intercultural communication in the employment of burmese …
TRANSCRIPT
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN THE EMPLOYMENT
OF BURMESE WORKERS BY LOCAL BUSINESSES IN
SOUTHERN THAILAND
Preeda Nakaray
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Communication Arts and Innovation)
The Graduate School of Communication Arts
and Management Innovation
National Institute of Development Administration
2017
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese
Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand
Author Miss Preeda Nakaray
Degree Doctor of Philosophy (Communication Arts and
Innovation)
Year 2017
The aims of this present study are: 1) to investigate intercultural
communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the south of
Thailand; 2) to compare their attitudes towards Thai and Burmese cultures; and 3) to
examine relationship between their personal and organization factors and adaptive
abilities. A mixed-methods research design was employed. An in-depth interview was
conducted with Thai employers and Burmese employees to provide qualitative data.
For the quantitative part a questionnaire was distributed for data collection. A non-
random sampling method was applied to obtain the participants from the list of
employers hiring Burmese employees. The sampling frame was defined as those
employees whose original nationality was proven or imported based on MOU.
Finally, a snow ball sampling technique was employed to gain the participants in
Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. In terms of data analysis, Intercultural
Communication Concepts, Hofstede’s Value Dimensions, Media and Media Exposure
Behaviors, and Psychological and Cultural Factor Model were used as the basis for
the theoretical framework.
The qualitative results indicated four areas of the differences in ethnographic
attitudes of Thai employers and Burmese employees. Firstly, the employers reflected
their positive attitudes towards the employees with no conflicts between the two
parties. In contrast, Burmese employees still perceived Thai people to be suspicious.
Secondly, regarding Thai mass media, the Thai workers noticed their roles in
reproducing the idea of enmity between Thai and Burmese. On the contrary, the
iv
Burmese workers were not influenced by the mass media in the formation of their
belief and negative attitudes. Next, historical lessons in class were related to their
perceptions on the relationship between Thailand and Myanmar. Moreover, in terms
of cultural dimensions, it was found that Thai employers were collectivistic, while the
workers were more individualistic. Next, both Thai employers and Burmese workers
appeared to be with high power distance and certainty avoidance. Moreover, the
employers reflected high femininity, while the Burmese workers were more
masculine.
The quantitative data analysis of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards their
own culture and Thai culture indicated four areas of similarity. They showed traits of
high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and collectivism.
However, the hypothesis testing showed different perceptions on power distance in
Thai and Burmese contexts. In addition, different personal factors such as ethnicity,
types of living, business types, working areas, and types of media exposure resulted in
different levels of the adaptive abilities of the workers. Moreover, the ethnic attitude
was the best predictor of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities. However, the
results show a negative relationship. Other influential factors included age,
educational levels, attitudes towards power distance, and knowledge about Thai
culture, respectively. All of the five factors accounted for 12.3% of the Burmese
workers’ adaptive abilities
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This present study aims to achieve balance of immigrant worker employment
in Thailand. Luckily, the researcher gained assistance and corporation from Provincial
Employment Offices, Thai employers, Burmese workers, acquaintances, and students.
I am introduced to the participants in this study by these people. Also, they assisted in
data colleting in all the three provinces namely, Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla.
My deepest thanks go to my main supervisor, Professor Yubol Benjarongkij
(Ph.D.), who guided me how to seek for knowledge and provided suggestions for
thesis conducting as well as how to live a sustainable life under the pressure along the
path of pursuing my Ph.D. I also would like to thank Associate Professor Patchanee
Cheyjunya, Committee Chairperson, for her advice and suggestion. She always
relieved my anxiety and panic during my years in this academic institution. Next, I
would like to express my sincere thanks to Associate Professor Metta Vivatananukul,
an external committee, who always boosted my energy and provided body of
knowledge for me entire years of my study.
I own my most sincere thanks for care, good will, and generosity from
classmates at NIDA and those in Program of Public Administration, Prince of
Songkhla University. My most sincere gratitude is extended to colleagues in Program
of Communication Arts and Innovation, Nakhon Si Thammarat Rajabhat University,
who took care of my teaching load, and also to Ying Khiew, my Doraemon. Then, my
thanks go to the staff at Sukhum Nawaphan Library and computer laboratory, NIDA
for their selfless facilitation.
Finally, I would like to express my feelings to my parents, sisters, and nieces
for their endless devotion and opportunities for me to develop myself.
This research was supported from graduate scholarship provided by the
National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) as of fiscalyear 2017
Preeda Nakaray
May 2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background and Rationale of the Study 1
1.2 The Perception of Thai People towards the Burmese 3
1.3 The Adaptation of Burmese Workers in Thailand 5
1.4 The Working Culture of Thai People and the Burmese 6
1.5 Problems of Burmese Workers Employment in the South of 7
Thailand
1.6 Research Questions 9
1.7 Research Objectives 9
1.8 Definition of Terms 10
1.9 Scope of the Study 11
1.10 Limitations of the Study 12
1.11 Significance of the Study 12
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 15
2.1 Intercultural Communication 15
2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences 19
2.3 Hofstede’s Value Dimensions 27
2.4 Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theories 31
vii
2.5 The Demographic Characteristics Influencing 33
the Adaptation Ability to Work
2.6 Backgrounds of Myanmar and Figures of Burmese 34
Workers in Thailand
2.7 Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign 49
Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)
2.8 Related Studies 55
2.9 Hypotheses 75
2.10 Research Conceptual Framework 76
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 77
3.1 Qualitative Methods 77
3.1.1 Population and Sampling 78
3.1.2 Research Tools 80
3.1.3.Data Collection 81
3.1.4 Data Analysis 82
3.2 Quantitative Methods 83
3.2.1 Population and Sampling 83
3.2.2 Research Tools 86
3.3.3 Data Collection 88
3.3.4 Data Analysis 88
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 92
4.1 The Qualitative Results 92
4.1.1 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions 93
4.1.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences 100
4.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors 108
4.1.4 Perceptions towards History of Relationship 113
between Thai Employers and Burmese Workers
4.2 The Quantitative Results 117
4.2.1 Results from a Survey of the Burmese Workers 118
4.2.2 The Results of Hypothesis Testing to Survey 129
Research Objective #2
viii
4.2.3 Summary of Hypothesis Testing to Survey 147
Research Objective #3
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION, 148
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 149
5.2 Discussion 156
5.3 Recommendations 169
BIBLIOGRAPHY 175
APPENDICES 184
Appendix A : Guide Questionnaire 185
Appendix B : Questionnaire 207
Appendix C : Illustration of Data Collection 222
Appendix D : Respondents in an In-depth Interview 234
BIOGRAPHY 236
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
2.1 Residual Figures of Legal Immigrant Workers in the Kingdom 42
Classified by the Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens
2.2 Residual Figures of Section 9 Aliens Whose Original Nationality 43
is Proved (Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian) Allowed to Work
in the South
2.3 Residual Figures of Aliens Imported According to MOU in 45
the South
2.4 Total Figures of Residual Legal Immigrant Workers in the South 47
Classified by Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens
3.1 Population of Thai employers and Burmese worker in southern 79
Thailand
3.2 Numbers of Burmese worker samples classifies by areas 80
and types of businesses
3.3 Numbers of Burmese workers requested for registration 84
classifies by areas and types of businesses
3.4 Numbers of the samples in the quantitative phase 85
3.5 Summary of the research methods 89
3.6 Summary of the mixed-methods design 90
4.1 Comparison between the Cultural Dimensions of Thai employers 94
and Burmese workers
4.2 Comparison of Psycho-Cultural Influences of Thai employers 101
and Burmese workers
4.3 Comparison of media exposure behaviors between Thai employers 109
and Burmese Workers
4.4 Comparison of perceptions towards history of relationship 113
between Thai and Burmes
x
4.5 Frequencies and percentage of working areas, types of businesses, 118
and organizational structures
4.6 Frequencies and percentage of genders, ages, nationalities, 119
education, characteristics of living, and work experiences in
Myanmar
4.7 Frequencies and percentage of the media, objectives of media 120
exposure, presentation of contents about Myanmar by Thai
mass media, and responses to negative contents about the Burmese
4.8 Mean and S.D. of ethnic attitudes 123
4.9 Mean and S.D. of religious behaviors 124
4.10 Mean and percentage of the Burmese workers’ knowledge 126
about Thai culture
4.11 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 128
4.12 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards 131
Thai and Burmese culture
4.13 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and 133
Burmese culture
4.14 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 135
in the south classifying by genders
4.15 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 136
in the south classifying by working experiences in Myanmar
4.16 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 136
in the south classifying by organizational structures
4.17 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 137
in the south classifying by exposure to traditional media
4.18 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 137
in the south classifying by exposure to new media
4.19 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive 138
abilities to work in the south classifying by demographic
characteristics
4.20 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 139
in the south classifying by ethnicity
xi
4.21 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 140
in the south classifying by types of living
4.22 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 141
in the south classifying by types of businesses
4.23 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 142
in the south classifying by working areas
4.24 Summary of One-Way-ANOVA of the Burmese workers’ adaptive 143
abilities to work in the south classifying by demographic
characteristics as a personal factor
4.25 ANOVA outputs of personal, organizational, and adaptive abilities 145
to work in the south of the Burmese workers
4.26 Output of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of the Burmese 146
workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south
5.1 Summary of comparison of cultural dimensions between Thai 150
employers and Burmese workers
5.2 Summary of Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and 155
Burmese cultures
5.3 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes 156
towards Thai culture
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Research Conceptual Framework 76
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Rationale of the Study
The move towards the ASEAN Community has transformed migrant workers
to become social capital. They encourage international relations and promote
economic growth. That is to say, in a country with labor shortage, these migrant
workers can move freely to fill up the gaps. As a result, ASEAN people gain more
income and the economy is improved (Pichet Saiphan & Piyanat Sroikum, 2014, p.
132). The underlying cause of the import of migrant workers deal with political
decisions unlike importing other goods as it involves “people.” Hence, their “feeling”
is more crucial. Meanwhile, positive or negative attitudes toward these people might
be constituted. In Thailand, the majority of the migrant laborers are Burmese (Foreign
Workers Administration Office, 2016).
The migration of these workers is partly fueled by some attractive domestic
factors. For instance the shortage of labor in Thailand results in a huge demand for
migrant labor. Regarding this, Pholphirul (2013) found that the underlying causes
behind the employment of migrant workers is a labor shortage rather than the low
hiring rates. As a result the migrant labor is a key factor in accelerating the production
processes.
However, previous studies have found that some Thai employers and Thai law
treat these workers unfairly. As presented in Sastharam Thammaboosadee (2012),
from the perspective of political economy, the dynamic of replication mechanism of
capitalism is observed, which alters the laborers from the status of a human being to
commodity until they become alienated and powerless. The employment conditions
are changing and the migrant laborers need to be responsible for more risks resulting
from capitalism. Meanwhile, in terms of the legal dimension, Ekachai Eutanpisit,
2
(2011) pointed out that the law is unfair to the migrant laborers in three aspects: 1) the
management policy of injury rights and compensation in workplace; 2) the protection
of workers’ compensation rights; and 3) the challenges, handicaps and policy
limitations of the compensation. Similarly, Podsakorn Yothinneeranath (2012) found
that the rights and benefits for those migrant laborers depend greatly on the
employers’ satisfaction regardless of the types of compensation or the methods of
getting it. For instance, a migrant female maid working in a Thai household is not
protected by the power and government mechanism.
In addition, regarding the compensation, even though migrant workers
perform more effectively than their local counterparts. However, their performances
are usually evaluated lower than the domestic workers (Muwanguzi & Musambira,
2012). In general, the employment standard and working conditions of migrant
laborers are lower than the standard indicated by the government. For instance,
inChiang Mai these foreign workers gain the average compensation of 162.5 baht per
day. In addition, the entrepreneurs or employers are negligent in registering these
workers as legitimate migrant laborers due to the extra pay they need to take care of.
Hence, the workers need to hide themselves from the authorities (SuThep
Kaewnanchai, 2008). Other previous studies discovered that Burmese workers
reflected their belief that “Thai employers would not cheat” at a moderate level
(Kwanchanok Pantufuk, 2014). Athitpura Suwannarat (2010) also found that the
migrant workers in Nakhon Si Thammarat believed that the Thai employers treated
them unfairly.
Similarly, Supattra Tantijariyaphan (2013) discovered that considering the
security impacts from work of the migrant workers in Chiang Mai, in case of
accidents, regardless of having a working permit or not the migrant workers couldn’t
receive any compensation from the Social Security Office. This is especially true if
they are illegal migrants that waived labor registration. This is because the
government has stated that only those who contribute to the fund will gain the
compensation. However, most organizations in the province, especially the
construction businesses try to avoid paying to the fund. They hire workers through an
employer or subcontractor who is not registered as a juristic person. Thus, these
workers are not protected by the Labor Protection Law. Besides, Thai Yai migrant
3
workers are also treated unfairly by some authorities. They are arrested despite having
a work permit. Some of them are arrested and fined. Hence, they cannot attain their
mental security and feel alienated from Thai people. In certain instances some of them
need to endure racist attitudes by some Thai people.
1.2 The Perception of Thai People towards the Burmese
Republic of the Union of Myanmar (from now on, Myanmar) is one of the
most familiar neighboring countries for Thai people. The perception towards Burmese
people relies greatly on historical stories about the long-term wars waged between the
two nations. Unsurprisingly, Thai people see the Burmese as their enemy or invaders.
The term, “Myanmar” has become a subject of historical discourse. This has
negatively produced the meanings, identities, and truth about the race. When the word
Myanmar is mentioned, it refers to the enemy rather than a neighbor or another nation
sharing this world (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham , 2008b, p. 3).
The memory about the history of Thailand and Myanmar usually reflects
hatred on the Burmese as an enemy. The war between the two nations has been the
starting point of the hatred towards the Burmese of the Thai from all classes. In
addition, the racial bias towards these people, which is a product of the historical
portrayal, has always been reproduced. No matter how long it takes, regardless of any
eras, the memory does not faded away from the heart of Thai people (Sipim
Sornbanlung, 2015).
Mass media reproduced the historical portrayal (the wars between Thailand
and Burma) as well as the incidents at present (the crimes committed by Burmese
laborers). Considering media exposure behaviors about migrant laborers of Thai
people according to each media type, Pachara U-Suk (2012) found that newspapers,
relatives, and television are the three most popular sources of migrant information
among people residing in Chiang Mai. Most of the contents regarding these workers
from the newspapers are criminal news, illegal migrant laborers issues, and infectious
diseases. However, those Thai employers who hired the migrant labors reflected more
positive identities, both in terms of the individual and group, of the workers than those
4
who do not hire migrants. The positive identities included being diligent, united,
healthy, hard-working, patient, and always pleased with the assigned tasks.
Thai people have both positive and negative perception towards the Burmese
laborers. Those who have direct experiences with the workers such as the employers
who hire them are likely to perceived their behaviors and working behaviors in a
positive way, since the employers had experienced the life styles and working habits
of these workers. This is congruent with U-Suk’s study, which was mentioned earlier.
He found out that while the employers or other people who have mass-mediated
experiences usually view those workers in a negative way. Similarly, Athitaya
Duangumphai (2013) discovered that Thai people are worried about the leaking out of
Thai money from hiring the Burmese labors. Another issue is the higher
unemployment rates due to the employment of migrant workers. In addition they also
see the workers as carriers of diseases as some of them did not get through the
immigration check as they entered Thailand by ships. Also Thai people are concerned
about security issues dealing with the spying of some news for Burmese government
by the workers.
A study by Supattra Tantijariyaphan (2013) supported the fear. She
investigated the management of migrant labors from the lens of political economy and
found some negative impacts from the fluctuating numbers of the migrant workers.
Consequently, the ratios of the migrant workers per the overall numbers of workers
had been increasing and this resulted in lower employment rates. Furthermore, the
government has to shoulder larger annual burdens on the welfare for those workers.
Thus, the financial status of the government is affected by the illegal immigration. To
put it simply, the government has more expenses from providing education,
healthcare, and crime prevention.
Poranee Kaewbaworn (2015) investigated the employers’ perceptions towards
Burmese workers in Chiang Rai and found that this group people tended to change
their jobs more frequently. They lack of responsibility, leave work without notice,
need more restriction and critical care than other groups. In addition, the employers
extended their perceptions that the workers seemed to be introverted and reclusive due
to their ways of life and the circumstances of Thai society. Meanwhile the employers
5
themselves do not allow the workers to disclose any information to the person making
inquiries.
Shim (2010) conducted a study in Korean contexts and confirmed different
perceptions from direct experiences and mass mediated experiences. In other words,
Korean people who had met or were friends with American people had more positive
attitude towards the American than those who did not.
Meanwhile, a number of previous studies discovered unfair employment of the
Burmese workers. As a result, they felt alienated from Thai people and encountered
racial abuse. One of the reasons might be rooted from the perceptions towards
Burmese people, which relied greatly on historical textbooks and mass media. They
have transferred negative feelings, reproduced the historical issues, and presented
them to Thai people. In addition, it might be because some Thai people have no
opportunity to work with Burmese laborers. Eventually, this current study aims to
discover the underlying causes of such circumstances.
1.3 The Adaptation of Burmese Workers in Thailand
The major goal of Burmese workers who travelled to work in Thailand is to
gain more income and have better lives. Some of them maintain their own identity
while staying in Thailand through their language use, application of Tanaka Powder
on their faces, eating of betel nuts, and style of dress. The Burmese migrant workers
are required to adapt to the host culture. Thus, they have less power to negotiate for
their benefits. They need to survive in an unfamiliar culture where they are always
inferior (Holmes, 2015; Fan & Hebbani, 2014). Previous studies on migrant
adaptation such as the case study of Portuguese workers who needed to learn
Cantonese when moving to work in Macau (Amaro, 2015) or the case of Ugandan
workers who need to learn a new language and accept American culture when
immigrating to the USA. However, adaptation to new language is not as hard as
attitudinal adjustment as the inferior feeling and social discrimination, which is
unacceptable (Muwanguzi & Musambira, 2012).
In the Thai context, a study by Parida Kochek (2005) on the adjustment of
Burmese workers migrating to Thailand through the borders of Chiang Rai, Tak, and
6
Ranong found that the Burmese workers had integrated adaptation and acculturation.
The core artifacts of their home culture were preserved in the “own personal areas” or
at home. The adaptation was displayed when they went out to get “accepted” by Thai
people and reduced the feelings of alienation or “otherness” in Thai culture.
Kwanchanok Pantufak (2014) found that Mon Burmese laborers in
Samuthsakhon took ethnocentrism by maintaining their own identity with some
necessary adaptation. They had moderate ability to adapt to the new culture. They
might adjust their thoughts, feelings, or ways of life just because of their benefits or
for work cooperation as well as for their condition of life in the society. Meanwhile,
in terms of the adaptation of Thai people who interact with the Burmese workers,
Warangkana Tippayachon (2013) discovered some adaptation to their language and
acceptance of their identity by trying to use easy words for their understanding. Thai
employers attempted to forge a relationship with the workers to raise trust and
familiarity between them for better communication, which facilitated mutual
understanding.
In general, the Burmese workers need to adapt to their work more than the
employers in order to reduce the feeling of otherness between the two parties. Hence,
for a better life of these workers, the researcher was keen to investigate the other
factors which required critical consideration about the adaptation of the Burmese
workers such as religious factors, knowledge of Thai culture and law. These elements
constitute the research interest.
1.4 The Working Culture of Thai People and the Burmese
General Newin, a former Burmese Prime Minister, has explained the identity
of Burmese people that “in the past some Burmese were likely to see people from
other nations to be savages. They were arrogant like a frog in a pond seeing itself as
being in the ocean. This is a reflection of the narrow vision based on no facts. They
did not know how to be as competitive as other nations. Thus, the flaws allow English
troops to easily invade its borders (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, p208).” The
Burmese identity to the eye of the leader might be related to Burmese culture these
days, which is passing through social transformation processes.
7
When comparing how Thai and Burmese workers perform their work, it was
found that the Burmese are sincere, smile easily, shy, arrogant, polite, and innocent.
They seem content with what they have with less need and ambition from
materialism. They are active and service-minded. Besides, they value a patronage
system and respect the elderly. The relationship between the leaders and the followers
is crucial. For them, government officers are respectful and dignified. However, most
of them work in the agricultural sectors or work in other businesses like commerce,
services, and industry. They tend to have quality life, especially the ones in
agricultural sector. Similarly, relative and patronage systems are the core culture. Thai
people love freedom thus they sometimes fail to follow strict rules and regulations.
They tend to put themselves first and respect authorities and the elderly based on their
social hierarchy. Thai people are usually sincere, helpful, and friendly. Also, they
need security from work (Wirat Niyomtham, 2008, p. 17 as cited in Warangkana
Tippayachon, 2014, p. 22).
The comparison above shows some common characteristics and culture of the
two nations, while some variations are detected. The similarities might result from the
religious root of their culture as both countries practice Theravada Buddhism
(Sutheera Phrasertsap, 2007, p. 61-65 as cited in Warangkana Tippayachon, p. 22).
However, despite the shared cultural values, which facilitate mutual understanding,
the intercultural communication between the two nations requires taking into account
the dissimilarities, which might result in misunderstandings at the beginning phase.
Also, they might lead to cultural conflict. It is likely that the dissimilarities and
cultural conflict are more influential than the similarities in an individual,
organizations, or mass media. Hence, this study aims to compare the attitude of
Burmese workers towards Thai culture and their own using Hofstede’s value
dimensions.
1.5 Problems of Burmese Workers Employment in the South of Thailand
The circumstance in which the numbers of Burmese workers in Thailand has
continued to increase every year emphasizes the multicultural context in the country.
