ‘European Day’(questionnaire), without realizing that every day is a European day in the school whereits attitudes, practices and structures privilege the dominant white group and disadvan-tage members of visible minorities (Carr and Lund 2007; hooks 1995).

Many of the participants referred to ‘the group as “we” and to the immigrants as“the others”’ (questionnaire). The emphasis on learning about ‘other’ groups wasshared by many participants. For instance, one student teacher said: ‘I don’t reallyknow the best way to reach all of the cultures. That is a huge task, educating yourselfto know every single culture’ (focus group). The statement set up a dichotomy thatfocused on the concept of ‘other’. Intercultural competence was interpreted as theability to master ‘every single culture’. The statement about the difficulty to ‘reach allof the cultures’ also revealed white resistance to the responsibility of responding todiversity.

Other students understood diversity differently in more comprehensive ways:

We studied it in Case [Inquiry Seminar], and certainly a lot of things came up for diversityin the classroom, ESL students, students with physical and mental handicaps, cognitivelydelayed, racial diversity or ethnic diversity, socio-economic diversity. (focus group)

I think people often think of the obvious, you know what is the colour of your skin? Orwhat language do you speak? But there is so much more than that … in religious … orphilosophical backgrounds … in the cognitive ability and just in personality, and thenthe different learning styles … (focus group)

These students defined diversity broadly, extending from ESL students to culturaland religious backgrounds, to individual learning styles and physical challenges.Other students realized the importance of respecting differences:

My main learning in this scenario was about religion. But, more that it was that everyperson is different and his or her differences need to be respected and recognized.(questionnaire)

The main issues related to cultural diversity to me right now are: inclusion, tolerance,understanding, and knowledge. (questionnaire)

These excerpts demonstrated some participants came away with a much deeperunderstanding of diversity that goes beyond recognizing the visible differences torespect of religious differences, tolerance and inclusion.

Importance of self-examination and reflection in the process of intercultural inquiry

Many of the participants found the task of meeting students’ diverse needs to beoverwhelming. After having found the diversity in the classroom, they experienced

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feelings of anxiety, uncertainty and intimidation. One reported: ‘I am working withthe [programme] for international students within the university. The first class wasquite intimidating because … a lot of the students have thick accents and a few spoketheir native languages to each other … I felt really uncomfortable being there’ (ques-tionnaire). Some reported that they felt uncertain of how to respond: ‘Within myschool diversity heavily exists as 80% of the students are ESL … an ESL student cameup to me, speaking in Punjabi. I didn’t know what she was saying and could notrespond’ (questionnaire). Others reported they felt a loss of a Canadian identity: ‘I amat a loss of what to include in my lessons as far as holidays or celebrations … I amalso still forming an idea of what my identity is as a Canadian and what that means’(questionnaire). The anxiety of self-questioning was shared by many of the partici-pants. For example, another student teacher noted: ‘This experience … made me againthink about whom we are as Canadians and how do we emphasize our own individualidentities in such a multi-cultural environment’ (questionnaire). The student teacherreflected on her own identity crisis: ‘Who am I? Who are they? Who are Canadians?’She struggled with tensions between individual identities, unnamed racialized catego-ries, and broad notions of diversity.

The participants also expressed the conflicts of values and beliefs. One pre-serviceteacher reported: ‘In my placement … one of the students said Osama Bin Laden washis hero … How would you deal with something like that in your class?’ (focusgroup). Others experienced tensions of religious beliefs and practices between them-selves and their students. One student teacher noted some of her female students didnot participate in the dance in their physical education class ‘because of their religion… The girls and boys didn’t want to hold each others’ hands’ (questionnaire). Anotherstudent teacher reported: ‘In my school … there was one teacher who … would getinto the issue about Sikh boys wearing the ceremonial dagger’ (focus group). Thestudent teacher decided to push her own belief system aside, but at the same time shefelt torn because she wanted to include and respect everyone’s religious practices andbeliefs in her classroom.