According to the record, in 2016 the South of Thailand was top destination for
8
Burmese migrant workers who are working in the suburban areas. These workers
have their original nationality proven and have come to work based on the MOU
signed by the Thai government. Most of the workers or 63,388 went to Surat Thani,
48,319 went to Ranong, and 38,607 settled in Songkhla (Foreign Workers
Administration Office, 2016). The major aim of these people was to gain more
income than that in their home country. However, the migration to work in Thailand
was neither smooth nor comfortable, while the employers also encounter many
problems. According to the literature review, the problems of the migrant workers in
the South can be summarized as follows:
1.5.1 The stereotype of the Burmese workers by the employers and other Thai
people include the perception on the Burmese as their enemy. As a consequence it
affects the judgment of the workers’ performances and the attitude towards each
other. For instance the employers and colleagues are paranoid while anxious to
cooperate. Racial discrimination occurs and the some of the workers cannot stand the
bias. Then they react inappropriately by hurting the employers or colleagues, stealing
and doing other misdeeds.
1.5.2 The motivation in adapting themselves of the Burmese workers is
lessened since the workers usually persuade their relatives or friends to work in
Thailand. Thus many of them come to Thailand and live in a community. Then they
rarely communicate to Thai people. Meanwhile, modern technology allows them to
expose to the media in Thailand more effectively. As a result, the opportunities or
necessity in adapting themselves to Thai society is reduced. The types of adaptation
depend on each case such as they may adapt to the language, while their attitude
towards Thai people is stable.
1.5.3 The Burmese workers flee away from work or quit without any notice
due to the unfairness in employment. This includes working more but earning less, no
welfare or medical care and the lack of the channels in negotiating for their rights.
Thus, the employers need to recruit new workers.
1.5.4 Different interpretation between the two parties from the lack of
awareness of Thai and Burmese cultural differences result in misunderstanding,
obstacles, and problems for work.
9
1.6 Research Questions
1.6.1 What is the extent of the intercultural communication between Thai
employers and Burmese workers in the South?
1.6.2 What is the extent of the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai
culture when comparing to their own?
1.6.3 What factors are connected to the ability to adapt themselves to work of
the Burmese workers in the South?
1.7 Research Objectives
1.7.1 To investigate the intercultural communication between Thai employers
and Burmese workers the South
1.7.2 To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai culture and
their own
1.7.3 To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and organizational
factors which are related to the ability to adapt themselves to work
1.8 Definition of Terms
1.8.1 The factors related to the ability to adapt to work of the Burmese
workers referred to: 1) personal factors, which includes demographics data, media
exposure behavior, ethnocentric attitude, knowledge of Thai culture, and religious
behavior, and 2) organizational factors including the organizational structures and the
attitude towards Thai and Burmese culture.
1.8.2 Adaptive ability to work referred to the Burmese workers’ feeling of
working in Thailand such as wellness, happiness, acceptance, and relationship with
others, and success in working, familiarity with Thai culture/ relaxation.
1.8.3 Intercultural communication associated with the reflection of cultural
attitude between the Thai employers and Burmese workers.
1.8.4 The attitude towards culture refers to the Burmese workers’ attitude
towards their working conditions and life styles. In this study Hofstede’s value
dimensions were applied as the research framework. Those dimensions are:
10
1.8.5 Individualism or collectivism
1.8.5.1 Individualism refers to the society in which personal rights are
valued. People believe in their own thoughts and values. They make decision by
themselves and believe in equity, freedom, and liberation.
1.8.5.2 Collectivism refers to the society which takes cooperation as a
common practice. People rely on each other and put try to achieve a shared goal
focusing on the similarity rather than the differences.
1.8.6 Power distance
1.8.6.1 High power distance describes the society where power is
accepted as a part of their elements. In this society, people have different positions,
power, and take different roles. They convey their opinions based on their roles,
status, and social power.
1.8.6.2 Low power distance refers to the society in which people are
equally valued. Subordinates are brave enough to argue their bosses when necessary.
1.8.7 Masculinity or femininity refers to the following aspect rather than
focusing exclusively on genders:
1.8.7.1 Masculinity is the society which focuses on competitiveness
and takes work as a key success. Material success is ideological. Also, men and
women are clearly separated.
1.8.7.2 Femininity focuses more on quality of life rather than material
success. Men and women are not separated.
1.8.8 High or low uncertainty avoidance
1.8.8.1 High uncertainty avoidance refers to the society, which takes
uncertainty of the future seriously. People are likely to seek for security and stability
in their lives. The society has strict and fixed rules and regulations. People need more
information and clear formal plans.
1.8.8.2 Low uncertainty avoidance associates with a society where
people enjoy challenges and do not stick to rules. They have adjustable lifestyle which
can be postponed and flexible. It is unnecessary to have strict rules for work.
1.8.9 The elements of cultural psychology referred to the internal factors of
individuals which constitute their thoughts, attitude, perception, interpretation, and
11
different ways of thinking. In this study, the focus is on stereotype, ethnocentrism,
and prejudice/ bias.
1.8.10 Media exposure behavior means the types of Thai media the Burmese
workers expose themselves to, the objectives of the exposure, the advantages from the
exposure, and the opinions towards the contents about the Burmese through Thai
media.
1.8.11 Demographic characteristics are referred to gender, age, education,
nationality, workplace, housing, types of businesses, and work experiences in
Myanmar.
1.8.12 The Southern region referred to the three provinces with the largest
population of Burmese workers in 2016. This includes Surat Thani, Ranong, and
Songkhla, respectively (Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016).
1.8.13 The Thai employers are referred to as the entrepreneurs in
construction, agriculture, cattle, service-providing, and fishery businesses who are
hiring Burmese workers in the South of Thailand.
1.8.14 The Burmese workers referred to those who entered Thailand through
MOU. Their original nationality have been proven and are hired to help in
construction, agriculture, cattle, service-providing, and fishery businesses who are
hiring Burmese workers in the South of Thailand.
1.9 Scope of the Study
1.9.1 The Scope of the Contents
The contents of this study consist of two major parts as follows:
The first section presents the data from two groups of the participants: the
Thai employers and Burmese workers whose original nationality have been proven
and entered Thailand through MOU. The assessment would be made according to the
elements of cultural psychology, media exposure behavior, and the perception
towards the relationship between the two nations.
The second section presents the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai
culture and Burmese culture in conjunction with the factors related to the ability to
adapt to work of the Burmese workers in the South.
12
1.9.2 The Scope of the Research Site and the Period of Study
The research site covered the three provinces in the South of Thailand with the
highest number of Burmese workers in 2016 (Foreign Workers Administration Office,
2016). The three provinces are Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. The participants
were limited to those who are in construction, agriculture, cattle, service-providing,
and fishery businesses that are hiring Burmese workers in the South of Thailand.
The period of study was from May 2016 to April 2017.
1.10 Limitations of the Study
The limitation of the study is associated with approaching the participants.
Purposive sampling technique, which is a non-probability sampling methodology, was
applied in obtaining the participants. As a result, some parts of the population might
not have equal opportunities to be chosen. In other words, the Burmese workers were
chosen by the Thai employers based on the researcher’s specification with assistance
from acquaintances and friends. Hence, the participants were not from all the areas
due to the limitation of location and business types. This is because it was not possible
to collect data from all business sectors.
1.11 Significance of the Study
1.11.1 Academic Significance
This study could broaden the scope of knowledge in intercultural
communication. Experts, supporters, and multicultural activists might have higher
awareness and focus more on cultural issues and coexistence of people in the society.
1.11.2 Social Significance
The knowledge about intercultural communication facilitates
adaptation for coexistence of others in society, which is more likely to become
multicultural. The members have more knowledge and are aware of the cultural
differences between each other. Thus, this promotes human rights and sharing for
human beings on the basis of equality. Also, the education of people with different
cultural backgrounds should be higher. This is crucial as it is a fundamental factor for
work of the migrant workers in Thailand.
13
1.11.3 Economic Significance
Employers’ and business targets’ perception and acceptance of cultural
differences allow entrepreneurs to predict the behavior, attitude, and values of the
targets. As a result, the organizational management will be more effective.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The study titled “Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese
Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand,” aims to investigate the
intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the
south of Thailand. The investigation allowed the comparison of the Burmese workers’
attitudes towards Thai culture and their own. Also, the analysis of personal factors and
group factors in relation to the adaptation abilities to work was also conducted.
In order to provide the baseline knowledge for this study, the following
concepts, theories, and previous studies were reviewed:
2.1 Intercultural Communications
2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influence
2.3 Hofstede’s Value Dimension
2.4 Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theories
2.5 Demographic characteristics influencing the adaptation ability to work
2.6 Backgrounds of Myanmar and figures of Burmese workers in Thailand
2.7 Royal Decree on Managing the Work of Aliens B.E. 2560 (2017)
2.8 Previous studies
2.8.1 Previous studies on intercultural communications and cultural
dimensions
2.8.2 Previous studies on media exposure and media cultivation
2.8.3 Previous studies on the employment of migrant worker
15
2.1 Intercultural Communications
2.1.1 Definitions of Intercultural Communications
Intercultural communications refer to the processes of transferring and
interpreting interaction and signs between people with different cultural backgrounds
within a certain context of communication. The study of intercultural communications
has the focus on promoting the understanding of cultural differences, the underlying
causes and elements resulting in those differences including the problems and solutions
to improve understanding among people (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.9).
In the context of intercultural communications, the sender and receiver are from
different cultures. The communications traditionally occurs in the cultural context of
the sender, while the receiver interacts with the sender as a cultural member rather than
a member of a nation. Besides, intercultural communications usually is associated with
the encounter between people in the same country, who share the same nationality, but
have different culture such as the northern people and the southern people in Thailand.
2.1.2 Roles and Significance of Intercultural Communications
Globalization leads to mobility and exchange of people by narrowing the gaps
between familiarity and convenience in their origin and the unfamiliarity in new places.
These differences can limit their performances and wellness in their lives. Some of them
might resist the new circumstances and maintain their original ways of living. On the
other hand some might try to become like the people in the new culture or the
communities in order to feel better but have failed (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 10).
As a result, it is necessary for people from different cultural backgrounds to
contact or interact with each other. Thus, methods that can facilitate the most effective
communications should be applied. The knowledge about intercultural communications
is crucial in promoting mutual understanding between the two groups. It can also
contribute to positive relationship between individuals, understanding and acceptance
of other societies, abilities to work, and togetherness among individuals or people from
other cultures or nationalities (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 12).
16
When communicating with people from other cultures, there are high chances
of transfer and change in the cultures of the two groups. The processes include
“acculturation”, “assimilation,” and “cultural imperialism.”
2.1.3 The Fundamental Beliefs underlying Intercultural Communication
The fundamental beliefs underlying intercultural communication refer to 4 areas
as follows (Kanjana Kaewthep, 2014, p. 154-157):
2.1.3.1 Among the different cultures in the world, each has its unique
characteristics; however, it is believed that there is “commonality,” which can connect
one culture to another.
Concerning to intercultural communications, the following four criteria
are employed in determining the cultural commonality and differences (Samovar,1998
as cited in Kanjana Kaewthep, 2014, p. 154):
Perception is the first gateway to beliefs, values, attitude, and worldview.
1) Verbal communications becomes the most outstanding
element in intercultural communications as the “communications through a different
language” hardly leads to mutual understanding.
2) Non-verbal communications with the assumption that
although verbal communications through written or spoken forms are outstanding
modes for intercultural communications, previous studies proved that it only explains
20% of communications success. Nonverbal communications plays another 80% in
promoting understanding.
3) Contextual communication refers to cultural contexts such as
the context the communication takes place, for example, public health, tourism, sports,
or employment.
2.1.3.2 Intercultural groups promote the encounter and exchange
between cultures with the underlying assumption that, it is inevitably necessary for each
culture to always adapt or change itself. The exchange between cultures leads to cultural
enrichment.
2.1.3.3 Despite the belief that commonality between cultures is
available, intercultural communication must take into account cultural differences. The
differences initiatively lead to misunderstandings and result in cultural conflict.
17
Besides, it seems that cultural differences are more active than the commonality
regardless of individual, organizational, or mass levels. Hence, studies on intercultural
communications should focus on seeking for understanding of those differences and
conflicts. Not only the results from such studies can be added to academic knowledge,
but also they might be practically beneficial.
2.1.3.4 At present, numbers of studies on intercultural communications
are increasing due to its necessity and possibilities. The changes, which are relevant to
intercultural communications include:
1) The advancement of communications technology and
information systems
2) The transfer of the economic system to intercultural industry
and global enterprises allow people in different countries to cooperate in the same
company, while organizational communications must take into consideration the
dimensions of intercultural communications.
3) Population mobility from the advancement in transport
allows people to move from one place to another for a certain activity. For example, for
the permanent or temporary migration to work, the migrants must adapt to the culture
of the targeted nation. However, they might take their culture with them and still have
contact with the original society, for example, the Thai people in America resulting in
co-culture.
2.1.4 Methods of Intercultural Communication Investigation
Metta Vivatananukul (2005, p. 31) has outlined the methods of how intercultural
communications can be investigated as follows:
2.1.4.1 Anthropology approaches refer to the early phase of behavioral
investigation with the underlying belief that we can predict or explain one’s behavior
from studying their culture. The emphasis is on the examination of values, beliefs, and
personal needs, which are governed by an individual’s culture. Thus, it aims to respond
to the question, “What are the determinants of human behaviors?”
Hence, if we understand one’s culture, we can predict their behaviors and
the understanding of their social roles and characteristics. This results in more precise
and valid prediction. In the investigation of intercultural communications, the studies,
18
which take this approach, appear to be behavioral-based. That is to say, they put efforts
in describing behavioral differences of individuals, which are affected by the difference
in their cultures. This approach gains popularity in communications and organizational
management.
2.1.4.2 Social psychology approach focuses on how humans explain
what happens in their lives. In other words, the major focus is the perception or
interpretation of behaviors, especially explanations and justification of the behaviors
with the belief that people with different cultural backgrounds tend to have different
perception on a certain issues.
Miller and Steinberg (1975, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 31)
have integrated the two approaches in explaining and predicting effects of
communications. They discovered four aspects of the influences of the two approaches
as follows:
1) Cultural influences refer to general perception of cultures in
terms of values and world view such as the concept of value orientation.
2) Socio-cultural influences associate with the narrower view of
cultures with the understanding of where the person belongs to such as gender, age,
occupation, and religion. People in each group have different sub-cultures. The focus
is on the indicated social roles and relationship as well as the expectation for the
behavior of the people in the group.
3) Psycho-cultural influences refer to understandings of internal
processes in an individual’s mind regarding mindsets, attitudes, perception, and thought
categorization of individuals with different cultural backgrounds.
4) Environmental influences refer to the investigation of
environmental impacts on cultural and behavioral constitution such as the landscape,
weather, places, sizes and types of organizations, as well as the influences of cultures
on the environmental management.
19
2.1.5 Intercultural Adaptation
Cushner and Brislin (1996, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul (Krittawit), 2016,
p.324) refers to four indicators of success in adaptation and effectiveness of intercultural
communications as follows:
2.1.5.1 Feeling of contentment and well-being state
2.1.5.2 Maintenance/respect/good relationship with others
2.1.5.3 Task effectiveness including understanding of others’ cultures and
working styles
2.1.5.4 No culture shock or being able to eradicate most of it
In this study the researcher integrated anthropology and social
psychology approaches in the investigation of the intercultural communications
between Thai employers and Burmese workers with the exclusive focus on psycho-
cultural influences. In addition, the adaptation and the factors related to the abilities to
adapt to work of the Burmese workers were also examined.
2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences
According to Miller and Steinberg (1975, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul
(Krittawit), 2016, p. 73), it is necessary for people with different cultural backgrounds
to realize the influences of at least four factors in order to holistically understand their
impacts on the individuals’ ways of thinking, attitudes, expressions, communication,
and perception or interpretation. Eventually, they can communicate with people from
other cultures more successfully. The four factors include; Cultural influences, Socio-
cultural influences, Psycho-cultural influences, and Environmental influences.
In this study, the researcher aims at investigating psycho-cultural influences.
Metta Vivatananukul (2005, pp. 110-129) refers to this element as another factor
influencing intercultural communications with the assumption that when those
interacting together learn and understand each other, the intercultural communications
is likely to be successful.
Psycho-cultural influences play key roles in encoding, which relies on the
processes of perception/ interpretation to understand the messages. Furthermore, they
might have influences on the responses to the senders. In addition, due to the
20
expectation of those involved in the interaction these influences also have impacts on
the communications as senders. Thus, the communicative behaviors are different
depending on individuals’ perception towards others. These behaviors determine how
people communicate.
Psycho-cultural influences are influential in the processes of communications,
both the sending and receiving procedures. In other words, the perception and
interpretation processes of the messages from the favor of psycho-cultural influences
will become the responses after they understand, interpret, and send a message back to
the sender. Hence, psycho-cultural influences associate with dynamic two-ways
communications.
Even though, there are a number of internal factors or psycho-cultural
influences on intercultural communications, in this study two the most challenging
factors that can hinder success in intercultural communications are of interest. They can
be defined as follows:
2.2.1 Stereotypes
A stereotype is an image or characteristic of a group of individuals in
one’s mind. It usually refers to a specific image for a certain group, for example, the
saying that Germans are good at engines, Jews are stingy, Chinese are hard-working,
Americans are hot-tempered, Thai northern people are calm, Thai southern people are
ferocious, medical students are scholarly, and models love freedom. According to
Hewstone and Brown (1986, as cited in Gudykunst and Kim, 1992, p.91, as cited in
Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.118) , stereotypes have three outstanding characteristics
as follows:
2.2.1.1 People are always categorized according to their outstanding
characteristics such as genders or nationalities, which can be observed from their shapes
or skin.
2.2.1.2 Certain attitudes are used to explain or justify the underlying
causes of behaviors of the entire group of people. Each member is perceived to be the
same, but different from other groups based on the attitude towards certain behaviors
of the group.
21
2.2.1.3 Attitude can be used to explain the behaviors of a member of a
group based on the stereotype towards their group.
Due to the large amount and complexity of information or contact with
the environment, stereotypes facilitate easier and more systematic perceptions. It is
beneficial to adaptation or understating of certain matters.
Stereotypes might be resulted from personal experiences or what one had
encountered. For instance if someone got lost in Tokyo and a Japanese person provided
assistance, after that the person would believe that all Japanese are helpful or Esan
workers as a whole are seen to be lazy after meeting up with a lazy Esan. This idea may
not accurately reflect reality.
In addition, some stereotypes are products of cultivation, which
influences the whole society to see things in the same way. The circumstance refers to
“social stereotype”.
Vassilion, et al., (1972, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 119)
have classified stereotypes into two aspects below:
a) Normative stereotypes refer to the stereotypes from
information through education, mass media, and historical events.
b) Non normative stereotypes, in contrast, are not based on
other sources, but from real observational incidents or from direct interaction. They
usually occur without normative stereotype towards other groups.
The influences of stereotypes on communication cover three areas.
1) With a stereotype a person is likely to believe that certain
psychological characteristics such as consideration or rudeness are connected to every
member of the group. For instance, Chinese are usually hot-tempered; men are ruder
than women, which may not accurately reflect reality.
2) Stereotypes influence on perception and interpretation of
messages. They are influential in four aspects.
(1) Stereotypes lead to perception, for example, when people
encounter with an ambiguous message, they tend to interpret it according to their
previous experiences or stereotypes. For instance when a person crying people would
22
assume that the person is sad since most people cry when being sad. This is a stereotype
and it might be tears of happiness.
(2) Stereotypes facilitate the processes of perception. That is
to say, when a stereotype is altered, the new stereotype can distort our perception. For
example, we believe that the English are arrogant and scornful of Asian people. When
we talk to the English we might believe that they are looking down on us like the image
in our mind. This is a major obstacle to communication.
(3) Stereotypes block the perception processes. In other
words, stereotypes determine the amount of messages and perceived information.
Individuals might believe in their previous perception towards a certain thing and reject
new messages or lead to the lack of attention. With the rejection and low attention, they
seemed to observe less about the person or objects. Meanwhile, this affects the
individuals’ recall and interpretation relying on their memories. Thus, with fewer
inputs, the abilities to perceive are lessened.
(4) Stereotypes facilitate the perception processes. As
mention earlier, people with stereotypes seem to believe in their previous experiences.
Thus, provided that the stereotype accurately reflects reality, individuals understand
and receive the message easier by learning from experiences to which they have been
exposed. This is one of the advantages of stereotypes. However, the stereotypes must
accurately reflect reality, otherwise, the perception processes might be distorted.
2.2.2 Intergroup Attitude
Attitudes are influential to group members. Each of them shares similar attitudes
and sometimes they have impacts on the relationship intergroup. Thus, the investigation
of intercultural communications centers at examining attitude between groups.
Generally, attitude consists of three domains.
2.2.2.1 Components of attitudes
1) Cognitive component is related to thoughts and beliefs on a
certain thing or person. It refers to knowledge and understanding of the other groups
we are interacting with. It is how individuals distinguish differences based on reasons
and consequences. The pros and cons of cognitive components of attitudes associate
with how individuals apply their accumulated and transferred information and
23
justification in evaluating the object or person. The process is without emotions, but
relies much on the reasons based on their personal beliefs.
2) Affective components are connected to emotions and
responses of how individuals evaluate a certain stimulus. The emotions refer to the
feelings of likes, dislikes, love, hatred, or fear resulting from their emotions or “heart”
in Thai contexts.
3) Conative components associate with objectives or intention
to behave or react. Sometimes they are perceived to be behavioral component as the
action tendency. The tendency is connected to feelings, consciousness, and reasons.
This behavior can become an immediate response to a situation or object (Tithaya,
1984, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 121)
2.2.2.2 The Significance of Intergroup Attitudes on Intercultural
Communication
1) Ethnocentrism is an attitude of regarding one’s group as
center of everything. Individuals from other cultures or groups are judged on the basis
of their cultural norms and values. It is obviously seen in people with high levels of
nationalism, who regard their culture as superior to others.
In reality, people are likely to regard themselves, as the center
based on how they have socialized. For example, traditionally the Chinese believed that
their country was center of the world and perceived people from somewhere else as
being wild. However, with slight ethnocentrism communication is not affected.
Burk (1976, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 121)
claimed that high ethnocentrism leads to conflicts. The people tend to believe that their
lifestyles are better than others, which is likely to cause conflicts.
In addition, ethnocentrism leads to wrong perception towards
people from other cultures and later constitutes mistaken attitudes towards their
behaviors. That is to say, they usually apply their frame of reference in judging others.
Thus, the message might be distorted. When people don’t understand or misunderstand
each other, ineffective communication occurs. High ethnocentrism results in
unacceptance of knowledge and other cultures and mutual understanding is affected
(Supattra, 1998, pp. 42-43, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.121).
24
Ethnocentrism has a lot of effects on communication. One of
them is communicative distance, which does not refer to distance measured in meters
or kilometers. In contrast, communicative distance refers to abstract ideas like the
atmosphere and the feelings while communicating, which are constituted by many
factors such as the attitude or messages, or the exchanged nonverbal communication at
the moment of communicating.
Communicative distance consists of three levels ranging from
the levels of ethnocentrism in the following ascending order:
(1) The distance of difference is conveyed through spoken
and nonverbal language to show one’s ignorance about people from other cultures and
unawareness of cultural differences. An obvious example is how people talk to
foreigners with the ideas that the foreigners should speak their language for better
understanding between the two parties.
(2) The distance of avoidance is transferred through spoken
language, avoidance or limitations of interaction with the people outside their group.
For example, using jargon so that other people cannot understand and communicate
with members of the group is a popular means to avoid intercultural interaction.
(3) The distance of disparagement associates with distance
from critical nationalism through spoken language to reflect disgust and insult to other
groups. The example of distance of disparagement conveyed through spoken language
is how they address others using “Ethnophaulism.” The practice is classifies into three
levels as follows:
a) Insulting by using nationality terms such as “ Irish
confetti,” “Jewbird,” or “Nigga,”
b) Devaluing some groups by using certain expressions
such as “Luck of the Irish” or “Jew him down.”
c) Using nicknames to refer to people from a certain
nation to show insult such as “Polack,” “jungle bunny.” “Honky,” “Cruel Sarong,” or
“Baksiao”
25
In addition, the distance of disparagement can be
transferred using nonverbal communications such as walking away, making faces to
show dissatisfaction, or insulting to other groups
Therefore, in order to improve the effectiveness of
intercultural communications ethnocentrism should be reduced to an appropriate level
with higher awareness of cultural differences. In judging others’ behaviors reliance
should be made on the basis of cultural references of those who are the target of
communications. This facilitates better interpretation of people outside the groups,
bridges gaps in the communication, and leads to smooth and successful
communications.
2) Prejudice, rooted from Latin, is defined as decision making
based on previous decisions or experiences. The term has both positive and negative
meanings, but mostly negative ( Allport, 1954, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005,
p.123). It might be defined from hatred which is resulted from mistakes. Prejudice can
be transferred through feelings or expressions. It can be targeted towards the whole
group or a person as a group member. It happens naturally and is unavoidable since it
has been constituted through socialization. Prejudice associates with fixed, unfair, and
unfavorable attitudes towards other groups. It can be overt or hidden or against the
whole group or a person as a group member.
Examples of prejudice include racist, sexist, or ageism.
Everyone can be prejudiced against certain issues. However, even with low prejudice
one might prefer to communicate with their people than those from other society due
to less stress and more understanding than communicating with people from other
cultures that look different from them.
People with prejudice are likely to encounter with
communicative problems as prejudice is similar to stereotype in the way that it
organizes the input information obtained through sensory organs and guide them to
understanding of messages in a certain way. Besides, people usually allow prejudice to
be a framework indicating their communicational behaviors towards others. It is
interesting that this framework usually conform to this framework more than the stimuli
or the information in the real situation. When we are prejudiced against people in a
26
nation, we tend to behave differently, for example, an English manager might greet a
French subordinate, but not the Irish.
Prejudice is rather permanent. Regardless of new information
that can eradicate prejudice, people might not change their preconceived feelings. Thus,
if we are prejudiced against a certain group, but have the need to communicate with
them the prejudice can negatively affect the communications. A study on the discussion
about minorities by Teun A. Van Dijk, (as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 126)
is in line with the notion. 49 sets of interviews with 53 interviewees were conducted. It
was found that 50 out of 53 interviewees preferred not to interact with minorities. This
means that when one is prejudiced against a certain group or have negative attitude
towards them, the prejudice is not only play its roles while communicating by
constituting wrong prediction or interpretation of the behaviors of the interactant, but
might also lessen the desire to communicate with the group ( Van Dijk, 1991, p. 51 as
cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.126).
Generally, people are more or less prejudiced, which is similar
to the case of ethnocentrism. They are natural and unavoidable. With low prejudice
people are able to behave to other similarly to how they do to themselves because the
interaction is more convenient and less stressful.
People tend to have positive attitude towards the people in their
group and have negative attitude towards the outsiders. However, it is possible for ones
to have negative attitudes towards the group members, while having positive attitude
towards the outsiders.
People with high prejudice tend to be ignorant to information,
intolerant to mistakes, and ignorant about comments.
Moreover, people with high prejudice are likely to rely on their
beliefs in dealing with their attitude when encountering with unexpected information.
People who remain their preconceived decisions after getting correct new information
are those with high prejudice, while those who are flexible enough to change are with
low prejudice.
However, a person can be prejudiced and open-mined at the
same time. If we communicate unconsciously, we will be prejudiced. However, with
consciousness we think carefully about the causes and effects and see the interactant
27
with broader view until we become less prejudiced. Hence, we should be conscious
when communicating.
2.3 Hofstede’s Value Dimensions
The approach of intercultural communications is based on the idea that every
culture has both “similarities” and “differences.” Trying to understand those similarities
and differences can improve intercultural cultural exchange and learning (Kanjana
Kaewthep, 2014, p.169).
Hofstede’s value dimensions are criteria for cultural comparison based on an
extensive survey of more than 10,000 IBM employees in 50 countries across the globe.
The model consists of four criteria as follows (Samovar, Porter, McDaniel & Roy, 2013,
p.177): The Hofstede model of national culture consists of the following four
dimensions.
2.3.1 Individualism versus Collectivism
2.3.1.1 Individualism is defined by Hofstede as a society where human
rights and privacy are highly valued than groups’ decisions. For instance, in the US in
which people seem to be individualistic, employees tend to change their jobs in order
to improve their careers. They focus on their own sake as priority, while the
organizations or colleagues are secondary. In contrast, in Japan individuals are expected
to follow their traditional way of life. They tend to stick to their organizations and will
be seen as disloyal to the organization and the colleagues when changing jobs.
2.3.1.2 Collectivism refers to relationship constituted by strict social
customs, which separate within group and out group people from each other. The
following characteristics are usually found in a collectivistic society.
1) Perspectives, needs, or goals within group are more
dominant than individuals’ own needs or goals.
2) Social norms and responsibilities are identified by
individuals within group rather than the satisfaction of each individual.
3) Sharing within group is vital than excluding from groups.
4) Group members are ready for cooperation within group.
28
The outstanding characteristics of collectivism society associates with
how people live in extended family. The family sincerely support and protect them from
any changes. In general, people accept group decisions as if they are personal desires.
The significance of group-oriented society is reflected in a Chinese saying, “No matter
how stout, one beam cannot support a house.”
Collectivism focuses on the contexts and the environment, for example,
a group work in class contributes to warm and cooperative atmosphere rather than
competitiveness or in the context of healthcare a patient would be frequently visited by
family members. This confirms that the sense of belonging to the groups is very strong.
Another example is the incidents of earthquake, Tsunami, and new clear crisis in Japan.
The whole nation agrees to revive the country as soon as possible. The whole population
is volunteering to adopt a conservative approach to consumption reflecting their
devotion to the nation and raise harmony in the nation regardless of any crises they had
encountered.
2.3.2 Power Distance
Hofstede refers to power distance as inequality of social administration/
management. The core concept is “How much the institution or organization members
with low power can expect and accept unequal decentralization?” Although both high
and low power distance seem to be found in every society, either of them tends to be
more dominant. Hofstede categorizes power distance into two aspects as follows:
2.3.2.1 High power distance
In a high power distance society, people accept that power is a significant
element of the society and power is the truth for life. Thus culture cultivated the people
to believe that inequality exists in the world. Everyone is in their right place and
hierarchy and social status are obvious.
2.3.2.2 Low power distance
In a nation with low power distance, inequality in the society is minor.
Separation is devalued as much as possible. In an organizational context, evaluation of
supervisor is fair. They try to express themselves with less power than their real status.
For example, teacher-centered approach is applied in a high power
distance society in terms of education. The teachers start the conversation, while the
29
students are subordinate. They never critique or argue with the teachers. “Wisdom” of
individuals is valuable. In contrast, in a low power distance society the “truth” gains
high value than individuals themselves. In workplaces, people can share their ideas, for
example, employees can consult with others, supervisors provide support, and signs of
status are minor.
2.3.3 Uncertainty Avoidance
Hofstede has proposed that uncertainty avoidance associates with how much the
group members realize their encountering with unclear or unknown situations and how
well they manage the vagueness and expectation.
2.3.3.1 High uncertainty avoidance
In a culture with high uncertainty avoidance, people are afraid of
unexpected situations as well as highly ambiguous incidents. They tend to be aware of
consensus, against changes, and believe in social traditions. The people in a high
uncertainty avoidance society are with high stress and anxiety. For them it is possible
to encounter with danger or risks and they will try to avoid them. People rely on strict
and written laws. They make plans and set regulations. Japan is one of the countries
with high uncertainty avoidance with formal social customs.
2.3.3.2 Low uncertainty avoidance
People in a low uncertainty avoidance culture tend to accept uncertainty
as a part of their lives and are likely to stand inconstancy. They are less likely to be
threatened by different opinions from outgroups. They are usually imaginative, ready
for risks, quite flexible, but do not prefer hierarchical societies. They can follow rules
when necessary, but with as few rules as possible. Finally, in general the people who
believe in low uncertainty avoidance are less likely to stick to social customs.
2.3.4 Masculinity versus Femininity
The terms “masculinity” and “femininity” are used by Hofstede to refer to a
frame of reference for men and women characteristics in terms of values and
expressions. The underlying justification behind his study associates with the
assumption that women and men’s behaviors are products of socialization and transfer
of norms and cultural ways of life. In addition, Alder and Gunderson offers more
30
rounded definition of the two terms. In their work “masculinity” refers to career
success, while “femininity” associates with quality of life.
2.3.4.1 Masculinity
According to Alder and Gunderson, people in the culture that focus on
“masculinity” or “career success” highly value sexual roles and encourage success in
work with the focus on money (materials). They usually respect seniority when
expressing interpersonal relationship with others. The U.S. is a good example of
masculine-based culture.
2.3.4.2 Femininity
In a feminine-based culture, people reflect their desire to be caretakers or
social guardians. Even though it is termed “femininity,” sexual roles and emotions are
overlap. That is to say, both men and women are supposed to be simple and gentle with
the focus on quality of life. With this belief, it is unnecessary for men to be confident
and they are expected to take roles as caretakers or social guardians. In this society,
sexual equality is promoted, while people and the environment are crucial elements
which rely on each other. Taking both men and women roles is preferable. They do not
have high expectation. A good example of feminine-based culture is Norway.
2.3.5 Thai Culture
Thailand is one of the targeted countries in Hofstede’s cultural comparative
study. It was found that Thailand is outstanding in two dimensions - power distance
and uncertainty avoidance. The survey shows that in Thai society people are unequal
in power and different in economic status. The circumstance does not depend on the
population, but social acceptance. As a result, social difference is a part of its long-
term cultural legacies.
Similarly, uncertainty avoidance is another outstanding characteristic of
Thailand. The study reveals that Thai people are not accustomed to changes and risks.
In contrast, individualism is not influential in the country, which is congruent to the
Thai contexts where it tends to be collectivistic rather than individualistic. This is
obviously in long-term close relationship in groups such as families and marriage can
extend the extent of the relationship. At the same time, loyalty to groups is crucial and
is superior to any social rules or regulations. The society is maintained through
31
assistance and support from group members. In addition, the study found that
masculinity gains the least attention comparing to other Asian countries and all the
countries across the globe. The low indicator shows that Thai people are less assertive
and competitive than those countries where the two aspects are essential. The incident
encourages the promotion of Thai typical roles of men and women. According to
Hofstede, 95% of Thais are Buddhists. The essence of this religion was the focus on
morals, ethics, and behaving and practicing of mind according to ways of Buddhism
(Wonghatai Tancheevawong, 2011, pp. 58-59).
As a result, the characteristics of Thai cultural are investigated and revealed
based on Hofstede’s value dimensions. However, this present study is different to that
of Hofstede as it is aimed to compare the cultural dimensions of Thai employers and
Burmese workers in the south of Thailand.
2.4 Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theories
Mass media in Thailand has a key role in determining the perceptions and
understandings towards a certain nation, especially about power and images. However,
mass media frequently constitute misunderstanding of other races. Similarly, the power
of media possession was well as the frequencies of presentations are influential in the
constitution of the images against other races. Hence, intercultural communications
play an important role in encouraging people to be aware of mass media roles on self-
perceptions and other races or nations as well as the creation of stereotypes of each
nation presented through mass media (Metta Vivatananukul, 2008, p.14).
Bureau of Cultivation of Mass Media makes a notion that direct experiences of
people tend to be limited in the modern era as they usually experience things through a
medium. Thus, it is questionable that “most of the truth around us” would be constituted
by mass media (especially television) more than direct experiences. It can be said that
quantitatively, mass media are more influential in drawing mental maps than
individuals’ direct experiences (Kanjana Kaewthep, 2013, 2014).
In responding to the question about how cultivation processes take place,
concerning television, the cultivation processes relate to interaction between the
audience and the contents on televisions based on Social Construction of Reality.
32
According to the concept, people in the television era create their symbolic world from
two sources -direct experiences in the real world and mass-mediated experiences from
television.
It is necessary for the investigation of whether individuals choose “media-
mediated truth” or “the truth around them” to create their symbolic world to consider
from the incident where the two sources clash. Then consider which source is selected.
The three investigation methods are helpful.
Method 1: Message system analysis associates with analysis of the available
contents on television to discover the most frequently presented images, themes, and/or
values.
Method 2: Viewers’ social reality refers to exploration of the real world in the
viewers’ context such as the frequencies of crimes in the area considering from the
statistic records.
Method 3: Audience survey refers to a survey on the audience in two aspects -
exposure behavior and their opinions towards life and the world.
In addition, the characteristics of the samples/audience should be taken into
account when considering the extent of cultivation. For example, Erba (2013)
investigated perceptions towards contents about Latin in mass media of university
students in America. The participants had different characteristics: those with obvious
Latin identities and low identities. The results showed different arenas of their
perceptions.
In conclusion, according to Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theory,
mass media are influential in gradually constructing ideas, attitudes, and values of the
audience. Consequently, those factors are taken into account in this study. They include
types of media exposure, objectives of media exposure, opinions towards the
presentations of mass media, and behavior after the exposure.
33
2.5 The Demographic Characteristics Influencing the Adaptation Ability to
Work
An analysis of audience’s demographic characteristics is a relatively popular
method in mass media research. As the audience is large and scattered, it is impossible
to study all of them. As a result, they are categorized into groups based on their
demographic characteristics such as genders, ages, occupations, education, and
incomes.
2.5.1 Genders
Psychological studies indicated that men and women are quite different in their
thoughts, values, and attitudes for the reason that the society and culture identify life
styles and activities of the two genders differently.
2.5.2 Ages
Ages or lifespans refers to the demographic characteristics which constitute
different worldviews and experiences. In other words, older people tend to have more
experiences than the younger. For example, Brown, Hayashi, & Yamamoto (2012)
found out that university students in Japan were more individualistic, while working-
aged people were more collectivistic.
2.5.3 Education
Education or knowledge is not only influential to audience, but also defines
other consequent variables such as occupations, incomes, attitudes, and values.
2.5.4 Occupations
People with different careers have different thoughts, attitudes, and values. For
example, government officers are likely to be conservative. They usually focus on the
titles, dignity, and honors. Meanwhile, people who are in private sectors focus on the
incomes and pride in their ability to afford or buy the things they want. Thus,
occupations result in different attitude and values.
34
2.5.5 Working areas
Working areas is a factor relating to settlement and locations of the workplaces.
In other words, the characteristics of the working areas results on different attitudes and
values of people. Pholphirul (2013) found that a variable, which influenced
employment of migrant workers, was the location of factories. For example, workers in
a factory close to the border or in the vicinity of Thai-Myanmar border were likely to
quit their jobs more than those in other working settings.
2.5.6 Domiciles
Domiciles or a place where a person was born have some impacts on his/her
attitudes and adaptation. For instance, Nguyen (2015) discovered differences in cultural
attitudes of people from different domiciles in the case of Vietnam and the U.S.
2.5.7 Ethnics
Ethnics are indicators or social marks to show differences between groups,
which share the environments or have interaction, for example, the long-term ethnic
conflict in Myanmar.
In this study, six demographic factors were taken as dependent variables in
individual variable group. The factors included age, education, occupation, working
areas, ethnics, and life styles.
2.6 Background of Myanmar and Figures of Burmese Workers in Thailand
The Republic of the Union of Myanmar has a total area of over 261,228 square
miles (about 1.3 times the size of Thailand). Myanmar is bordered by China to its north
and northeast, Thailand and Laos to its east, India and Bangladesh to its
west, and Andaman Sea and Bengal Gulf in the south (Pirote Phosai, Setthachai
Chaisanit, Nichapa Natesisri, and Kanjana Rattarasarn,. 2012, introduction). All the
mountains and bodies of water run from the north to the south. The significant mountain
ranges include Yahai Yomoh (Arakan Mountain Range), Bako Yoma (Hongsawadee
Mountain Range), and Tanin Tayi Yoma (Tenessarim Mountain Range), while the major
waterbody consist of Shinwin Irawadee Sittong (Satong) and Tanlawin (Salawin). The
Irrawaddee flows from the topmost spot in the northernmost areas of the country (19,269
35
feet high). The highest area is Hkakabo Razi Mountain at the end of Meka River and
Malikalam River, while Irrawaddee flows to the south for 1,250 miles into Andaman Sea
(Maung Swe Thet, 2015, p. 32).
2.6.1 The Population
The current population of Myanmar exceeds 55,124104 million people
(January, 2016) (http://countrymeters.info/en/Myanmar). The majority of Burmese
people live along Irrawaddee River, Yakhai River, and Khanin Tayee Coastline in the
south. About 135 ethnic groups constituted the population. Most of them are Burmese,
followed by six ethnic groups, which have their own government. The two groups
occupy 92% of the whole country (Pirote Phosai et al., 2012, p. 323)
2.6.1.1 Languages and figures: About 68% of the population use
Burmese. They are the majority of people and are called “Burmans,” while 10% of the
population uses Karen. Meanwhile, Thai Yai makes up 8% of the population (Thai Yai
refers to “shan” or “Chan”) Burmese people are short, thin, slim with brownish skin
tone, but the Karen have bigger bodies. They are sturdier with fairer complexion (Pirote
Phosai et al., 2012, p. 324).
2.6.1.2 Arts and cultures: Myanmar has long been influenced by
Chinese, Indians, and Thais. However, nowadays they seem to accept more influences
from the west. For example, Longejes, which are made from colorful cotton and silk,
are still popular among people in suburb areas. Those for women are with prints at the
hems and small prints all over. Belts are not popular amongst women, but they usually
wear longejes and cropped tops with five buttons at the front. Both men and women
wear sandals. While, even though men also wear sarongs. They are not as colorful as
those for women. Men usually wear white shirts and for formal occasions they wear
long sleeve Chinese-style shirts and shoes.
2.6.1.3 Population society: Myanmar consists of diverse ethnic groups.
Each of them has unique identities and can be easily grouped based on where they live.
Regarding local administration, each ethnic group forms a state. About half of the
country consists of many states. Each state is named after its ethnic group. Meanwhile,
the other half is made up of different divisions. The densely populated areas feature
36
seven divisions, while the other seven states are less densely populated. Thus, Myanmar
contains 14 areas: 7 divisions, and 7 states as follows:
1) The 7 states of Myanmar are defined as follows :
(1) Kachin State is located at the topmost part of the country.
It is bordered by China in the north and the east. The majority of people used Burmese
in communications.
(2) Kayah State is located in the east of the country. Mae
Hong Sorn, Thailand is the neighboring area.
(3) Kayin State is in the east. It is bordered by the lower area
of Mae Hong Sorn, Tak, and Kanchanaburi. The people in this area are called Karen.
(4) Chin State, located in the west, is neighbored by India in
the north and the west. Most terrain is mountainous, thus, various dialects are used.
(5) Mon State is in the south is neighbored by some areas of
Kanchanaburi, Thailand.
(6) Raknine State is located in the west of Myanmar.
(7) Shan State is in the northern part of the country. The state
is neighbored by Thailand and Kayah State in the south.
2) The 7 divisions of Myanmar are defined as follows:
(1) Sagaing Division is located in the northeastern area with
India as its neighbor.
(2) Taninthayi Division is in the southernmost area. It shares
land borders with Thailand to the west, from Kanchanaburi to Ranong and Andaman
Sea to the west.
(3) Bago Division is in the lower area of the central region.
(4) Magway Division is located in dry terrain of the central
region.
(5) Mandalay Division is in the central region.
(6) Yangon Division is located in the center of Myanmar
(7) Ayeyawady division is in the central region (Wirat-
Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.17-26).