Some participants were challenged to examine their own stereotypes towardsstudents from diverse backgrounds. One participant wrote:

I never considered myself to be someone who was bothered by different ethnicities ofpeople, but when I was alone (the only white person) in the room with the students, Iwould be lying if I didn’t say some stereotypes went through my head. (questionnaire)

Some were forced to look deeply at their own beliefs and their ways of thinking:

The significance for me was that I was forced to re-examine my views of how othersthink. I always assumed that my way of doing things was correct, and that anybody whodid something different was not thinking logically. However, after this I realized that mylogic is based on Western concepts. (questionnaire)

It impacted my thinking about putting a new perspective on how we Westerners alwaysbelieve our methods are the most beneficial because of the ethnocentric view we seemto have on the rest of the world. (questionnaire)

These excerpts illustrated that some pre-service teachers developed an ability tounderstand the influence of their own socialization. Such self-awareness of personalculture prompted some participants to challenge their ethnocentrism.

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The openness to learning was evident when some participants questioned normal-ization and universality:

It has become very evident how much Western societies tend to value independent think-ing and how different that is from the way many other cultures operate, especially thevalue of being somewhat aggressive and standing up for yourself and being able to effec-tively question other people. This programme has helped me see that these are notuniversal values and that a lot of cultures really struggle with adjusting to this attitude orvalue. (questionnaire)

This pre-service teacher was able to incorporate diverse points of view. She real-ized that being aggressive and standing up for oneself are not reflective of universalvalues. Such critical insights allowed her to see the world through someone else’scultural and experiential lenses.

Other participants developed a sense of advocacy for their students after theygained much deeper empathy for the struggles that marginalized children encounter inthe Canadian public school system. One pre-service teacher reflected:

It makes me recognize that racism and discrimination are everywhere. I know I will haveto deal with culturally diverse students, and some will be prejudiced or will experiencediscrimination. I will have to be watchful for this and try to mitigate any effect ofnarrow-minded members of my class and the community. (questionnaire)

This student developed an awareness of the racism and discrimination that non-dominant students experience and was watchful for insensitivity in their communities.At the same time, she showed her focus on discriminatory attitudes as the key form ofdiscrimination, as opposed to attending to systemic or institutional forms of privilege.

Disconnection between theory and practice

Pre-service teachers reported that the topic of diversity was taken up differently oncampus, depending on the interest of individual instructors in the teacher preparationprogramme. One mentioned that after it was covered in a two-week period in thecurriculum it ‘was just done and pretty much out of the way’ (focus group). Someparticipants reported that they received some training from their classes, but it focusedmainly on differences in learning styles and abilities: ‘I found that most of the focushas been on diverse learning needs. There have been a few classes about cultural needs… but I find they are fairly surface oriented’ (focus group). Others noted that theirlearning was directly related to their professors’ expertise: ‘It [diversity] comes up alot in my Professional Seminar … maybe because my professor has a lot of experiencewith ESL and language … so it comes up a lot there’ (focus group).

Some participants realized that the discussion about diversity in the universityclasses helpful, but they did not know how to apply it in the classrooms, exemplifiedin the following comment:

I think it [diversity] just needs to be looked at more. A lot of people feel like it wasdrilled down their throats that it exists, but there haven’t been a lot of ways to talk abouthow you specifically deal with cases. (focus group)

Many participants were seeking a formula in order to respond to diversity in prac-tice. One student reflected:

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The philosophy of [this programme] is to teach student teachers how to make gooddecisions regarding diversity. However, most students are looking for a formula so theycan easily move from theoretical to practical. (questionnaire)

The pre-service teachers were primarily addressing intercultural competencethrough their practical experiences/placements. Their learning experiences varied,depending on where they were placed for their practicum. One student teacherreported: ‘When we first arrived in the school, we were pulled aside … and the prin-cipal mentioned a quarter of the school is Chinese and we have a few Black families’(focus group). In contrast, another student teacher who was placed in a homogeneousschool reported: ‘My field placement didn’t at all. It wasn’t even something theythought about’ (focus group).

In those placements where diversity was discussed, the pre-service teachersindicated that they developed intercultural competence through their practical experi-ences. One student teacher reported ‘I think a lot of the stuff that I’ve learned so farhas come through practical experience. I wouldn’t have necessarily have gotten if Ihadn’t been placed where I was’ (focus group). Another pre-service teacher reportedthat she learned how to respond to diversity by observing her partner teacher’sapproach in her practicum:

One of the boys in our class made a racial comment about how he hated Jews … He wasasked to leave the class at the time and after lunch when all the students were back in ourhomeroom class we had a long discussion about acceptance and understanding otherpeople’s culture and background. The teacher facilitated the discussion and most of thechildren joined in, expressing their experiences and feelings. It was really powerful.(questionnaire)

The pre-service teacher realized that although some of the students had negativestereotypes towards others, teachers could have a positive influence in their classroomand facilitate meaningful discussions to promote acceptance.