2.6.2 Life Style and Culture
37
Most Burmese in the rural areas exclusively rely on themselves. Each household
usually spare some areas for planting fruits and vegetable for their people. In the
socialism era in which their country was still closed, the government ran a campaign
for their people to be economize and self-reliant. A motto in the campaign was launched
to warn and encourage young people. It was, “Build your own shop in your own
backyard,” referring to planting of vegetables is widely known. Besides, another
famous saying, is “Wasting your money on households” meaning if you do not use
money carefully, you will waste it. In other words, it teaches people not to waste money
on eating. At present the two sayings are still popular due to living conditions in
Myanmar. If they are careless about living, they will be in trouble. As a result, families
take this custom seriously and every house has an area for planting food crops (Wirat-
Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, p. 182).
Another widely adopted practice is betel nut chewing. Betel nut can be bought
from regular shops. While for those who are detail-oriented, they might prepare it by
themselves to serve their own taste and have it when they have artistic mood without
any care for the outside world. However, this is almost impossible as people have more
hasty lives. Then most of them stop to get some betel nut from shops, throw it into their
mouths and leave for work (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p. 108).
2.6.2.1 Religion and beliefs Myanmar had believed in ghost and tree
angels before taking Buddhism like other nations stretching from Indochina to
Indonesia. Generally, they paid respect to invisible souls and ghost called, “Nats”. Nats
could be goddesses in certain places, natural angels, zombies, sky angels, rain angels,
wind angels, forest goddesses, mountain goddesses, river goddesses, tree goddesses, as
well as village goddesses, house goddesses or house ghost (Pirote Phosai et al., 2015,
p.19). In addition, offering bells to temples is meaningful for the Buddhists in
Myanmar. The people believed in the grateful impacts of the practice as the sound of
the bells can make them happy. Also it can wipe away guilt in their hearts and replaces
it with peace. The sound of the bells is also signified as an announcement or a mean to
tell people to join a merit activity as well as invite other to be glad with the merit made
by others. In addition, building bells to offer to temples has been popular as well as
building pagodas. However, the building of huge bells is preserved for ones with great
virtue like Kings or royal families (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.212-213).
38
Another area, which gains great attention from the Buddhists in Myanmar, is
the act of great pagodas worship. Those pagodas are prominent in encouraging people
to do good things and believe in Karma. For example, praying and recalling of the
sacrifices of the Lord Buddha, while traveling to Shawedagon Pagoda is a good deed.
Hence, the people gain merit even though they do not arrive at the pagoda. After they
reach the balcony, which surrounds the pagoda, they offer flowers, incense sticks, and
candles to Lord Buddha’s ashes. In addition, donation on maintenance of the pagoda
and the above practices are praiseworthy. The good deeds provide people with more
energy to fight against any obstacles in their lives (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p. 45).
Pagodas bring Burmese people together. Any conflicts between people are
eradicated when a new pagoda is built, an old pagoda is renovated, or a festival is held.
Most people donate money, things, or labor to do the merit. From the history the
circumstances are similar to what happen at present (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p. 45).
Another belief associated with applying Tanaka on the face, ears, and neck for
people who are alive, and only to the face for dead people. A piece of flat rock called,
“Jao Piang” is used to scrape Tanaka. Burmese people believe in the angles, which take
care of Jao Piang. On the first day of the 1st waning moon at the end of Buddhist Lent,
they make offering to the Nats and request for God’ blessing or endless beauty (Wirat-
Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.198-199).
2.6.2.2 Education and careers .The education system in Myanmar can be
classified into different grades. Grade 1-4 fall into beginner level (primary level), 5-8
are in intermediate (secondary level), and grade 9-10 are in advance level (high school
level). After students finish grade 10, most of them get a job or further their study to
tertiary level without taking any tests (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.268-
269). In addition, educational careers like teachers are honorable in this society.
Teachers are included in one of the five people children should be grateful to in their
lives -father-mother, the Lord Buddha, monks, and teachers. Generally, parents are
proud of their child when they become a teacher, especially university lecturers.
2.6.3 Conflicts among Ethnic Groups in Myanmar
The most challenging problem Myanmar has been dealing with conflicts among
ethnic groups in the country as the nation is home to a number of ethnic groups. That is
39
to say, the total figures of the minorities outnumber the Burmese. As a result, the
Burmese has become minority. Consequently, those ethnic groups have put their efforts
in seeking for freedom such as Thai Yai and Shan. In the opinions of Thai Yai or Mon
people, who have settled before the Burmese did, the Burmese are seen as “invaders”
and see themselves as “the residents.” Hence, provided that the Burmese had good
leaders or strong Kings, the minorities are controlled. However, when the Burmese
were weak, they were likely to set themselves free. Therefore, conflicts with minorities
are continued throughout history (Pirote Phosai et al., 2012, pp.1-2).
The situation in Myanmar is pitiful. A number of efforts have been put to raise
unity in the society and promote sense of belonging among people. The considerable
efforts have made into many activities such as dissemination of Burmese culture,
customs, and traditions as well as teaching Burmese in schools. These activities were
aimed to unite people within the nation. However, these minorities include Thai Yai,
Karen, and Mon perceived the campaigns to be oppressed with assimilation policies.
For them, it is common that every individual preserve their long-term traditions from
being destroyed by any one. Thus, conflicts are barred in the nation. It might be
impossible to be eradicated. Meanwhile, the government tried to calibrate with leaders
of each minority, but the minorities insisted to govern by themselves or even those
settling in Myanmar require for more self-government. In other words, it refers to
separation of Myanmar into many countries. Hence, Myanmar government cannot
allow this. Then the problems are protracted to this day (Pirote Phosai et al., 2012, p.
274).
2.6.4 Figures of Burmese Workers in Thailand
According to the record of total licensed migrant workers across the country in
January 2016 by Office of Foreign Workers Administration Organization of Private
Organization, Movement of Persons by Free Trade Agreement and Information
Technology Division (Website : http://wp.doe.go.th), there were 1,451,817 workers in
Thailand. The three most commonly found nationalities were Burmese, Laotian, and
Cambodian. Meanwhile, 1,274,241 of them were allowed to work in Thailand
according to section 9. They included 991,565 of the workers whose nationalities were
proven and 282,676 imported through MOU. They were allowed to work into two
40
positions: labor jobs and maids in 24 businesses. For those whose nationalities were
proven, the three most popular jobs were 1) 177,301 workers in construction, 2)
159,896 in agriculture and livestock, and 3) 126,717 in services. Similarly, the three
most common jobs for the workers imported through MOU were allowed to work in 1)
construction with 59,827 workers, 2) services with 56,568, and 3) 34,770 in jobs
relevant to agriculture.
2.6.4.1 According to Working of Alien Act, B.E 2551, migrant workers
are allowed to work in Thailand under the following conditions:
1) Life-long immigrants refer to migrant workers who were
allowed to stay and work in the kingdom according to Announcement of the 322th
Revolutionary Assembly dated on December 13, 1972.
2) Temporary migrant workers are those residing in Thailand or
are temporarily allowed to stay in the kingdom according to Section 9 of the General
Immigration Law with no prohibited characteristics as prescribed in the Ministerial
Regulations, excluding tourists or transit travelers.
3) Migrants workers whose nationality is proved according to
Section 9, Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian who illegally enter the country are
temporarily allowed to stay and work following the cabinet’ s resolution after the
proofing of their nationality and adjustment of their immigration status is legitimized.
4) Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian migrant workers based on
Section 9 imported according to MOU who work in the kingdom under an agreement
between the Thai government and the country of origin.
5) An alien according to Investment Promotion of Section 12,
migrant workers who come to work in the Kingdom under the law on investment
promotion (Investment Promotion Act, 1977) or other laws such as Industrial Estate
Authority of Thailand Act, 1979 and The Petroleum Act, 1971, for example, investors,
craftsmen, professionals.
6) An alien according to Section 13 categorized as a minority
type, defined as a non-Thai alien under the law on nationality, would the Ministry of
Interior to issue a document to prove the status for work permit application.
7) An alien according to Section 14 includes Burmese,
Laotians, and Cambodians. They work along the border taking round-trips or in
41
seasonal occasions in an agreement area of the transit between the Kingdom of Thailand
and its neighboring countries.
8) Aliens with three nationalities (Burmese, Laotian, and
Cambodian) refer to migrant workers working in Thailand as laborers or servants under
MOUs with Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian government to fill in the shortage gaps
of Thai workers. This includes illegal migrant workers whose status was adjusted to
become legal. Thus, they are allowed to work in the country.
In this study, the focus is on migrant workers defined in Section 9 whose
nationalities were proved and have been imported according to the government MOU.
Only those who work in livestock, construction, services, and fishery businesses in the
south of Thailand were sampled. The area was the second most densely populated with
302,367 migrant workers (Statistics of the Foreign Workers Administration Office ,
2016). The top three provinces with the most numerous migrant workers were chosen
as the research setting. This includes Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla as shown in
following table:
42
Table 2.1 Residual Figures of Legal Migrant Workers in the Kingdom Classified by the Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.
Provinces Total (people)
Section 9 Section12 Section 13 Section 14
Life-long General Proved
Original
Nationality
Imported
under
MOU
Investment
promotion
Minorities Round-trip
or seasonal
workers
The whole kingdom 1,451,817 495 104,836 991,565 282,676 40,536 29,608 2,101
Bangkok 202,522 1 54,016 65,488 52,968 27,632 2,417 -
Regional 1,249,295 494 50,820 926,077 229,708 12,904 27,191 2,101
Vicinities 464,165 - 10,920 364,366 85,293 1,196 2,390 -
Central Region 280,346 - 13,900 165,678 83,570 9,711 5,555 1,932
Northern Region 180,765 3 7,482 145,778 7,915 1,056 18,531
North-eastern Region 21,652 1 3,291 9,223 8,205 414 349 169
Southern Region 302,367 490 15,227 241,032 44,725 527 366
43
Table 2.2 Residual Figures of Section 9 Aliens Whose Original Nationality is Proved (Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian) Allowed to
Work in the South
Regions/Provinces Proving of Original Nationality (Unit: People)
Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian
Southern Region 44,920 241,032 234,066 3,477 3,489
Nakhon Si Thammarat 1,095 14,694 13,942 551 201
Krabi 3,619 14,086 12,881 1,117 88
Phang-Nga 7,463 24,531 24,420 87 24
Phuket 1,179 11,454 11,421 141 19
Surat Thani 9,412 60,545 59,295 048 202
Ranong 16,636 48,325 48,311 10 4
Chumphon 1,133 13,890 13,707 149 34
Songkhla 2,409 33,671 31,846 178 1,647
Satun 402 3,703 3,268 120 315
Trang 397 7,768 7,260 184 324
Phatthalung 57 143 138 - 5
Pattani 514 4,022 3,435 13 574
44
Table 2.2 (Continued)
Regions/Provinces Proving of Original Nationality (Unit: People)
Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian
Yala 225 1,177 1,166 1 10
Narathiwart 379 3,023 2,976 5 42
Source : Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.
45
Table 2.3 Residual Figures of Aliens Imported According to MOU in the South
Regions/Provinces Imported According to MOU (unit : person)
Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian
Southern Region 3,269 44,725 28,063 5,531 11,313
Nakhon Si Thammarat 594 5,745 4,706 472 567
Krabi 115 810 182 433 195
Phang-Nga 5 11 7 4 -
Phuket 55 1,215 848 107 260
Surat Thani 561 6,218 4,093 1,458 667
Ranong 7 17 8 5 4
Chumphon 1,268 9,340 8,756 485 99
Songkhla 223 16,584 6,761 1,648 8,175
Satun 249 2,564 1,897 297 370
Trang 99 1,853 678 492 683
Phatthalung 35 146 23 89 34
46
Table 2.3 (Continued)
Regions/Provinces Imported According to MOU (unit : person)
Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian
Southern Region 3,269 44,725 28,063 5,531 11,313
Pattani 31 76 12 27 37
Yala 25 118 92 8 18
Narathiwart 2 28 - 6 22
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.
47
Table 2.4 Total Figures of Residual Legal Migrant Workers in the South Classified by Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens
Provinces Total
(people)
Section 9 Section 12 Section 13
General Proved
Original
Nationality
Imported
under MOU
Investment
promotion
Minorities Round-trip or
seasonal workers
Southern Region 302,367 490 15,227 241,032 44,725 527 366
Nakhon Si Thammarat 21,048 490 119 14,694 5,745 - -
Krabi 15,838 - 880 14,086 810 16 46
Phang-Nga 25,163 - 611 24531 11 2 8
Phuket 20,293 - 7,368 11,454 1,215 212 44
Surat Thani 70,760 - 3,917 60,545 6,218 56 24
Ranong 48,585 - 87 48,325 17 - 156
Chumphon 23,317 - 76 13,890 9,340 8 3
Songkhla 51,929 - 1,429 33,671 16,584 230 15
Satun 6,440 - 161 3,703 2,564 1 11
Trang 9,855 - 198 7,768 1,853 2 34
Phatthalung 360 - 66 143 146 - 5
48
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Provinces Total
(people)
Section 9 Section 12 Section 13
General Proved Original
Nationality
Imported
under MOU
Investment
promotion
Minorities Round-trip or
seasonal workers
Pattani 4,216 - 117 4,022 76 - 1
Yala 1,417 - 104 1,177 118 - 18
Narathiwart 3,146 - 94 3,023 28 - 1
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.
49
2.7 Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)
During the period of conducting this research, the Royal Decree on the
Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 (2017) was announced and became effective
on May 23rd, 2017. The new degree adopted some regulations from the Alien Work Act,
B.E. 2551 (2008) and Royal Degree on Bringing Alien to Work in the Kingdom, B.E. 2559
(2016). However, the legislation has a major impact on the numbers of businesses, thus the
cabinet has approved the implication of Section 44 extending the enforcement of this act
for another 180 days for some section to relieve some of the problems, which the private
sectors are facing (“From TIP Report”, 2017).
2.7.1 Significance Changes in Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign
Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)
The significant change in the degree is increasing penalties such as employers, who
hire migrant workers without a work permit (with a work permit for other entrepreneur),
are subject to a fine from 400,000 to 800,000 baht per person.
An employer who employs a migrant worker to work differently than the conditions
specified in the work permit is subject to a maximum fine of 400,000 baht per person.
A migrant worker without a work permit or having a job reserved for Thai citizens
is subject to maximum imprisonment of five years or a fine of 2,000-100,000 baht or both.
A migrant worker working on an urgent and necessary basis without notifying
officials is subject to a fine of 20,000-100,000 baht.
A migrant worker who works differently than the conditions specified in the work
permit is subject to a fine of 100,000 baht.
Anyone who holds a fake work permit or alien registration document is subject to
maximum imprisonment of 6 months or a fine of 100,000 baht or both.
Anyone who deceives others that they can bring an alien to work with a domestic
employer is subject to maximum imprisonment of 1 to 10 years or a fine of 600,000-
1,000,000 baht per alien or both.
50
Anyone who runs a business dealing with importing migrant workers to work in
Thailand without permission from the Director-General of the Department of Employment
is subject to maximum imprisonment of 1 to 3 years or a fine of 200,000-600,000 or both.
A license for importing migrant workers to work in Thailand costs 20,000 baht.
Renewal of a license for importing migrant workers to work in Thailand costs
20,000 baht.
Hiring a migrant worker costs 20,000 baht.
A work permit costs 20,000 baht
Renewal of a work permit or extension of working period costs 20,000 baht each
(Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560(2017)).
2.7.2 Influences from the Announcement of the Royal Decree on the
Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560
Experts and individuals related to alien workers have shared both positive and
negative views on the influences from the announcement of the Royal Decree on the
Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560. To conclude, the positive influences of this
degree refers to more systematic management and control of foreign workers provided that
all related parties cooperated well. The following views support the conclusion:
Adisorn Kerdmongkol, Multinational Transnational Enterprise Network, explained
that in general the degree has numbers of advantages because of its long-term plan to
manage and protect foreign workers. With systematic admiration and management, the
employment of those workers will be more effective. However, so far the problem is the
delayed bureaucracy (Parinya Chaosamoon, 2017)
At the same time, stakeholders have reflected negative impacts of the degree that it
will affect the production of both industrial and agricultural sectors. Some businesses might
be terminated, especially small businesses, fishery businesses, restaurants, and
construction firms. Besides, taking into account overall economic indicators during this
period, all of them are bared form growing. Most entrepreneurs are not confident to invest
as numbers of migrant workers travel back to their origin. It is hard to predict when they
51
would get back. Most of the workers do not clearly understand the major theme of the law.
All they know is they need to handle more expenses. Moreover, unavoidably other
countries see this as abandonment of foreign workers in the country. Thailand is not
responsible for taking care and protecting the workers leaving them to face and solve
problems by themselves. The workers are required to legalize themselves prior to returning
back to work in Thailand.
The bad image of Thailand with violation of human right or human trafficking has
been confirmed by the circumstance in which Burmese, Cambodian, and Laotian
migrant workers stampeded back to their country of origin. Moreover, the scandal
has escalated across the globe when international media reported that Thai officials
called for money from Burmese workers who fled back to their country, which was
“redundant (Tears& Tears, 2017).”
2.7.3 Potential and Necessity of Hiring Migrant Workers
Unfortunately, the entrepreneurs, who hire migrant workers, encounter with
standstill in their businesses from the sudden stampeding of migrant workers to their
country of origin. Thus, it is necessary to reconsider how to appropriately treat those
workers. Besides, considering the necessity of hiring migrant workers, in short-term the
workers are essential for Thai employers who rely on those people for accelerating
industrial and agricultural sectors as they are experiencing shortage of labor. In contrast, in
the long run if Thai business owners still rely on those unprofessional labors instead of
technology and innovation they might not be able to compete with international businesses
according to “Thailand 4.0” policy, which aims to move forward to digital economy. Some
experts made a notion that:
According to Dr. Bhumsak Rasi, Director of the Center for Agricultural Economics,
Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE), employment of migrant workers in
agricultural sectors (agriculture, livestock, and fishery) promotes economy and
52
fulfils the shortage of labors, especially in the 3 D jobs referring to dirty, dangerous,
and difficult jobs (“Special Report,” 2017).
Mr. Yongyut Chaleamwong, Director of Labor Development, Thailand
Development Research Institute (TDRI) revealed the prediction of labor demand in
the next five years that 30 to 40 million of labors are needed each year. Thai laborers
make up about 38 million people. Meanwhile about two million migrant workers
are needed to fulfill the gaps. Of this about 10-20% are illegal migrants or about
400,000 of them (“From TIP Report”2017).
Mr.Terdsak Taweetheratham, Executive Vice President, Asia Plus Securities
Public Company Limited, explained that the enforcement of Royal Decree on the
Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 at the beginning of year 2018 might
result in fewer numbers of migrant workers and delay of the government investment
on infrastructure (“Analysts' Association,”2017).
Actually, numbers of migrant workers should decrease to serve the economic
policy, which aims to reach Thailand Digital Economy 4.0. However, the increase
in numbers of these unskilled workers might delay some areas of technological
development. For example, the case of SMG, the productive technology
advancement might be delayed for 10 years. Hence, it affects domestic
competitiveness in the long run. (Nakharin Srilert, 2017)
2.7.4 Suggestions for Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers
B.E. 2560(2017)
The sudden adoption of the Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers
B.E. 2560 has a number of impacts on Thai employers and migrant workers. After that, the
Cabinet has resolved to use Section 44 for extending the time of enforcement of this Act.
Some of these laws will be enforced at the beginning of year 2018. Consequently, the
government has extra time to revise and accelerate certain issues, which are not against the
53
law to promote balance in employment of migrant workers and congruency with the digital
economic policy in the nation.
Academic experts and relevant people have proposed two areas of policy
suggestions for the enforcement of Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers
B.E. 2560 -awareness of equality of migrant workers and seeking for channels to publicize
foreign laws.
2.7.4.1 Awareness of Equality of Migrant workers
Thai people usually treat migrant workers, as they are superior and better
than the foreigners. Moreover, Thai government might take ineffective roles in launching
laws as criticized below:
For whatever reasons, some Thai people have strong hatred of migrant workers.
Imagine if we work in another country. Surely, we must want to be accepted by the
owner of the country. Besides, they should see us as human beings and as a part of
their society in a similar status of the people. We do not surely want them to look
down on our skin colors, hair color, or our language. (“How Do We See Migrant
Workers,” 2017)
“Thainess discourse has spread its influences until there is no space left for
“otherness.” Thai people should see others in order to see themselves, accept diversity and
differences among people, which are the essence of being human.” (Phanthip Teeranet,
2017)
Foreign laws should aim to promote the quality of lives of migrant workers and
protect them from being deceived and exploiting by employers. Provided that the
objectives of the laws are to serve those aims, the migrant workers have confidence
and trust to further their work in Thailand. (“How Do We See Migrant Workers,”
2017)
According to Mr. Montri Sokatiyanurak, Director of Program in Public and Private
Sectors Management, NIDA, The government should clearly identify the
54
registration fees and fines for the benefits of all parties. Also, they should consider
increasing more welfare for the workers. (Thai and Burmese, 2017)
Another area of the problem, which is the most critical one is associated with some
employers, who are selfish and greedy seeking for gaps in laws. They aim to raise
profits without no regard for the whole nation by importing some legally registered
migrant workers with a higher proportion of illegal individuals from assistance of
agents and government officers who take advantage using their authority. This
problem is found from local to policy levels. (Bundit Panwiset, 2017)
2.7.4.2 Seeking for channels to publicize foreign laws
Migrant workers are directly related to the business sector because they
affect the investment of Thai entrepreneurs. Thus, it is inevitably necessary for the business
owners to learn more about immigration laws. They might be fined at a high price or need
to pay more for registration fees as a result from violating the laws. Inadequate
opportunities to access knowledge about the laws are one of the reasons for unconscious
law violation or unlawful acts. The clarification is about this issue are defined as follows:
Dr. Bhumsak Rasi, Director of the Center for Agricultural Economics, Office of
Agricultural Economics (OAE), has proposed that the ONE STOP SERVICE
should continuously create press releases to encourage and urge Thai employers to
register their migrant workers legally on time extended by the government sector.
(“Special Report,” 2017)
Mr. Yongyut Chaleamwong, Director of Labor Development, Thailand
Development Research Institute (TDRI) suggested immediate publicizing of this
law, promoting knowledge and understanding of the legal processes to
entrepreneurs as well as establishing of International Labor Law Consultancy
Center. (“From TIP Report,” 2017)
55
Mr. Winai Luwirote, Former Deputy Permanent Secretary of Labor, explained that
the exclusive reason of conflicts and the major cause of the challenges to enforce
the new migrant workers' legislation is that entrepreneurs and the general public
still have limited knowledge and understanding of advantages and disadvantages of
the law. There is inadequate availability of the entrepreneurs to accommodate
changes due to the fact that the issuance of new decrees to tackle human trafficking
and anti-corruption issues requires corporation from all parties (“Special Report,”
2017).
Sompong Srakaew, Director of the Foundation for the Promotion of the Quality of
Workers' Life, mentioned that, “Now, the panic has decreased, but more publicizing
of the law to the employers and migrant workers is still needed. This is helpful for
those who have difficulty in preparing the necessary documents to have extra time
to do it.” (Parinya Chaosamoon, 2017)
2.8 Related Studies
This study aims to investigate three areas - communications, cultures, and
employment. Thus, in order to obtain holistic literature review the researcher has studied
three areas of previous studies: 1) previous studies on intercultural communications and
cultural dimensions; 2) previous studies on media exposure and media cultivation; and 3)
previous studies on employment of migrant workers. The details are provided in the
following section.
56
2.8.1 Previous Studies on Intercultural Communication and Cultural
Dimensions
The researcher has carefully studied previous research on intercultural
communications, which reflects problems accounted for different thoughts, attitudes, and
behaviors of people from two cultures.
Dementeva, Franzke, & Loyko (2015)’s “Russian-German Immigrants in Germany
and Their Intercultural Communication” The purpose of this study was to investigate the
significance of intercultural communication and tolerance to cultural differences of the
participants. Results showed that after German secession from the Soviet Union, the
Russian-Germans are legally citizens of Germany. Then those people travelled back to
Germany to encounter unemployment and gain low wages. Moreover, diplomas and work
experiences from Russia were not accepted in Germany.
In addition, the people were not accepted as a part of the society due to their
inadequate skills in using German and were usually called, “The Russians.” This reflected
underlying negative perceptions towards the ethnic group regardless of their citizenship.
To date, more than 2 million of Russian-German in Germany has been suffering from
economic and social crises since they are living between two cultures. The significant
problems they have been encountering included, 1) negative perceptions, which influence
expectation, knowledge, emotions, and feelings of people and result in stereotype; 2)
problems with language, the most challenging issue, as the two languages are critically
different in terms of elements of language, tone and intonation, and grammar (nouns and
interpretation); hence, misinterpretation might occur; and 3) different communication
channels. That is to say, Native Germans were individualistic and favored low-context and
direct communication. In contrast, Russian Germans were more collectivistic and
communicate in high- context styles and preferred to be indirect.
Holmes (2015)’s “The Cultural Stuff around How to Talk to People: Immigrants’
Intercultural Communication during a Pre-Employment Work-Placement” This study was
aimed to obtain answer to the research questions, “To what extent of intercultural
communication do immigrants need to encounter at work?” “Does intercultural
57
communication promote or hinder their work?” and “To what extent do the immigrants
negotiate for and reconstruct their new communicative identities?” An in-depth interview
with 16 volunteers to work in New Zealand was conducted together with an interview with
five employers. It was found that the participants were unfamiliar with some new cultural
practices such as having a tea break, conversing, or using e-mail in collaborating without
any face-to-face meetings, but required more worry about the replies, which seemed to be
cold and serious. Moreover, intercultural communications discouraged the immigrants and
resulted in disempowerment. In other words, the participants felt less confident when
interacting with people from other cultures, colleagues or employers. For example, some
immigrants use good English in their home country; however, no one understood their
accent in the targeted society. Thus, they had less confidence and low motivation to speak
English.
Amaro (2015) ’s “ ‘We’, ‘They’ and the Spaces In-Between: Hybridity in
Intercultural Interactions between Portuguese and Chinese Residents in Macau” The
purpose of this study was to examine Portuguese and Chinese cultural integration in
Macau. The background and rationale of this study is associated with the incident in which
Portuguese and Chinese people had shared their lives in Macau. The Chinese are not
motivated to learn Portuguese, while the Portuguese do not realize the benefits of learning
Cantonese. Meanwhile, the Chinese perceived their culture to be “strong” and the
Portuguese’s to be “weak.” Besides, they were against cultural hybridization between the
two nationalities. As a result, “I hear them, I smell them, but I do not see them” was a well-
known saying, which signified the perception towards varieties of cultural identities
between the two groups, but without acceptance.
The research question was, “to what extent do the Portuguese in Macau negotiate
with the Chinese when interacting to each other?” The researcher applied Hybridization as
a research conceptual framework. Data were gained from an interview with Portuguese
people who had resided in Macau for more than two years and had resident ID cards. The
targeted data were their interpretation of the interaction with Chinese people, self-
evaluation of abilities to use Cantonese, early adaptation experiences in Macau, and the
58
relationship with the Portuguese and Chinese. The results revealed four significant areas.
Firstly, in terms of the sense of belonging, the participants realized that most Portuguese
living in Macau were elite and likely to be arrogant and superior to other groups. Social
classes are obvious even among themselves. Moreover, they often excluded the Chinese
from their groups. Secondly, the participants were aware of the benefits of using Cantonese
to develop their roles and social status. The other area of the finding associated with the
imaginative boundaries from the isolation between the two groups based on stereotypes,
bias, and language handicaps, which hindering the interaction between those groups.
Finally, the cultural gaps between the two groups might lead to misunderstanding such as
greeting culture when people first meet.
Fan & Hebbani (2014)’s “Navigating through the Australian Workplace: Mapping
the Experience of Taiwanese Working Holiday Makers (WHMs) in Brisbane” The
participants were young people in Taiwan. Results showed that mono-ethnic enclaves and
English proficiency had some impacts on employment. Hence, it was necessary for
Taiwanese people to promote positive relationship by communicating with the people in
the host country and learn the life-styles and working environment in the contexts. In
addition, the low English proficiency of the Taiwanese resulted in alienated feeling from
the native people who used English as a medium for communication.
Muwanguzi & Musambira ( 2012) ’s “Communication Experiences of Ugandan
Immigrants during Acculturation to the United States,” This qualitative research applied
an in-depth interview and used Kim’s Theory of Communication and Cross Cultural
Adaptation (TCCA) as a framework. Data analysis revealed that most Ugandan people
immigrated due to educational reasons, seeking for housing and work, and fleeing from
political and economic crises. Besides, all participants had been middle-class and were
fluent in English. Their education varied from high school certificate to doctoral degree
level. The outstanding findings of this study included four areas as follows:
1) Issues of languages were widely debatable since a language is a
medium connecting people from the two different cultures. Prior to their immigration to
the U.S, the Ugandan have been colonized by British Colony. Thus, they used both
59
languages. Consequently, their accents and the use of nonverbal cues or gestures were most
challenging for them.
(1) Accents of the Ugandan had both advantages and
disadvantages. That is to say, they understood the meaning of each word clearly with less
chances of misunderstanding; however, numbers of Americans perceived the accent
through stereotypes and divided their race based on the accent. Therefore, Ugandan’ accent
had double meanings.
(2) Gestures or nonverbal communication might lead to
misinterpretation. For example, a Ugandan man might interpret a woman’s smiles or offer
of a ride as encouragement for intimate relationship with her. Most of the times, American
women were wrongly interpreted. Hence, their relationship might be affected.
2) Message of superiority complex and discrimination: In the case
of Ugandan immigrants with high positions in an organization, the native people scarcely
perceived them as having higher positions and power over other immigrants. Sometimes,
they look down on those immigrants by talking to them as if they were strangers. In
addition, the language used with the immigrants was likely to be more direct until they
were aware of the inequality.
3) Message of self-promotion and aggressiveness referred to
inappropriate language use of the native people to the immigrants. The messages might be
immoral, disrespectful, selfish, and impolite.
4) Adaptation and cultural changes: The immigrants must adapt to
and accept some cultural practices, which were uncommon in their home country, for
example, kissing in public of students, sexual deviance. They usually accepted some
practices in the new culture while maintaining their ethnic identities.
Warangkana Tippayachon, (2013)’s “Intercultural Communication between Thai
Employers and Burmese Workers” was a qualitative study, which aimed to study the
intercultural communication between Thai and Burmese people. Communication problems
and obstacles between the two parties were investigated. In addition, the study provided
guidelines for successful communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers.
60
An interview with Burmese workers in Berker Mania Co., Ltd. was conducted. The
participants were 10 workers who are legally registered to work in Thailand and three
entrepreneurs and Thai workers who directly interact and assign tasks to those Burmese
workers. Most participants were female and their average age was 31 (all working age).
All of them were workers in a factory. Their speaking and listening skills were moderate.
They could communicate with native Burmese accent. Besides, they still had some
listening problems. However, they had poor reading and writing skills. It was obviously
that only 1 out of 10 participants could barely write his/her name and read Thai.
In terms of cultural adaptation, both the Thai and Burmese participants adapted
themselves well in all aspects such as their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. They usually
adapted to the new culture while preserving their unique identities, for instance, chewing
betel nuts, applying power in Burmese style, as well as cooking Burmese food every day.
These practices could be seen in Burmese groups, exclusively in their private areas or in
the neighborhood with Burmese people. In contrast, when interacting with Thai people
they adapted to the target culture to gain more acceptance.
Regarding intercultural communications problems and obstacles, it was found that
the most challenging problem in the organization was the issues about languages. In other
words, the differences between Thai and Burmese languages are obvious. Thus, the status
as an official language for the communication in the organization of the host language
resulted in numbers of problems and handicaps. This was the only issue found in this
organization. Thus, it can be concluded that inadequate language knowledge is one of the
handicaps of intercultural communications.
Finally, to solve those problems, both the Thai and Burmese in the firm basically
communicate through nonverbal cues. That is to say, while interpreters or translators
provided verbal communications, Thai was adopted as the official language. Nonverbal
communications referred to the solutions to intercultural communications problems
through behaviors or gestures. The use of the nonverbal cues was interpreted based on
one’s cultural background as well as close relationship between the interactants, which
promoted familiarity and cultural learning. Moreover, selflessness, neutrality, and positive
61
attitudes towards people with different cultural background, and respectability for others
were essential elements for successful intercultural communications.
Kwanchanok Pantufak, (2014)’s “Communication and Adaptation of Burmese
Workers in Thai Society” employed a mixed-methods design. Data was collected from the
distribution of a set of questionnaire to 400 Burmese workers in SamutSakorn Province
and an in-depth interview with 12 managers and colleagues. Moreover, a non-participant
observation was conducted to examine the extent of how the migrant workers live together
in the community, media exposure, communication and adaptation, factors influencing
their adjustment and adaptation abilities of the workers, and the relationship between those
factors and adaptation abilities in Thailand.
The results showed that 1) the Burmese workers preferred integration and
communicate with their people at work and after work the most. They communicated to
Thai people due to work agenda and Burmese people about relationship and general topics
most frequently. Besides, they were likely to perform face-to-face communications to both
the Thai and Burmese. 2) The Burmese workers averagely exposed themselves to the
media. Most of them exposed to Thai media for adaptation, while gaining news and current
issues from the Burmese media. Online Thai and Burmese media were their entertainment.
Next, they communicated to the Thai to entertain themselves and to the Burmese to
socialize. 3) They had few communicative problems and low adaptive abilities in term of
knowledge and understanding. In contrast, the problems due to knowledge about Thai
culture were more significant than those about laws and regulations. Next, communicative
problems and attitudinal and emotional adaptation were average. They perceived “the
generosity of Thai people” in the lowest scale and had moderate communicative problems
and behavioral adaptation problems and when being asked to respond to, “I have many
Thai friends,” they chose the lowest scale. 4) The Burmese workers’ adaptation associated
with “preservation of ethnicity,” focusing on preserving unique characteristics of the
Burmese and performed necessary adaptation and had moderate adaptation abilities. 5) The
hypothesis testing revealed that the Burmese workers were with different ethnics groups
and had various ways of life and different levels of adaptive abilities. Besides, the
62
relationship between their adaptive abilities and their Thai proficiency, frequencies of Thai
media exposure, and frequencies of communicating with Thai people after work was
obvious at the significant level of .05.
Metta Vivatananukul, (2013)’s “Perceptions and Intercultural Communication
between Thai Students and People in ASEAN Countries” The study was aimed to
investigate types and channels of communication between Thai students and people in
ASEAN countries. In addition, the purpose was to examine Thai students’ attitudes and
ethnic perception towards ASEAN Countries, factors in relations to the attitudes and
perception. The other objective was to survey barrier to intercultural communication
between the two parties and to provide guidelines and learning methods to promote positive
attitudes and close relationship with those people. Data were gained from a distribution of
a set of questionnaire to 1,200 high school students in Education Hubs, Sister Schools,
Buffer Schools, and others, which promote ASEAN Studies. Meanwhile, interviews with
four groups of Thai student representatives and project heads of Education Hub and Spirit
of ASEAN, teachers from ASEAN countries, academic experts, and social media and
cultural professionals were conducted.
Results showed that Thai students were with negative ethnic attitudes towards. As
a result the attitudes created obstacles to intercultural communications in the “average”
degree. They were likely to be biased against some neighboring countries, especially
Cambodia and Myanmar. Most of the bias was resulted from historical events and media
presentation. Next, Thai students were ethnocentric believing that Thailand is the best place
to live and the most fertile that foreigners needed to adapt to Thai culture. This might be
the resulted from the cultivation through lessons in class, educational systems, and
stereotypical perception and attitudes. The majority of Thai students stereotypically
perceived the Burmese as unfriendly, illiterate, and wick. In addition, regarding the factors
constituting the perception and attitudes, they included “economic status,” “English
knowledge/ proficiency,” “personalities/ characteristics,” “historical lessons,” “roles of
teachers,” “roles of mass media,” and “opportunities and frequencies to communicate with
people from ASEAN countries.”
63
O-larick Khunsit, (2012)’s “Communication and cultural adaptation of Thai
expatriates working in subsidiaries of multinational corporations in neighboring countries”
was a qualitative study in which an in-depth interview was conducted to gain data. The
main purpose was to investigate intercultural communications, types of relationship,
organizational communications, work values, potential directions of cultural adaptation
and its challenges for international companies’ personnel with a branch in adjacent
countries. Results indicated that (1) when communicating to local people English was most
frequently-used by the Thai personnel followed by the local language, Thai, and favor of
interpreters, respectively. Besides, the use of local language could promote understanding,
sense of belonging, and positive relationship (2) The working values of the personnel in all
the four countries were congruent, while the Thai personnel and the local people seemed
different in terms of the perception about time, especially perception about the past and at
present. Besides, the two groups seemed to vary in valuing theories and experiences, for
example, the local people were likely to have values based on their experiences, stuck to
traditional theories with no adaptation. (3) Even though most Thai personnel performed
bicultural adaptation by adjusting to new culture while preserving their own, more attention
was on Thai culture. Also, they adjusted themselves to the organizational cultures such as
becoming stricter, devoting more time to work, and asking other personnel to repeat their
instructions. (4) Finally, communicative problems and cultural adaptation were averagely
challenging to Thai personnel. Most of the problems about these issues relied greatly on
attitudinal and emotional levels, which included freezing, ethnocentrism, as well as black
and white perception towards local personnel.
Pathita Kimprakon, ’s (2008) “ Interracial Communication between Thais and
Indian-Thais” .The study aims to investigate Thai people’s perception towards the Thai-
Indian, characteristics of the communication and the problems between the two parties.
Result showed that they perceived “Indian-ness” from the appearance mostly from the face,
beard and moustache, clothing, while the Thai-Indian accent was another dividing
appearance. In addition, the Thai with no experiences interacting with Thai-Indian people
were likely to have more negative attitudes towards the group than those who have direct
64
and mass mediated experiences with them. Finally, in general the most outstanding
stereotype and negative attitude towards the Thai-Indian were related to their careers. That
is to say, Thai people usually perceived the ethic group as nut, roti, or clothe sellers or even
illegal loan providers.
Peerayut Oraphan,’s (2008) “Intercultural communication of Malay-Thai in
Southern Thailand and Thai-Malaysian in Kelantan” The results of the comparison
between communicative behaviors between the two groups revealed three characteristics.
They were 1) implicit communication, for example, avoidance of interaction, equivocation,
avoidance of interaction on sensitive agenda; 2) explicit communication, for instance,
expressing of friendliness, participating in the other group’s social or religious events while
preserving their own; and 3) overly explicit communication including adopting the other
group’s identity to hide their identity. Finally, the aim of interaction between groups
associated with 4 areas 1) separation form groups; 2) adaptation towards each other; 3)
blending with other group; and 4) blending other groups into their community.
In addition, Thai-Malay people were stereotypically seen as “guests” or the non-
native in the area. They were masked with an image of being dirty, terrorist or “separatist,”
while most the Thai-Malay perceived Thai people to be “Kafre” or those who were
disrespectful to god, but statues. For them, Thais were contaminated with pig dirtiness,
favored pork, and alcoholics. In terms of communicative behaviors, the data analysis
revealed variations in how the two groups communicate. In Thailand, the Thai-Malay and
the Thai potentially had negative perception towards each other; however, in Malaysia the
Thai-Malay and Malaysian-Malay had more positive perception of each other. Hence, ethic
differences in Malaysia could promote acceptance, while those in Thailand resulted in
conflicts between groups.
Parida Kochek,’s (2005) “Intercultural Communication Affecting the Adaptation
of Transitional People: Case Study of Myanmar People in the Provinces of
the Thai Border” Results indicated that factors positively influenced Burmese migrants
workers adaptive abilities included demographic characteristics, abilities to communicate
in Thailand, and attitudes towards Thai people. That is to say, provided that the three areas
65
were high, the migrant workers had more adaptive abilities. Next, it was found that media
exposure behaviors had direct negative influences on adaptive abilities. In other words, the
Burmese who mostly exposed themselves to Burmese media were likely to show low
adaptation to Thai society. In addition, abilities to communicate in Thailand had indirect
negative influences on their adaptation as obviously seen from their media exposure of the
migrant workers. Besides, their adaptive abilities were indirectly and negatively influenced
by demographic characteristics of the migrant workers as shown in their communicative
abilities in Thai society, the attitudes, and media exposure behaviors.
Moreover, the migrant workers performed integrated adaptation through
acculturation. Some aspects of their own culture were preserved. The preservation of their
original culture occurred in their personal “spaces” in private places or at homes. When
going out they adapted to Thai customs to gain more “acceptance” from the Thai who were
not aware of their alienation in the society. Also, it reduced their “otherness” in Thai
society.
Recently, cultural dimensions were applied in a number of previous studies to serve
organizational management, analyze marketing target, and solve problems in intercultural
communication. Examples of those previous studies are presented in the following section.
Vasile (2016)’s “Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions and Management in
Corporations” The study investigated Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and organizational
management. Results confirmed that cultural dimensions should be taken into account in
the planning of organizational management. Executives must pay attention to the
significance of considering cultural dimensions together with other factors, for example,
historical, economic, and political factors for the organization to achieve successful
management.
Nguyen’s (2015) “Using Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions to Describe and to
Analyze Cultural Differences between First Generation and Second Generation
Vietnamese in the Vietnamese Church in America” aimed to compare cultural dimensions
of the first and second Vietnamese generation in Vietnamese Church in America. Data
were gained from two groups of participants: the first generation and second generation.
66
The first generation participants were born in Vietnam, aged more than 18 years old, and
moved to America regardless of their duration of immigration. Meanwhile, the second
generation participants were those born in America or Vietnam, aged above 18 and moved
to America since they were 4 years old. Results indicated differences between the two
groups. First, the people in first generation were with high power distance and were
collectivistic. They preferred masculinity and stronger uncertainty avoidance. Generally,
they had short term views. In contrast, second generation participants were contrastive with
lower means.
Yoo, Donthu, & Lenartowicz (2011)’s “Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of
cultural values at the individualism level: Development and validation of CVSCALE” The
study examined Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions and marketing attitudes. Results indicated
that the participants with strong belief in power distance and the dimension was positively
related to their marketing attitudes. On the contrary, the participants’ with masculinity
culture were likely to have negative marketing attitudes, while those with high uncertainty
avoidance appeared to have positive marketing attitudes. Finally, long- term oriented
culture was also related to the participants’ marketing attitudes.
Brown, Hayashi, & Yamamoto (2012)’s “Japan/Anglo-American Cross-Cultural
Communication” The three academic experts worked together to critique studies on
intercultural communication between Japanese and American using 1)
individualism/collectivism, 2) hierarchy/egalitarianism, and 3) direct/ indirect
communication as a framework. Results indicated that the dimension of
individualism/collectivism did not explicitly identify the identities of the two nations. For
example, in Japan the student participants were individualistic, while adults or working-
aged participants were collectivistic. The results were incongruent with Hofstede’s study.
The study found that Japanese believed in collectivism and the Americans valued
individualism. They criticized that the validity of the research tool was inadequate. In other
words, it might not be able to measure what was indicated as the research objectives, and
etc.
67
Regarding hierarchy/egalitarianism, the result of the study was in line with those in
previous studies. In other words, Japanese people were strongly hierarchical, while
American people were egalitarian. In America, all social members had opportunities to
express their ideas. The varieties of nouns were not as much as those of Japanese, which
indicated the hierarchy and seniority in Japanese society. Similarly, the findings in terms
of direct/indirect communication also supported previous studies, which found out that the
Japanese preferred indirect communication, while Americans favored direct transferring of
their ideas.
To conclude, according to the review of literature on intercultural communication
above, the potential factors backfiring on the communication between Thai employers and
Burmese workers might include: stereotypes, ethnocentrism, and hosts’ prejudice or bias
towards the migrant workers. These factors were critically considered according to Psycho-
Cultural Influence Theory to set the theoretical framework for the present study.