Discussion

The results of the study demonstrate pre-service teachers’ multiple and sometimescontradictory understandings of diversity, the importance of self-examination andreflection in the process of intercultural inquiry, and a disconnection between theoryand practice. The results demonstrate the positioning of diversity within the ‘other’ incontrast to approaching diversity as learning about self and others.

Learning about the ‘other’

The authors found in analysing participants’ understandings of intercultural compe-tence that there is a pervasive discourse that focuses on learning about the ‘other’.Some pre-service teachers have limited exposure to diverse populations and identifydiversity on the basis of skin colour, an obvious visible marker for difference. Fewaddress in any substantive way the subtle forms of racialized privilege and oppressionthat characterize the Canadian context (see Carr and Lund 2007). Many acknowledgedifferences through cultural celebrations, a superficial way of responding to diversity.From this perspective, they interpret intercultural competence as an ability to recog-nize a cultural holiday or master a target culture. Culture, then, is mainly perceived as

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static, having core characteristics that can be identified and studied (Elhoweris,Parameswaran, and Alsheikh 2004). Some participants constructed the binary oppo-sites ‘us’ and ‘them’ or the white culture as the unspoken norm and other cultures.Such remarks as ‘Why is it that the visible cultural minorities are the only ones askedto put on shows?’ reveal their attitudes of resentment, a belief in ‘reverse racism’, andsome loss of power as they feel their unearned privileges are challenged. Some pre-service teachers emphasized ‘normal’ Canadian holidays, equating diversity withabnormality and deviation from a norm. Their common understandings of diversityare often ‘articulated through the paradigm of difference, through which the problemsand solutions are believed to be about the Other’ (Mujawamariya and Mahrouse 2004,336). These understandings promote rather than disrupt practices that sustain whitehegemony.

In contrast, some participants define diversity broadly, on the basis of language,culture, disability, religion, learning styles or gender. This shows a deeper understand-ing of diversity that includes respect of differences, understanding, and inclusion.Such notions of diversity move beyond the popular holiday celebrations and skincolour to consider social inclusion for diverse and marginalized students in theclassrooms (Freiler 2001).

Limiting diversity to learning about the ‘other’ is superficial. There is a need toexplore in-depth issues of cultural and racialized diversity. Teacher educators need tocommunicate to students that there is still institutional racism, a system whereschools’ attitudes, practices and structures privilege the dominant white group anddisadvantage members of minority groups (Carr and Lund 2007; hooks 1995).Teacher educators need to help pre-service teachers to question and challenge schools’curricula, materials or discussions that may perpetuate cultural or racializedstereotypes.

Learning about self and others

Some participants approach intercultural competence as learning about self and others(Byram 1997). One is able to capture the self-awareness that the pre-service teachersexperienced through self-reflection. Some participants have struggled with tensionsbetween individual identities and diversity and the conflicts of values and religiousbeliefs that occur when working across cultures (Solomon and Levine-Rasky 2003; St.Denis and Schick 2003). Such conflicts allow them to examine the cultural contextsthat had influenced their own attitudes and beliefs (Lund 1998; Mujawamariya andMahrouse 2004; Solomon and Levine-Rasky 2003). Some pre-service teachers areable to understand their own biases and privileges such as ‘my way of doing thingswas correct’. Such self-awareness helps them to challenge Eurocentric beliefs andpractices and move from a position that assumes a singular, monocultural reality, toadopting a worldview that is respectful of multiple belief systems. Others are able tosee and appreciate the perspectives of others. For example, some realize that beingaggressive, standing up for oneself, and being able to question other people do notreflect universal values. Such critical insights allow the pre-service teachers to see theworld through someone else’s cultural and experiential lenses.

Just as pre-service teachers need to acknowledge and challenge their own biasesand understand their students, another of the most important goals for teacher educa-tion programmes is instilling a commitment to equity and inclusion. Participants inthis study demonstrate this phenomenon through their steps of advocacy for their

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students. Aware of their students’ experience of discrimination and racism, they maywork to become agents of change for these students in order to create inclusive learn-ing environments. They are able to take the initial steps to begin integrating advocacyand social action into their professional roles. This implies that an understandingabout intercultural competence can be leveraged for the purpose of educationalimprovements for children who are disadvantaged by social, economic and/or politicalforces (Cochran-Smith 2000; Dei and James 2002; Lund 1998; St. Denis and Schick2003).