In addition, the four cultural dimensions including 1) individualism/ collectivism,
2) power distance, 3) masculinity/femininity, and 4) uncertainty avoidance were the
framework for explaining the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai culture and their
own.
2.8.2 Previous Studies on Media Exposure and Media Cultivation
The fundamental assumption behind this study was that media could contribute to
the success or failure of intercultural communications. To support the assumption, the
following previous studies were carefully reviewed in the next section.
Poranee Kaewboworn , (2015)’s “Identity Changes among Myanmar Laborers in
Chiang Rai after Media Exposure” The purpose of the study was to investigate participation
in a Thai-Burmese radio program. Results showed that exposure to the radio program and
its participation had impacts on the Burmese adaptation from gaining more knowledge
about laws, health, and other living agendas. More importantly, their self-esteem was
developed as Thai people were aware of their existence in Thailand by running Thai-
Burmese radio programs. Thai employers could share their grievance against the Burmese
68
employees, or the workers could revealed unfair practices of the Thai employers or shared
their homesickness with others.
Pachara U-suk, (2012)’s “Image of Immigrant Laborers as Viewed by Citizens in
Sunsai District, Chiang Mai” Results showed that the participants, who had experiences
hiring migrant workers tended to have more positive attitudes towards an individual and
group than those without any experiences. The migrant workers were masked with five
identities -hard-working, united, strong, patient, and determined to accomplish work
assigned.
Sipim Sornbanlung, (2015) “Securitization of Migration Workers: A Case Study of
Burmese Workers in Thailand” The results indicated that nationalism ideology and
suspicions of Burmese workers in Thailand were significant factors contributing to
securitization of the migrant workers through transferring of impacts of hiring those
workers on security of the nation in many aspects regardless of socio-economic, political,
cultural security as well as international relationship. The claim seemed to celebrate its
success as obviously seen from the acceptance and agreement of the audience and setting
of policies on dealing with those problems, which were perceived as the state’s security
problems. A number of policies were launched, for example, the relaxation of migrant
worker employment or migrant workers’ prevention or control policies. The factor fueling
the processes included both internal factors and external factors. First, the internal factors
referred to effectiveness of language use through sets of discourse referring to Burmese
workers as a threat to security of the state in many aspects. Meanwhile, the external factor
related to the status of the policy makers and Thai mass media which performed active
roles in accelerating securitization of the Burmese workers to the state.
Erba (2013)’s “That's What They See on TV, That's How They View Our Culture."
Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Identification and Media Representations of
Latina/os and Latino Students Experiences, Identity Development and Relationship with
the University They Attend” The study applied Symbolic Interaction as a research
framework. Data were gained from interviews with 2 groups of students: high-identifying
Latino, and low-identifying Latino. Results indicated that the high-identifying Latino
69
students perceived TV to negatively influence experiences and interaction with other
students, especially the white students. At the same time, the low-identifying Latino
students were not sensitive to the messages on TV. In addition, the high-identifying Latino
students developed coping mechanism to protect their self-esteem from the presentation of
criminals and uneducated immigrants through the media.
Seated (2012)’s “Understanding the Role of Emotions in Mediated Intergroup
Threat: A cultivation and Appraisal Theory Approach” drew insight from Cultivation and
Appraisal Theory. Results revealed that media played significant roles in cultivating
emotional expressions to ethnic minorities. Besides, long-term exposure to TV was related
to concern and distrustfulness on the blacks. Moreover, exposure to news on TV was
connected to anger towards the blacks. In addition, constant exposure to TV had influences
on the extent of anger and concern about the Latins and Asians, while the news on TV led
to distrustfulness on the Asians.
Shim (2010)’s “Mediated Contact and Intergroup Relations: When Koreans Met
Americans through U.S. TV Dramas” The study examined attitudes towards entertainment
programs on American TV of 2 groups of participants. The first group exposed exclusively
on the programs on American TV, while the other group had direct experiences interacting
with the Americans along with the exposure to American entertainment on TV. The results
showed that:
1) Media-mediated communications had effects on intergroup
attitudes.
2) Parasocial interaction was the most influential on the
participants’ attitudes
3) Viewing amount of the media-mediated group had negative
effects on the attitudes, while it had positive impacts on those with personal contact.
4) Viewing diversity had positive effects on the media-mediated
group, but had no effects on personal contact group.
In conclusion, according to the review of the previous studies above, mass media
like Television is influential in how people live. It cultivates beliefs and thoughts, and
70
evaluates their values and behaviors. Hence, the researcher applied those concepts as the
variables in this study.
2.8.3 Previous Studies on Employment of Migrant Workers
This present study aims to investigate the employment of migrant workers. Thus,
the researcher takes into consideration the data from stakeholders. They include the
employers, employees, and organizations employing migrant workers. Thus, the following
previous studies on necessity of employing migrant workers, employing processes,
wage/pay, and welfare from the employers and employees’ point of views were reviewed.
Warunsiri Prasitsuntorn, (2014)’s “Methods of Immigrant Workers Recruitment of
Fishery Entrepreneurs in Kuraburi District, Phang Nga” The study revealed five aspects of
recruiting methods. They were characteristics of labor, wage, welfare, labor shortage, and
support from the government. In contrast, legal or illegal migration was not essential for
the recruitment since the employers must legally register the workers later. The most
influential factor for the recruitment of migrant workers was their personal characteristics
regardless of their work experiences due to labor shortage. Similarly, working habits were
not in consideration at first, but after they started working the factors would be taken into
account during the first month. Hence, sometimes fishery employers might get
unsatisfactory workers from the recruitment. For example, it might be hard to get diligent,
patient, loyal, obedient workers who were ready for all kinds of tasks and did not cause
disturbance in workplaces. Those characteristics were unobservable when first met.
Consequently, the real recruitment of fishery workers occurred after they started working
for a while and unsatisfactory workers would be fired later.
Pholphirul (2013)’s “Immigration, Job Vacancies, and Employment Dynamics:
Evidence from Thai Manufactures” The study aimed to explain how migrant workers fill
in labor shortage and promote employment dynamics. A survey of 928 Thai companies
was conducted. Results showed that migrant employment was not very complicated. Most
of them were from the neighboring countries and were labor workers in production lines.
They had low computer and technology skills. Most of them preferred working for big new
companies, where low education workers were usually recruited. The vacancies required
71
either skilled or unskilled workers. In addition, the migrant workers were essential for
continuous production processes. Thus, the productions in some factories were interrupted
due to strike and labor shortage. The participants from 765 companies revealed that the
significant reason of employing migrant workers was labor shortage rather than the low
wage. In addition, the location of the companies along the borders also had impacts on the
employment of migrant workers. That is to say, the migrant employees in companies along
the borders were more likely to transfer to other companies than those on other areas. The
workers usually moved to the companies, which offered more pay. In addition, the cost of
employment or pay and welfare was much higher, while the popular channels for recruiting
was social media or friend’s persuasion.
Supattra Tantijariyaphan, (2013) ’s. “The Political Economy Analysis and
Transnational Labor Management in Thailand: A Case Study of the Myanmar Labor in
Chiang Mai Area” The study found that negative impacts of foreign workers migration to
Thailand referred to the circumstance in which the increasing ratio of transnational labor
to total workers in the country resulted in lower wage, while the government also had to
provide annual welfare for the workers. Thus, in a long run the continuous illegal migration
would result in poor economic status of the government. In other words, the government
had more expenses in providing services for those migrant workers in terms of their
education, healthcare, and crime prevention.
In addition, regarding the security at work, especially when having accidents while
working Thai Yai migrant workers in Chiang Mai were treated unfairly by the officials
even though they had legal work permits. However, as they illegally entered the country,
they were allowed to register as labors in Thailand. However, they couldn’t join
Compensation Fund and Social Security Fund. The government indicated that those who
contributed to the fund would gain from the fund. Besides, most employers in construction
businesses in Chiang Mai were likely to avoid contributing to the fund by hiring the migrant
workers from other employers or subcontractors who were not juristic persons. As a result,
those workers couldn’t achieve security at work as stated in labor protection laws. In
addition, the Thai Yai workers were aware of their mental insecurity and felt alienated from
72
Thai people. Moreover, sometimes the ethnic and language of the workers were insulted
by some Thai people.
Podsakorn Yothinneeranath, (2012)’s “Government Policies and Approaches
towards Migrant Labours in Regard to Workmen’s Compensation Act B.E.2537 (1994)”
The purpose of this study was to investigate three areas with regard to the act. They were
the policies, workforce protection, and related problems and obstacles. Data were gained
from review of law document and relevant government regulations. In addition, interviews
with four respondents - a Senior Officer from Office of the Compensation Fund, a
Secretary-General of State Enterprise Labor Relations, Chairman of the Human Rights
Subcommittee on Racism, Stateless persons, Migrant Workers and Displaced Persons,
Lawyer Council, and the Director of Human Rights Development Foundation and 11
migrant workers affected by the act.
Moreover, in terms of workplace injury claims management policy, it no
relationship was found between national policy and organization policy. Thus, problems in
injury claim management for three nationalities of migrant workers - Burmese, Cambodian,
Laotian occurred. Next, the workers’ compensation rights and benefits aimed at paying
compensation after the injury from work. The major mechanisms for workers’ right
protection according to Social Security Office (SSO) were in accordance with Workmen’s
Compensation Act B.E.2537 (1994), which promoted equality and no discrimination.
However, practically the study found that some workers did not receive fair compensation
as indicated in the law. Finally, in terms of the policy problems and obstacles (circular
letter# 0711/751) in making compensation referred to identity document of the workers
with those three nationalities according to the interpretation of SSO, which was
incongruent to the spirit of the law to protect every worker equally. As the law failed to
indicate conditions about identity document, some workers could not gain the
compensation. Consequently, this resulted in the national image of human rights abuse.
Sastharam Thammaboosadee, (2012)’s “ The political economy of transnational
worker’s welfare : a case study of Burmese workers in Samuthprakarn” The study aimed
to examine migrant workers’ welfare in the neo-liberalism modes of productions though
73
the political economy approach. The major aim was to indicate the dynamic of capitalism
reproduction processes, which transferred human labors to commodity until they felt
alienated and powerless. Data was collected through an in-depth interview with Burmese
workers and relevant people in Samuthprakarn and a participatory observation at the
research field during 2010-2012.
Data analysis of the welfare as a replication mechanism in capitalism through the
case of Burmese workers in Samuthprakan showed the characteristics of the condition of
neoliberalism relations to production as follows: 1) The commoditization of labor power
was intensified; 2) transformation of employment in the way that the workers needed to be
responsible for more risks in capitalism such as hiring contract workers, outscoring, or
temporary hiring; 3) conversation of welfare provision by leaving individuals to deal with
more burdens by focusing on wage and the aforementioned conditions; and 4) emergence
of “precariat,” which was diverse from laborers. Precariat referred to workers who took
charge for any risks for investors and struggle for class benefits. The analysis of the new
mode of welfare revealed a model for welfare provision in neoliberalism, which required
holistic consideration of multidisciplinary via citizenship and de- commoditization to avoid
alienation in this production society.
Ekachai Eutanpisit, (2011)’s “Maids: Migrant Domestic Workers in Thai
Household and State Protection” The purpose of this study was to analysis forms and
means of exploitation of migrant domestic female workers who work as housekeepers in
Thai households, their legal status, wage or compensation, and welfare, which depended
greatly on the satisfaction of the Thai employers without any regulations. The exploitation
of the migrant maids rose questions about effectiveness of state laws and mechanism in
protecting the rights of these workers, why can’t the government mechanism approach
households, restrict the employers, or even protect them. In responding to the questions,
certain facts must be considered. That is to say, it was necessary for Thai households to
rely on female migrant workers for many reasons. First, employers tended to have higher
competency and female played varieties of roles outside the house, while transfer of middle
class women’ s roles to become specialists, who gained more economic values than doing
74
chores; hence, importance and roles of housewives and daughters obviously expanded
outside until they couldn’t stay home and did chores. As a result, reliance on female
migrant workers was necessary. However, the employment seemed unfair and the migrant
workers were treated with inadequate care and attention by the employers and relevant
organizations, while international labor organizations and state mechanism could not
interfere with the employers’ power in households.
To conclude, according to the theories of international communications, which aim
to investigate communications and interaction between people with different cultural
background, it is necessary for each group to behave, learn, and try to understand other
people in order to live peacefully in the multicultural contexts. In addition, it is found that
some psycho-cultural influences such as stereotype, ethnocentrism, or bias/ prejudice are
significant factors contributing to separate between “their group” and “our group” in Thai
society. Therefore, in tracing back to the origin of how Thai people perceive migrant
workers as “others,” which results in unfair employment, cultural dimension theories
including individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity/femininity
was applied in the comparison between the working values of Thai employers and Burmese
workers. In addition, in establishing the hypotheses of this study, media exposure and
media cultivation theories, demographic characteristics, together with the aforementioned
theories referring to psycho-cultural influences and previous studies on relationship of
adaptation abilities of the workers in Thailand was carefully studied. The hypotheses are
presented in the following section.
75
2.9 Hypotheses
2.9.1 Research objective #2:
To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai culture and their own
The research hypotheses are presented as follows:
H1: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding power distance
are different.
H2: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding individualism/
collectivism are different.
H3: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding masculinity/
femininity are different.
H4: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding uncertainty
avoidance are different.
2.9.2 Research objective #3:
To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and organizational factors
relating to the ability to adapt themselves to work.
The research hypotheses are presented as follows:
H5: Different personal factors and organizational factors contribute to Burmese
workers’ different adaptive abilities.
H6: Personal factors and organizational factors are related to adaptive abilities.
76
2.10 Research Conceptual Framework
Figure 2.1 Research Conceptual Framework
1. Demographic Characteristics
- Genders, ages, education, ethnicity, working locations,
living styles, types of businesses 2.Media exposer behaviors
3. Ethnographic attitudes
4. Knowledge about Thai culture
5. Religious behaviors
Adaptation abilities to work of
Burmese workers
(Cushner and Brislin (1996 as cited in
Metta Vivatananukul (Krittawit), 2016,
p.324) 1. Well-being
2. Being accepted and connected to
others
3. Abilities to work
4. Familiarity with Thai culture/ not being
stressful
Personal Factors
1.Characteristics of organizations
1.1 Structured /unstructured
2. Cultural attitudes (Hofstede, 1984)
2.1High/low power distance 2.2 Individualism/collectivism
2.3 Masculinity/femininity
2.4 High/low uncertainty avoidance
Organizational Factors
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The purposes of this study are 1) to investigate intercultural communications
between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the southern provinces; 2) to
compare the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture;
and 3) to analyze personal factors and organizational factors in relation to their
adaptation abilities to work in the south of Thailand. The preliminary study was
conducted through in-depth interviews and observations to discover real situations
and assure the significance of the investigation according to the qualitative approach.
Later, the data gained were categorized into themes through data deduction. Then the
data sets were integrated with relevant concepts and theories to establish a conceptual
framework for this study. Finally, research tools were developed to collect the second
set of the data based on the quantitative approach. As a result, the study titled,
“Intercultural Communication in the Burmese Workers Employment of Local
Businesses in Southern Thailand,” utilized a mixed-methods approach in which both
qualitative and quantitative methods were integrated to gain insightful answers to the
research questions.
3.1 Qualitative Methods
In the initial phase, a qualitative approach was applied through the review of
related literature and previous studies. After that concepts and theories of intercultural
communication, cultural dimensions, psycho-cultural influences, media exposure and
cultivation theories, and adaptation were integrated to establish a research conceptual
78
framework. This section outlines 4 sub-topics relating to the qualitative research
methodology
3.1.1 Population and Sampling
3.1.2 Research Tools
3.1.3 Data Collection
3.1.4 Data Analysis
3.1.1 Population and Sampling
In this study, the research setting included the three provinces with the most
Burmese workers in southern Thailand. These provinces are Surat Thani, Ranong, and
Songkhla with 63,388, 48,319, and 38,607 Burmese workers, respectively (Foreign
Workers Administration Office, 2016). The population consisted of two groups - Thai
employers and Burmese employees in the three provinces. They were limited to those
dealing with four areas of businesses -agriculture and livestock, construction,
services, and fishery. The Burmese workers were those who were officially allowed to
be employed in two occupations referring to laborers and maids in 24 businesses.
Burmese workers with proven original nationality are commonly found in three
businesses including 1) 177,301 workers in construction, 2) 159,896 workers in
agriculture and livestock, and 3) 126,717 workers in the service sector. Meanwhile,
the imported workers according to MOU were allowed to be employed in three
businesses including 1) 59,827 workers in construction, 2) 56,568 workers in services,
and 3) 34,770 workers in agriculture (Division of Private Organization Management,
Movement of Persons According to Free trade Agreement and Information
Technology Division, http://wp.doe.go.th.
Finally, when considering the numbers of the Burmese workers as a sampling
criterion the respondents were drawn from the workers in construction, agriculture
and livestock, and service businesses, while those in fishery business were also
sampled to serve the need of stakeholders in the research setting. Problems in this
business are significant, especially those in Surat Thani, in which the impacts were
broad and difficult to deal with.
79
Table 3.1 Population of Thai employers and Burmese worker in southern Thailand
No. Types of
Businesses
Numbers of Workers
Requested for Registration
Total
Surat Thani Ranong Songkhla
1. Agriculture &
Livestock
30,711 15,020 9,370 55,101
2. Construction 15,406 4,059 6,507 25,972
3. Service 7,783 1,341 1,082 10,206
4. Fishery 1,298 4,253 1,149 6,700
Total 55,198 24,673 18,108 97,979
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.
In terms of the sampling frame, the respondents were selected from the Thai
employers and Burmese workers in the three provinces in 4 areas of businesses. For
those employers, the name lists from Provincial Employment Office in all the three
provinces were obtained and employers who hired Burmese workers with proven
original nationality and imported through MOU were included in the sampling frame.
After that a snowball sampling technique was applied to get well-known and
cooperative employers as key informants to gain diverse and holistic data.
Similarly, the Burmese workers were sampled as a dyad along with the Thai
employers. That is to say, the workers who were working for the employer
participants were also interviewed. The employers assisted in choosing the workers as
the participants in the in-depth interview to promote variation in the data. Thai
proficiency was a criterion in obtaining the participants. As a result both the workers
with Thai communicative competence and those could not communicate through Thai
were selected. The Burmese workers who have Thai proficiency became the
interpreters in the in-depth interview.
The unit of analysis in the qualitative part was defined at the individual level.
It consisted of Thai employers and Burmese workers who shared their opinions on
intercultural communications in the work setting.
80
Table 3.2 Numbers of Burmese worker samples classifies by areas and types of
businesses
Areas Roles
Numbers of the Samples in each Business
(persons)
Total
Agriculture&
Livestock
Construction Services Fishery
Surat
Thani
Employers 2 1 1 1 4
Workers 1 2 2 2 7
Ranong Employers 1 2 2 1 6
Workers 1 0 1 1 3
Songkhla Employers 2 2 1 0 5
Workers 2 2 2 0 6
According to Table 3.2 the total number of all the participants in the
qualitative analysis was 31, including 15 the employers and 16 the workers.
3.1.2 Research Tools
As mentioned earlier this research employed a mixed-methods approach; thus,
both qualitative and quantitative research tools were used. Firstly, Intercultural
Communication Theories, Psycho-cultural Influences, Hofstede’s Value Dimension,
and Media Exposure and Cultivation were the baseline concepts in the design of the
unstructured in-depth interview, which is a qualitative research tool. The interview
forms consisted of 2 sets of questions -one for the Thai employers and another for the
Burmese workers. The two forms featured similar sections including cultural
dimensions, psycho-cultural influences, media exposure and cultivation, and
perceptions towards history of Thai and Burmese historical relationship, but with
different questions for each group of participants.
The unstructured in-depth interview allowed changes of the questions to fit
with the circumstances for example, when the Thai employers had limited time the
interview must be short and precise or when it was noisy nonverbal communication or
jotting down of the data gained was helpful. In other words, the researcher made a
note soon after the interview as recording of the interview was impossible due to the
81
disturbance. Similarly, the researcher reconsidered asking certain questions when
noticing negative expressions or boredom of the participants.
3.1.3 Data Collection
3.1.3.1 Data sources
1) Primary data referred to direct data collection from the
participants through an in-depth interview and a non- participant observation to
triangulate the data. The researcher observed the group passively from a distance
without participating in the group activities. The environment and contexts such as
interactions and communications between the workers were observed.
2) Secondary data was obtained from the review of books,
journals, statistical information, and information about Myanmar as well as numbers
of the immigrant workers in Thailand.
3.1.3.2 Data collection
1) The literature review in this study was associated with the
review of books, journals, and previous studies on intercultural communication in the
contexts of immigrant workers working in America, Australia, European Union, and
Asia. With the primary aim to work in these multicultural contexts, the migrant
workers faced with cultural differences in the targeted countries. Besides, it is
necessary for them to adapt themselves and their ethnic attitudes such as stereotypes,
ethnocentrism, bias/ prejudice, cultural dimension theories. The literature compared
and contrasted cultures of each country. Meanwhile, cultivation of the media from
reproduction processes results in misunderstanding. The concepts and theories were
adapted to assist in the data analysis phase.
2) An individual in-depth interview was conducted to gain
data from the Thai employers and Burmese workers. The interview data provided
qualitative data, while they guided the design of the questionnaire, which offered data
for the quantitative analysis. Moreover, the interview promoted interaction between
the interviewer and participants, which might lead to the discovery of other problems
enriching the quality of the data. Next, the individual level was defined as the unit of
analysis. The analysis covered the extent of intercultural communication such as the
cultural dimensions, psycho-cultural influences, and media exposure and cultivation
82
of Thai employers and Burmese workers. At the beginning, the interviewees were 24
individuals: 12 of the Thai employers and the same number of the Burmese workers
in 4 businesses in the 3 provinces. However, while interviewing it was found that the
Thai employers and Burmese workers in some businesses cooperated well. Thus, the
participants in the interview increased to 31. In addition, the unstructured interview
was applied due to its flexibility and it was not too time-consuming. This was
beneficial, for example, the interview with foremen in Surat Thani was conducted in a
construction site while they were working. All of them were eager to answer the
questions and the researcher could control the topics and the scope of the talk well
without using fixed steps as in structured interview framework.
3.1.4 Data Analysis
The primary data from the interview and the non-participant observation were
analyzed along with the secondary data from the literature review of books, journal
articles, and related previous studies to provide answers to the interesting emerging
questions and the research questions in this study. The dual analysis might discover
unknown facts, for example, the underlying reasons behind the conflicts between the
Burmese and other ethnic groups even though they were from the same geographic
origin or why the Burmese workers seriously have strong faith in Buddhism. Besides,
findings from each interview were baseline data for the next interview. Finally, the
findings provided guidelines for data collection in the next phase. In addition, the
researcher reflected, “Are there any unknown facts or interesting facts left behind?”
As a result, the qualitative data collection was well-rounded. After that data deduction
was performed to indicate the variables, discover the connections and relationship of
the data to categorize them, and establish themes of the findings. They precisely
established trends of the results. Finally, the findings were analyzed using related
theories. They were categorized into two sets: the data form the Thai employers, and
those from the Burmese workers.
83
3.2 Quantitative Methods
A quantitative method was applied to provide answers to Research Question
#2 and #3. Related theories, literature, and previous studies were reviewed and
integrated as a conceptual framework, while the qualitative results which provided
answers to Research Question #1 were also the baseline data for the design of the
questionnaires, which was aimed to exclusively investigate the Burmese workers’
opinions. The analysis of the in-depth interview in accordance with the first research
question yielded the following results:
a) The majority of Thai employers had positive attitudes towards employing
immigrant workers.
b) The Thai employers and Burmese workers in the same organization shared
different ideas and did not rely on each other.
c) One way adjustment by the Burmese workers was outstanding.
As a result, Research Question #2 was, “to compare the attitudes towards Thai
and Burmese culture of the Burmese workers”
Finally, Research Questions #3 was, “to analyze personal factors and
organizational factors influencing adaptive abilities of the Burmese workers in
southern Thailand. To answer the quantitative research objective above, the research
methods are listed below:
3.2.1 Population and Sampling
The population for the quantitative phase was 97,979 Burmese workers in the
three provinces, namely Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. They were employed in
four areas of businesses, which included agriculture and livestock, construction,
services, and fishery. They were limited to those who requested for registration to
work in the state as shown in Table 3.3.
84
Table 3.3 Numbers of Burmese workers requested for registration classified by areas
and types of businesses
No. Types of Businesses
Numbers of Burmese Workers
Requested for Registration Total
Surat Thani Ranong Songkhla
1. Agriculture & livestock 30,711 15,020 9,370 55,101
2. Construction 15,406 4,059 6,507 25,972
3. Service 7,783 1,341 1,082 10,206
4. Fishery 1,298 4,253 1,149 6,700
Total 55,198 24,673 18,108 97,979
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.
The population was sampled using the convenient sampling technique from
two sets of the name lists from Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla Employment
Office. This included the Burmese workers whose original nationalities were proved
and those imported through MOU. The employers were requested to choose the
workers according to their convenience and readiness of the organizations. In
addition, the snowball sampling technique was used from the assistance of a
researcher’s acquaintance to get the interviewees. That is to say, firstly, 400 Burmese
workers were sampled by determining the proportion of the samples and the total
numbers of the workers from the database of each province. Thus, 225 Burmese
workers in Surat Thani, 101 of them in Ranong, and 74 workers in Songkhla were the
selected as respondents in this phase.
However, at the research site there were difficulties in approaching the
respondents in Surat Thani since some of them moved to work in another site or had
limited time, for example, those in construction and fishery businesses. Moreover, it
was impossible for some employers to manage to provide the samples and ask them to
fill up the questionnaire forms. Even when they could, some forms were incomplete.
As a result, the respondents in Surat Thani were fewer than expected numbers
85
indicated in the previous phase. Hence, the name lists of the employers in Ranong and
Songkhla were added to compensate the missing samples.
Similarly, the numbers of the samples in Ranong and Songkhla were altered
from the plan due to their high cooperation. In other words, they actively allowed
their workers to answer in the questionnaire forms. Some of them even assisted in
explaining the instruction of how to fill up the forms and administering the forms by
themselves, while some of them were with the researcher at the site. In addition, some
of the workers, who were imported through MOU were likely to have more reading
and writing skills. Consequently, the questionnaire forms were mostly complete and
the return rate was higher than expected. That is to say, of all 538 forms administered,
421 of them were complete. Table 3.4 indicates the revised numbers of the samples.
Table 3.4 Numbers of the samples in the quantitative phase
No. Types of Businesses Numbers of Samples (person) Total
Sarat Thani Ranong Songkhla
1. Agriculture & livestock 37 20 26 83
2. Construction 36 36 43 115
3. Service 24 27 35 86
4. Fishery 62 35 22 137
Total 159 136 126 421
The unit of analysis for the quantitative part was the organization level. In this
study, the purpose was to examine the attitudes of the Burmese workers towards Thai
culture and their own culture as well as analyzing personal and organizational factors
relating to their adaptive abilities in Thai contexts.
86
3.2.2 Research Tools
The research tool, which provided the quantitative data, was a set of closed-
ended questionnaire. The form was administered to 421 Burmese workers and it
featured two major parts as follows:
3.2.2.1 Personal factors
1) The demographic information section featured eight items
eliciting information about genders, ages, education, ethics, working areas, life styles,
and work experiences in Myanmar. The respondents were asked to choose one
answer, which best described themselves.
2) The media and media exposure behavior section was
adopted from Theories of Media and Media Exposure. It included five items of those
required one answer and multiple answers.
3) The ethnic attitude section was adopted from Psycho-
Cultural Influences. It featured 10 items regarding stereotype, ethnocentrism, and
prejudice (Metta Vivatananukul, 2016, pp.137-156). The items were in the five point
Likert Scale format. Each scale referred to:
Totally agree referred to 5
Mostly agree referred to 4
Averagely agree referred to 3
Partly agree referred to 2
Hardly agree referred to 1
Interpretation of the scales
Scores from 4.21 to 5.00 was equal to the highest ethics attitudes.
Scores from 3.41 to 4.20 was equal to high ethics attitudes.
Scores from 2.61 to 3.40 was equal to moderate ethics attitudes.
Scores from 1.81 to 2.60 was equal to low ethics attitudes.
Scores from 1.00 to 1.80 was equal to the lowest ethics attitudes.
4) The religious behavior section was adopted to investigate
the respondents’ behaviors relating to their religion. It included eight items, which
were gained from the data in the qualitative phase. The items were in the five point
Likert Scale format.
87
5) The knowledge on Thai culture section was developed from
the survey on knowledge of Thai culture, which immigrants should know. It featured
10 item including eating and dressing culture, socializing culture, and language and
religion culture. All of them were in a true-false format.
The criteria for the interpretation of the scores on knowledge of Thai culture
were adapted from Boontham Kitpreedaborisut (2006, pp.59-61) as shown below:
Score of 80 percent was equal to very high/ excellent knowledge
Score of 70 to 79 percent was equal to high knowledge
Score of 50 to 69 percent was equal to average knowledge
Score of 50 or below was equal to poor/ inadequate knowledge
3.2.2.2 Organizational factors
1) The attitude towards Thai and Burmese cultures of the
Burmese workers section was adopted from Hofstede’s value dimensions (Samovar et
al., 2013). It included four aspects below:
(1) Individualism or collectivism
(2) High or low power distance
(3) Masculinity or femininity
(4) Low or high uncertainty avoidance
All of the 12 items were in the Likert Scale format.
3.2.2.3 Dependent Variables
The section aimed to investigate the adaptive abilities of the Burmese
workers in southern Thailand. It was adopted from Cushner & Brislin (1996, as cited
in Metta Vivatananukul (Krittawit), 2016, p.324) and consisted of four aspects of
adaptation: 1) wellness, 2) being respected and relationship with others, 3) success in
work, and 4) familiarity with Thai culture/ low stress. The 12 items were in 10 scales
and the interpretation is presented below:
The highest score- The lowest score = 10 - 0
Class interval 3
Interpretation of the mean scores
Scores from 6.67 to 10.00 were equal to having high adaptive abilities
Scores from 3.34 to 6.66 were equal to having moderate adaptive abilities
Scores from 1.00 to 3.33 were equal to having low adaptive abilities
88
3.2.3 Data Collection
The quantitative data collection consisted of 3 steps below:
Step 1 refers to the collection of secondary data for the design of the
questionnaire. Literature review of books, document, articles, and related previous
studies was conducted. Next the data gained and the primary data from the in-depth
interviews were taken into consideration in designing the questionnaire.
3.2.3.1 Step 2 is the examination of the validity and reliability of the
questionnaire. Experts were asked to study the form and the researcher edited and
revised the form according to their comments.
3.2.3.2 Step 3 is the translation of the form by Burmese experts. In
addition 30 forms of the questionnaire were distributed to Burmese workers sharing
similar characteristics to the real samples of the study as a pre-test. After the workers
filled up the forms, the researcher found some unmarked or wrongly marked items.
Thus, the researcher informed the researcher assistant about the incident to modify the
instruction in bold prior to the actual data collection.
3.2.4 Data Analysis
A computer statistical package was employed in the analysis of frequencies,
percentage, means, and Standard Deviation (S.D.) of the data. Next, the t-test was
performed to compare two means. The F-test (One-Way Anova) was used to analyze
variance among three groups of the data. In addition, a multiple comparison through
Scheffe was applied to each pair of the means. Finally, Pearson Coefficient
Correlation and Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis were adopted to test
relationship between two variables.
89
Table 3.5 Summary of the research methods
Research
Objectives
Concepts&
Theories
Samples Research
Tools
Data Analysis
1. To investigate
the intercultural
communication
between Thai
employers and
Burmese workers
the south
Cultural
Dimensions/
Psycho-Cultural
Influences/
Media Exposure
Behaviors/ and
Perceptions towards
history of Thai-
Burmese
Relationship
Thai
employers
and
Burmese
workers
In-depth
interview and
nonparticipant
observation
Data deduction
and data
describing
2. To compare the
Burmese
workers’ attitude
towards Thai
culture and their
own
Hofstede’s Cultural
Dimensions
Burmese
workers
A set of
attitudinal
questionnaire
comparing
those on Thai
and Burmese
cultures
T-test
3. To analyze the
Burmese
workers’ personal
factors and
organizational
factors relating to
the abilities to
adapt themselves
to work
Hofstede’s Cultural
Dimensions/
Psycho-Cultural
Influences/
Media Exposure
Behaviors/ and
Adaptation and
Abilities to Work
Burmese
workers
A set of
questionnaire
on personal
and
organizational
factors and
adaptive
abilities of the
Burmese
workers in
southern
Thailand
- T-test/
- One-way
Anova/
- Pearson
Coefficient
Correlation/
and
-Stepwise
Multiple
Regression
Analysis
90
Table 3.6 Summary of the mixed-methods design
Methods of Data
Collection
Research Tools Methods of Data
Management
1. Interview with Thai
employers and Burmese
workers regarding:
1.1 Cultural dimensions
1.2Psycho-Cultural
Influences
1.3 Media Exposure
Behaviors
1.4 Perceptions towards
history of Thai-Burmese
Relationship
1) Two sets of unstructured
interview forms focusing on
cultural dimensions, psycho-
cultural influences, media
exposure behaviors, and
perceptions towards history of
Thai-Burmese relationship: one
for the employers and another for
the Burmese workers
2) An observation of interaction
between Thai employers and
Burmese workers such as
greeting, addressing terms, and
paying respect
1. Categorizing and
deducting of data according
to the research objectives by
comparing the data from the
employers and workers on
the following topics:
1.1 Cultural dimensions
1.2Psycho-cultural influences
including stereotypes,
ethnocentrism and prejudice
1.3 Media exposure
behaviors on the contents,
which represent ethnic
identities from Thai media
1.4 Perceptions towards
history of Thai-Burmese
Relationship
2. Summary of the
qualitative methods
through an in-depth
interview and
nonparticipant
observation
Descriptive analysis of the data
gained, categorizing them into
the themes, and linking them to
baseline theories and concepts of
the study or emerging findings
Summarizing the findings
into themes after considering
from theoretical stances and
creating a research
conceptual framework and
research tools to test
relationship among the
variables in the quantitative
phase
91
Table 3.6 (Continued)
Methods of Data
Collection
Research Tools Methods of Data
Management
3. Design of the
quantitative research
tools
Close-ended questionnaires in
Burmese consisting of 7 sections
Section 1: The demographic
information section eliciting
genders, ages, education, ethics,
working areas, life styles, types
of businesses, and work
experiences in Myanmar.
Section 2: Media exposure
behaviors
Section3: Ethnic attitudes
Section 4: Knowledge of Thai
knowledge
1) Descriptive analysis
through percentage,
frequencies, means, and SD/
Inferential statistic including
t-test, One- Way Anova,
Pearson Coefficient
Correlation, and Stepwise
Multiple Regression Analysis
2) Making conclusion
according to the research
objectives
Section 5: Religious behaviors
Section 6: Attitudes towards Thai
and Burmese cultures
Section 7: Adaptive abilities to
work in southern Thailand
4. Conclusions 1) Making conclusion from the
qualitative and quantitative
phases
1) Presenting the findings
according to the research
objectives
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The objectives of the study, titled “Intercultural Communication in the
Employment of Burmese Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand,” are to
investigate intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese
workers in the south of Thailand and to analyze personal and organizational factors
relating to their adaptive abilities to work in southern Thailand. A mixed-methods
design was employed. Firstly, a qualitative method was applied through in-depth
interviews with 31 Thai employers and Burmese workers. After that a set of closed-
ended questionnaires was distributed to 421 Burmese workers to provide quantitative
data for triangulation of the results. The respondents were drawn from the three
southern provinces, which had the second densest population of migrant Burmese
workers in the country. The three provinces with the most numbers of workers
reported in 2016 were selected. They are Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. The
participants were limited to the workers and employers in four businesses, which
attracted most Burmese workers. They consisted of agriculture and livestock,
construction, service, and fishery.
4.1 The Qualitative Results
Research Objective #1: To investigate the intercultural communications
between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the south
In order to respond to the first research objective, dyadic in-depth interviews
with 31 Thai employers and Burmese workers were conducted. The two groups of the
interviewees were from the same organizations in three provinces and dealt with four
businesses. They consisted of 16 Thai employers and 15 Burmese worker
93
Hofstede’s Value Dimensions, Psycho-Cultural Influences, Media Exposure
Behaviors were baseline theories used for the data analysis. The results were
classified into 4 themes as reported below:
4.1.1 Hofstede’s Cultural dimensions
4.1.2 Psycho-cultural Influences
4.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors
4.1.4 Perceptions towards the history of Thai and Burmese relationship
4.1.1 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
To begin with the cultural dimensions, the results were analyzed using
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions (Samovar et al., 2013, pp.177-186), which consisted
of the following four aspects.
a) Individualism or Collectivism
b) High or Low Power Distance
c) Low or High Uncertainty Avoidance
d) Masculinity or Femininity
The results regarding the 4 aspects of the participants’ cultural dimensions
were summarized in Table 4.1
94
Table 4.1 Comparison between the cultural dimensions of Thai employers and
Burmese workers
Cultural
Dimensions Thai Employers Burmese Workers
1. Individualism
or collectivism
The Thai employers were
collectivistic with cronyism
behaviors. They were
considerate and valued the
society and other employers.
The Burmese workers were
individualistic. They
focused on their own
benefits and their families.
They appeared to be goal-
oriented.
2. High or low
power distance
The Thai employers showed
high degree of power distance.
Clear hierarchy in the
workplaces was established.
The workers were under
control and serve the
employers’ commands.
The Burmese workers
showed high degree of
power distance. When they
had work problems, they
usually talk to their
colleagues rather than to the
employers.
3. High or low
uncertainty
avoidance
The Thai employers showed
high degree of uncertainty
avoidance. They had plans and
solutions to the potential
problems caused by the
Burmese workers, for example,
they asked for the workers’
important documents so that
the workers couldn’t flee from
work.
The Burmese workers
showed high degree of
uncertainty avoidance. They
required security at work
and tended to favor jobs
with high pay and were
more secured.
4. Masculinity or
femininity
The Thai employers favored
femininity. They focused on
the qualities of life and
relationship building activities.
The Burmese workers
preferred masculinity. They
were task-oriented.
95
According to Table 4.1, the full results are presented from each cultural
dimension. The results of the Thai employers are presented first, while the last sub-
topic presents the Burmese workers’ cultural dimensions in the following section.
4.1.1.1 Individualism vs. Collectivism
1) Collectivism among the Thai employers
The data analysis revealed that the Thai employers were more
collectivistic. These people were loyal and seemed to pay attention to the society.
They focused on sharing among social members. They seemed to be considerate,
reliant on others, and care for others. Moreover, cronyism appeared to be favored by
the employers. These are reflected in the following quotes:
Here all people are equal. The daily workers and monthly workers get through
good times and bad times together. For example, about two to three years ago
there was a crisis. Our shrimps died and those who focused exclusively on
money cannot work here. We closely stuck together. When our business got
up again, our people got 10 months bonus, but during crises sometimes the
workers did not get paid. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal communication,
August 24, 2016)
“When assigning tasks to the Burmese workers brothers or sisters or relatives
are usually separated into different ships since they might not focus on other things
instead of working.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication,May 22, 2016)
Moreover, the employers in small, medium and large enterprises all agreed
that cooperation between organizations and helpfulness both at individual or
organizational levels were necessary for success rather than working alone as
mentioned below:
“Having partner hotels are necessary since we can help each other. For
example, in the high season we can share guests with each other when there are too
many reservations.” (Songkhla, Service, personal communication, July 28, 2016)
96
2) Individualism among the Burmese workers
The data analysis revealed that the individualism was more
outstanding among the Burmese workers. These people seemed to focus on the self
and their family instead of groups. They appeared to stick to their own ideas when
dealing with tasks in the social group or their organization as explained below:
“Sometimes working is exhausting, but relaxing. We start work at 8 and stop
at 5.” (Surat Thani, Service, personal communication, May 09, 2016)
“I think we all take care of our work. When making a mistake we are
responsible for it. But without doing anything wrong we can stay here.” (Songkhla,
Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2016)
4.1.1.2 High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance
1) High power distance among Thai employers
The data analysis indicated that the Thai employers reflected
more of high power distance. That is to say, they believed that each person with
different positions performed different roles and they were unequal. Those people
with more power could indicate subordinate roles. People were taught to believe in
inequality and tasks were assigned based on their positions.
“I rarely socialize with subordinates. I am closer to foreman colleagues and
get along well with them. I see no point of getting close to the workers. I am here to
help them with work.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, August 05,
2016)
After the ship reaches the port the workers help themselves. But when they run
out of rice, they can ask for help from me. On land we can also assign them to
do tasks. Sometimes we reward them with a bottle of energy drink or stuff, but
not money. (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)
Our workers are afraid of my dad and my husband, for example, when they
don’t understand our accounting system or the wage is not congruent to the
97
sum they calculated, they ask me. But, I’m sure with my accounting skills. So,
when my husband said, ‘Don’t you understand?’ they stop arguing. (Surat
Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)
2) High power distance among the Burmese workers
The interview with the Burmese workers indicated a high
degree of power distance. The workers realized the significantly different roles and
status between the workers and the employers and the inequality of their jobs and
qualities of life. When they had problems they did not dare to talk to the employers.
But preferred to talk to their colleagues as quoted below:
“When encountering with work problems I usually talk to my Burmese friend
who has long been in Thailand and have more speaking skills rather than talking to
the supervisor.” (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal communication, August24, 2016)
“Work is sometimes tiring, but I need to tolerate the tiredness.
However, sometimes it is not too tough. Working as a construction worker is
just like that; our life is just like that.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal
communication, August 05, 2016)
4.1.1.3 Uncertainty Avoidance
1) High uncertainty avoidance among the Thai
employers
It was found that the Thai employers showed high
indications of uncertainty avoidance. They were afraid of uncertainty in the
future. They rely on strict laws and have fixed plans and rules. Also, they are
direct and reliable and have social expectation. These are clearly reflected in
the following quotes.
“We don’t allow the migrant workers to keep the real copy of their official
document since we are afraid they might leave us and work with other employers.”
(Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, August 05, 2016)
98
Frankly, if a friend of my worker gets on the site, I am in trouble. In other
words, I will be subject to a fine of 100,000 baht on a charge of providing
accommodation by a visit from a migrant friend with no passport. Then I
remind them that if it happens, they will be fined. (Songkhla, Construction,
personal communication, August 05, 2016)
A numbers of migrant workers moved back to their home country due to the
economic crisis. Some of them asked for advance pay, and then fled back.
Especially, ‘bad Burmese workers,’ when the ship reached the harbor, they are
gone or they flee at night without notification. But, this does not happen in my
organization since we are fierce. If they do it, they will be ‘punished.’ Thus no
one dares. In the past this sometimes happened, but now that are afraid of the
law or if they do, I will ‘slap them on their head. (Surat Thani, Fishery,
personal communication , May 22, 2016)
“The workers who can tolerate the rules can work here, but those, who cannot,
need to quit the jobs.” (Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
2) High uncertainty avoidance among the Burmese workers
The data analysis indicated that the Burmese workers reflected
high uncertainty avoidance. They were uncertain about changes in the future. They
needed plans and security for work. Besides, regular pay and security in their jobs are
necessary. Thus, they usually sought for better jobs as explained below:
“I had worked in Phang Nga and then moved here taking my friend’s
suggestion. The reason for the move was that I can do more rubber tapping and gain
more income. In Phang Nga it usually rains, rubber tapping is affected.” (Songkhla,
Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2016)
“In Myanmar, I have a betel palm plantation. It has been three years now.