Learning through trial-and-error practices

A common issue expressed by students in professional education programmes was theisolation of pedagogy from typical practice. The discussion of diversity in the teachereducation programme, which tended to be short and disconnected from the rest of theprogramme, left students without substantive practical knowledge to examinediversity and support inclusive teaching practices. Many of the participants addressedintercultural competence through trial-and-error practices in their field placements.Some placements provided excellent opportunities for learning how to navigate ques-tions of cultural diversity, whereas other placements provided little opportunity forexploration. Some pre-service teachers overcame their fear of difference and anxietythrough intercultural encounters by reducing social distances between themselves andchildren from diverse backgrounds in their field experiences (Freiler 2001). Otherslearned how to respond to diversity by observing their partner teachers’ practice. Mostpre-service teachers emphasized the importance of experiential learning to developintercultural competence.

Implications and conclusion

It is important to incorporate critical intercultural inquiry into teacher preparationprogrammes as a dynamic and ongoing process. Teacher education programmes mustmove beyond simply teaching about others, to helping students to examine criticallythe cultural contexts that have influenced their own beliefs and practices. Theprogrammes must discuss and critically analyse cultural, linguistic, ethnic, racialized,social class, sexual orientation and gendered differences, along with an understandingof how the complex intersection of a teacher’s identities across these differences willinfluence all decisions in the classrooms. Critical incidents can be used to engage pre-service teachers in self-exploration, self-reflection on their own identities, biases andprivileges and help students to appreciate diversity as a source of strength (Ambe2006).

Diversity and equity issues must be infused throughout courses and fieldworkexperiences rather than contained in a single course (Lund 1998). As noted above,some field placements provided little opportunity for exploration of diversity. Thisplaced student teachers in a very vulnerable position where they were not alwaysallowed to experiment with what they were learning from the programme. It isimportant to create field experiences that involve working in the community withdiverse populations and find role models and partner teachers who are willing tonurture an attention to diversity and social justice in their own practices.

It is important to note that cross-cultural contact does not automatically lead tointercultural competence; it requires careful guidance, critical analysis and educational

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support. It is insufficient to provide students with exposure to diversity. Rather,teacher educators are in prime roles to model and leverage reflective practice aboutdiversity and help students to debrief their learning experiences. The examples fromthis research study illustrate that pre-service teachers often had strong affectiveexperiences when encountering diversity, including confusion, excitement, anxietyand a sense of being overwhelmed. This is akin to culture shock in which students’prior knowledge and experience has not adequately prepared them for the demands ofnew cross-cultural situations (Arthur and Collins 2010). These are lost opportunitiesfor helping students to expand their worldview about self, about others and about theirprofessional roles and responsibilities. However, without guidance to debrief andreflect upon the potential learning in such situations, there is danger that students willretreat into familiar ways of viewing culture without incorporating new learning intoprofessional practices. The connections between field experiences and classroomcurriculum can be strengthened to help students integrate their learning aboutdiversity. Teacher education programmes need to prepare future teachers for translat-ing concepts to practical and inclusive teaching approaches that honour the diversityof all learners.

AcknowledgementsThe authors are grateful for funding support from the Prairie Metropolis Centre for this study.

Notes on contributorsYan Guo is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of Calgary. Herteaching and research interests include teaching English as a Second Language, interculturalcommunication, language and identity, and language policy. Her newest publication is Guo, Y.,and B. Mohan. 2008. ESL parents and teachers: Towards dialogue? Language and Education22, no. 1, 17–33.

Nancy Arthur is a professor and Canada Research Chair in Professional Education, Faculty ofEducation, University of Calgary, with specializations in multicultural counselling and careerdevelopment. Her co-edited book (with S. Collins) Culture-infused counselling received the2006 Book Award from the Canadian Counselling Association.

Darren E. Lund is an associate professor in the Faculty of Education at the University ofCalgary, where his research examines social justice activism in schools and communities.Darren’s co-edited book (with Paul Carr), The great white north? Exploring whiteness, privi-lege and identity in education (Rotterdam: Sense), recently won the national 2009 PublicationAward from the Canadian Association of Foundations of Education.

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