When it is ready for harvesting I might move back, but now I need to make money
here.” (Surat Thani, Agriculture, , personal communication, August 24, 2016)
99
4.1.1.4 Masculinity vs. Femininity
1) Femininity among the Thai employers
The data analysis indicated that the Thai employers favored
femininity culture. They focused on human beings and the environment with the
philosophy that humans and nature can rely on each other. Flexibility, qualities of life,
and relationship between people are their ultimate goals rather than material success
as presented in the quotes below:
In Myanmar, conflicts among the states are obvious. When recruiting the
Burmese workers to work in our farms, a careful interview about their
domicile is essential. Otherwise, the workers from different states might fight
against each other. We need to separate them. Positive relationship grows in
our farm as the workers persuade their friends or relatives to work here. We
stick together like relatives. However, when problems occur it is impossible to
move some of them to another farm as the workers might come from different
states provided that the workers voluntarily ask for the transfer as they might
have a friend in a target farm. Thus, we consider their congeniality. (Surat
Thani, Agriculture, personal communication, August 24, 2016)
“In our organization we rarely recruit new people since my mom takes good
care of the workers. Their quality of life is good here and they can ask for advance
pay, for example, when they want to get back home.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal
communication, May22, 2016)
“For New Year, we held a party and gave presents to our workers. But, since
there are lots of them, not all of them got presents. We had a lucky draw.”
(Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, July30, 2016)
2) Masculinity among the Burmese workers
The interview data analysis indicated masculinity culture
among the Burmese workers. They appeared to focus on success in work and money.
Their ultimate goal was to gain more money from Thailand to survive and support
their future family. The participants shared their ideas below:
100
“Working is exhausting, I gain money from it. We do rubber tapping
differently from other workers. We start at 10 pm, while they do it at 2 or 3 am. They
get 1 gallon of latex liquid, but we get 5.” (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal
communication, August 04, 2016)
“I can collect more money working in Thailand. In Myanmar, I earn less
money, for example, doing rice plantation provides me with inadequate money. Then
I come here to gain more for my kids and for their bright future.” (Songkhla,
Construction, personal communication, August 05, 2016)
The above results were based on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, while
the section below presents the results of the intercultural communications between the
Thai employers and Burmese workers through the lenses of Psycho-Cultural
Influences. The results are presented in the following section.
4.1.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences
Psycho-Cultural Influences are influential on many aspects of intercultural
communications. In this study, the focus was on two challenging influences on the
communications. They include 1) stereotypes, and 2) intergroup attitudes referring to
prejudice and ethnocentrism (Metta Vivatananukul, 2016, p.144).
101
Table 4.2 Comparison of Psycho-Cultural Influences of Thai employers and
Burmese workers
Psycho-Cultural Influences
Thai employers Burmese workers
Burmese workers were stereotypically
perceived as fierce, wild, and unreliable
by Thai employers; however, after having
direct experiences of hiring them some
good characteristics were discovered. For
example, they were hardworking,
tolerant, loyal, and religious. Thus,
positive stereotypes replaced the negative
ones held at the beginning.
Burmese workers were aware of
separation in Thai society. Especially the
Thai who had no direct experiences with
them, Thai individuals usually look down
on them and regard them as causes of the
problems in the south. Besides, they
realized that Thai people had xenophobia
towards them.
4.1.2.1 Psycho-Cultural Influences on Thai Employers
The data analysis showed that the Thai employers stereotypically
perceived the Burmese workers as fierce and wild. After they worked together, the
stereotype was gradually decreased and swept away. Then they became closer. The
“otherness” image of the Burmese workers was gone and they were masked with
many outstanding characteristics, which were not found in Thai people, such as being
hardworking, tolerant, and loyal, although, sometimes they focused too much on the
pay. In addition, the most outstanding characteristic of the Burmese workers was that
they were very strict Buddhists, who regarded making merit as their priority. As a
result, they were modest and tolerant as shown in the quotes below:
“Burmese workers are very modest. They depend a lot on us. For example,
when their music is too loud on the fishing ship and are told about it, they stop the
music. In contrast, for Thai workers we cannot complain or scold them.” (Surat Thani,
Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)
102
“In the current economic situation, I prefer to hire Burmese workers not
because of the pay, but their characteristics. Most of them are eager to help, not
defensive and tricky.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, May 05,
2016)
1) Stereotype of being wild in the Burmese workers
The Thai employers described their perceptions that the
underlying causes behind crime news or wild behaviors to the employers were
associated with how the workers were exploited and treated unfairly by Thai
employers. Their explanations are shown below:
Taking a close look at all the problems, we would see that most of them were
resulted from how Burmese workers are exploited by Thai employers. The
case seems worse for maids, who usually get lower wage than agreed at first.
Sometimes the employers offer to keep the money for them, but when they
quit the employers take all the money. Thus, the workers get mad and that is
the cause of all the problems in Thailand. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal
communication, August 24, 2016)
“Most Thai employers exploit Burmese workers until they were angry
resulting in chronic anger.” (Ranong, Construction, personal communication, May 23,
2016)
2) Enterprises allowing/ not allowing Burmese workers to
show their identities
The outstanding Burmese workers’ identities were shown
clearly in the way they eat betel nuts, wear Sarong, eating styles, and being
economized. Some identities were allowed in public, while some of them needed to
be hidden under some condition at work. For example, they were not allowed to eat
betel nuts, apply Tanaka Powder, or wear Sarong in hotel businesses, while those
practices were acceptable for other businesses such as construction, agriculture and
livestock, and fishery. The quotes below can explain the findings.
103
“Burmese workers are allowed to do anything at work. They can wear Sarong,
take their shirt off, eat betel nuts, or openly split the betel nuts away after chewing.”
(Surat Thani, Construction, personal communication, August 08, 2016)
“Most Burmese workers apply Tanaka powder, but almost all of them eat betel
nuts. The betel nut waste is everywhere. It is not as popular among women as among
men.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, July 30, 2016)
Meanwhile, in hotel businesses their identities needed to be
hidden as quoted below:
Applying Tanaka Power and eating betel nuts are Burmese identities, but they
cannot be shown here. I ask them not to get in groups and talk since some
customers were against the Burmese. Sometimes, I cannot help with it. They
talk in Burmese and our quests discover their national identity. (Surat Thani,
Service, personal communication, May 09, 2016)
3) Direct experiences as a factor reducing ethnic stereotypes
towards Burmese workers
The data analysis indicated more positive stereotypes towards
Burmese workers after the Thai employers had direct experiences with them. In other
words, the stereotypes such as the Burmese were fierce and wild or poor at
communicating had thus been eradicated. However, similarly other Thai people the
employers, who had no direct experiences with Burmese workers, were still with
those negative stereotypes as explained below:
“The first time I worked with Burmese workers was terrifying. That day I
went to Songkhla with my husband. They really frightened me, but as I was the
captain’s wife, they didn’t do anything.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal
communication, May 22, 2016)
“Thai people perceive the Burmese as wild and fierce, but actually they are not
like that. When interacting with them we will know that they share similar
104
characteristics with Thai people.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal
communication, May 08, 2016)
“The Burmese are united in everything they do. When holding a special event
they all come regardless of their different origins. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal
communication, August 24, 2016)
4) Strong faith in Buddhism of the Burmese workers
Another outstanding characteristic of the Burmese workers was
their devotion to Buddhism and the focus on making merit. The Thai employers
explained their observation of the unique characteristic below:
It is outstanding that on holy days the Burmese always offer flowers to the
Buddha image on the pedestal at their places. Everyone has a pedestal and
their parents’ pictures at home. On holy days, incents and candles are lit and
put in front of every house. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal
communication, August 24, 2016)
“The Burmese are religious. They go to the Thai temple on religious holidays.
The temple is built by the workers and looks like Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar.
Both Thai and Burmese monks stay in the temple.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal
communication, May 22, 2016)
During Kathin Festival (an event in which Buddhists offer yellow robes and
money the monks), the Burmese group donated 40,000 to 50,000 baht. Their
friends from other areas join the event, even though some are from Sadao.
Once they collected more than 80,000 baht. Besides, they always sit on the
floor to pay respect to the Buddha. They never sit on the chairs, and on holy
days they always offer flowers to the Buddhist image. (Songkhla, Agriculture,
personal communication, August 04, 2016)
5) Ethnic diversity of Myanmar employees in Thailand
Problems in ethnic minority groups in Myanmar are remained
unsolved. Employers were also aware of the conflicts when workers with different
105
ethnic groups were in their organization. Some of them took their people side when
workers had conflicts as explained below:
“We have many groups of migrant workers including Burmese, Yakhai, and
Tawai. Sometimes, they had conflicts just like the people in the north and the south in
Thailand.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal communication, May 08, 2016)
There are no Burmese workers here. We only have Mon employees. They are
nice. Mon and Burmese cannot get along with very well. The Mon usually
perceives the Burmese to be mean and dirty. They said the Burmese extorted
some money from them. For example, Burmese soldiers usually confiscate
rice from farmers. In some instances the farmers harvest rice and half of it will
be taken by the soldiers. (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication,
July 30, 2016)
“Most the Burmese and Mon don’t get along well with each other. The
Burmese can hurt their employers.” (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal communication,
August 04, 2016)
4.1.2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences of Burmese Workers
The data analysis of psycho-cultural influences on the Burmese workers
revealed that the workers were aware of ethnic separatism from Thai people in
general rather than from the Thai employers. In other words, Thai people usually
look down on the Burmese and see them as inferior. Whenever, the two parties have
conflicts the Burmese were always wrong. The ethnic separatism among the Thai
employers associated with types of jobs and wage. Even though, the Burmese
participants explained that they needed to hide their Burmese “identities” from taking
some jobs such as in hotel businesses. However, the prohibition did not affect their
work performances. Besides, conflicts within ethnic groups were found. For example,
the Burmese, Mon, Thai Yai, and Karen were likely to be alienated from the Burmese.
According to the in-depth interview, some Burmese participants realized the
necessity of hiding their identities such as their language since they were afraid of
being insulted by Thai people. In addition, they did not want to be the others in Thai
society as shown in the quotes below:
106
“Even though we are not in Sarongs, other people will know that we are
Burmese from how we talk” (Ranong, Agriculture, personal communication, May 24,
2016)
1) Burmese workers feelings towards the separatism
The Burmese participants were aware of the separatism
between the Thai and Burmese. They would like Thai people to eradicate the ideas
such as stop using bad words or insulting language to the Burmese as quoted below:
“I am sad about separation of Thai people. It shouldn’t happen since we are all
humans. However, some Thai people admire us saying the Burmese are hardworking.
I am happy to talk to those people.” (Surat Thani, Service, personal communication,
May 09, 2016)
I am sometimes mistaken by Thai people. They usually say, “Are you
Burmese? I thought you were Thai.” I am not mad, but I just want them to
know that some Burmese are good looking. Some Thai people are uglier than
the Burmese and there are both good and bad people in the world, Thai people
as well. (Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
“I don’t want Thai police to discriminate against the Burmese. I don’t want it
to happen. We are all human beings. Thai and Burmese people are all human. We are
all good. I don’t want us to be separated.” (Ranong, Fishery, personal communication,
May 24, 2016)
“I felt bad when thinking that, “people usually think that the migrant workers
are always bad, aren’t the Burmese human?” (Songkhla, Service, personal
communication, July 28, 2016)
We all need to admit that we are different. I feel bad when being called
“foreigners” as it means we are different. If I were Thai, I got more money,
but as migrant workers we earn less, while working more, for example in the
107
construction jobs. (Songklha, Agricutlture, personal communication, August
04, 2016)
2) Taking religion seriously: the superior feeling over Thai
people
The Burmese participants perceived Thai people to be careless
Buddhists. They blamed Thai people for some inappropriate behaviors as quoted
below:
Thais and Burmese are different in how they make merit. In Myanmar we
donate more stuffs and money to the monks and more people go to the
temples, both children and adults. But, in Thailand only the elderly go there.
Moreover, how we behave when being with the monks is different. In
Thailand people sit in the same level as the monks, but in Myanmar monks
must sit in the higher position. Sitting in the same level as the monks is bad.
Here people don’t take their shoes off when talking to the monks or sit on the
chairs. The practices are wrong. (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal
communication, August 04, 2016)
3) Ethnic conflicts of Burmese workers in Thailand
The data analysis revealed that the Burmese participants
experienced ethnic conflicts and ethnocentric reactions. They were likely to believe
that their ethnic group was superior to others. So far the ethnic conflict has resulted in
a number of their national security problems since numbers of ethnic groups such as
Mon, Burmese, Karen, and Thai Yai shared the country. The feeling of being different
among the people in Myanmar is felt wherever they are. The quotes below explain the
notion.
“Sometimes, we are called, “Burmese.” We are not Burmese, we are Mon.
Mon and Burmese are different. (How do you feel about the Burmese?) Nothing, but
we are Mon. We would like to be called Mon.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal
communication, July 30, 2016)
108
“Mon language is different from Burmese. Mon people can speak Burmese,
but the Burmese do not understand our language. We are bilingual.” (Songkhla,
Agriculture, August 04, 2016)
“I am not a native Burmese. I am a “Mon” when I try to speak Burmese,
policemen detect it or they can see it on my ID card. If I speak Burmese with Mon
accent, I will be treated badly. In Myanmar policemen are more fearful than soldiers.”
(Ranong, Fishery, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
4.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors
Mass media is influential in forming perceptions and creating understanding
about ethnic groups, especially regarding their power and identities. However, most of
the time the contents in mass media do not match with the truth. Thus, the power of
media possession and frequencies of presentation also play roles in forming images of
the migrant workers. As a result, intercultural communications has an active role in
raising self-perceptions and perceptions towards ethnic groups as well as their ethnic
or cultural stereotypes from mass media contents (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.14).
Consequently, in this study, media exposure behavior concepts were applied as a
framework for the data analysis. The results are summarized and presented in Table
4.3.
109
Table 4.3 Comparison of media exposure behaviors between Thai employers and
Burmese Workers
Media Exposure Behaviors
Thai Employers Burmese Employees
The contents in Thai mass media are
exaggerated and distorted. Reproduction
of hostility feelings against Myanmar was
outstanding. Thus, mass media played
roles in forming negative stereotypes
towards the Burmese. Thai employers did
not trust the Burmese despite direct
experiences with them.
The images of the Burmese on Thai mass
media were inappropriate for the Burmese.
However, they played keyed roles on their
lives in Thailand since they gained
knowledge and entertainment from the
media. Moreover, social media such as You
Tube were complimentary to their life in
Myanmar.
4.1.3.1 The Media Exposure Behaviors of Thai Employers
The data analysis revealed that mass media in Thailand was influential
in forming the Thai employers’ beliefs, thought, and attitudes. Consequently, these
people stereotypically perceived the characteristics and behaviors of the Burmese
workers based on what was presented through the media. However, the influences
were lessened after those employers had experiences working with the workers until
those savage images were faded away over time.
Hence, mass media played key roles in forming Thai employers’
attitudes towards the Burmese characteristics. However, with direct experiences
working with them, the negative attitudes disappeared as quoted below:
“I have heard the news about crimes committed by Burmese workers and I am
afraid it might happen to me. Anyway, after working together I am not afraid of them
since we have shared our ideas.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal communication,
May 08, 2016)
Mass media plays an active role in transferring negative images of the
Burmese. More consideration should be made after exposure to the media. For
example, regarding a crime on Koh Tao, the mass media presented a lot of
110
negative information about the ethnic group. (Surat Thani, Agriculture,
personal communication, August 24, 2016)
In addition, the Thai employers believed that the contents on Thai mass
media are exaggerated and distorted with the major aim of gaining higher rating
instead of presenting real information as shown in the quotes below:
“We usually heard of crimes conducted by the Burmese. I would like the
media to report positive images of the people since outsiders might have negative
feeling towards them and be afraid of them.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal
communication, May 08, 2016)
Moreover, the Thai employers explained that Thai mass media often
accuse the Burmese without careful examination of the facts in the presentation of
crime news in which the Burmese were excused as quoted below:
“The contents on Thai media are sometimes exaggerated. Not all the Burmese
are bad. The media try to accuse the Burmese seeing them as the Burmese,
who don’t know anything and are made as scapegoats. The truth is Thai
people did it, but “money” could hide everything.” (Surat Thani, Fishery,
personal communication, May 22, 2016)
“Giving more freedom to the media is like a double-edged sword. With no
fixed rules the Burmese might be too independent. They might not like Thai mass
media, but they cannot reveal it.” (Ranong, Fishery, personal communication, May
24, 2016)
4.1.3.2 The Media Exposure Behaviors of the Burmese Workers
The data analysis indicated no resistant feeling or stereotypes towards
Thailand as quoted below:
111
“I watched “Bang Ra Jun” sometimes with not much attention. Then I just had
a quick look and don’t believe that the Thai and Burmese are opponents. (Ranong,
Agriculture, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
“Negative images of the Burmese are transferred through historical movies.
They are just movies and the history was long ago. I live for the present.” (Surat
Thani, Service, personal communication, May 09, 2016)
The Burmese workers exposed to both Thai and Burmese media,
especially television and various online media. The purposes of their exposure were to
gain news, entertainment, practice Thai, and as a compliment to their life in Myanmar
by exposing to Burmese music videos, songs, and praying clips on YouTube as
explain below:
“We watch Thai TV to know about the news and economics or sport news.
Also, we learn Thai from the Thai contents instead of talking to Thai people, which is
harder.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22 , 2016)
I usually watch TV on holidays or at night, mostly soap operas and news. I
prefer Thai news and not much Burmese. I like watching news after the soap
opera on Channel 7. At the beginning I watched TV to gain more Thai skills.
Also, I enjoy watching Chinese movies late at night such as Pao Bun Jin.
When I don’t understand anything I make notes in Burmese or Mon as a mean
to practice. I get 2-3 new words each night. (Ranong, Service, personal
communication, May 24, 2016)
“I like watching Channel 7, but I rarely watch soap operas since I need to go
rubber tapping. In the morning I check rubber prices on TV or watch crime news. I
wait until I am done with rubber tapping, then I can watch soap operas.” (Songkhla,
Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2559).
In addition to the exposure to Thai mass media, the Burmese workers
used social media as a mean to contact with their relatives or for other purposes such
112
as watching Dhamma or moral lessons on You Tube until the media substituted TV as
they explained:
“I am on Facebook to follow Burmese news. Sometimes, I encounter with
Thai contents, but I can’t read them, while, on YouTube I listen to Buddhist monks
praying.” (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal communication, August 04 , 2016)
With regards to the crime on Koh Tao in Surat Thani and the
preliminary investigation revealing that Burmese workers might be the murderers.
The Burmese participants had a notion of their surrender to Thai laws, which were not
defensible as clarified in the quotes below:
I am so sorry to hear about the case in Koh Tao. If the Burmese committed it,
they need to be punished. I understand. But I feel pity for them and I can do
nothing to help. It might be the Kharma they did and they need to admit to it.
We can’t help, can we? If the Burmese steal things, we can do nothing (just
punish them by law), no regrets there. Bad people do bad things; we need to
take it easy. They committed it in their last life, that’s why they need to take
care of the Kharma. (Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24,
2016)
113
4.1.4 Perceptions towards History of Relationship between Thai
Employers and Burmese Workers
Table 4.4 Comparison of perceptions towards history of relationship between Thai
and Burmese
Perceptions towards History of Relationship between Thai and Burmese
Thai Employers Burmese Employees
The war between the Thai and Burmese was
not engraved on the Thai employers’
memory since they were aware that it
happened long ago and was not connected to
the present. Thus, they did not rely on the
oral evidence when evaluating Burmese
workers’ performances.
The Burmese workers denied their
perceptions towards Thai people as
their “enemy” and extended their guilt
to their poor education in their home
country.
4.1.4.1 Perception of Thai Employers towards the Relationship
between Thais and Burmese
The data analysis revealed that most employer participants had learned
about the Thai and Burmese historical conflict in class. However, the negative
information was not engraved on their memory. They clarified that the war had
happened and was not connected to their life at present. Besides, they explained that if
Thai people had experiences working with Burmese workers, the feeling of “enemy”
would disappear. In addition, the employers extended that they had never learned the
history from the standpoint of the Burmese but their own. With more direct
experiences with Burmese workers the feeling of “enemy” was lessened.
“The Burmese came to Thailand to ask for work, not to revenge. They have
more problems with the Mon. We go too far thinking that the Burmese are our enemy.
The truth is Thai and Laotian also have conflicts, but the matter is not that severe.”
(Ranong, Agriculture, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
114
“The historical event was not influential in cooperating with the Burmese
since some of them have worked with a single employer for 10 years.” (Ranong,
Fishery, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
“I had learned about the conflicts between Thai and Burmese in class, but I
don’t know when the feeling of cultural difference was gone. I am used to it now.”
(Ranong, Agriculture, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
“Most Burmese don’t see Thai people as their enemy. They don’t have the
idea as they are staying in our country although some of them might be violent.”
(Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24, 2016)
However, when asking about the exposure to films based on historical
event, the Thai employers explained that they did not remember the historical
conflicts contents from the films between Thai and Burmese. They did not see any
connection to the relationship between Thai and Burmese workers at present. They
watched the movies to entertain themselves as quoted below:
“I watch historical films just for fun rather than for increasing hatred between
Thai and Burmese” (Ranong, Construction, personal communication, May 23, 2016)
“Historical movies were based on past events. The conflicts between Thai and
Burmese are already faded away in our generation.” (Ranong, Agriculture, personal
communication, May 24, 2016)
Considering the inadequate historical knowledge about Thai and
Burmese, the Thai employers indicated that educational systems were influential in
cultivating conflicts from the past events. For example, the lesson on wars between
the two nations had impacts on cultivating the feelings of “enemy” for those who had
opportunities learning in formal education rather than those who lack the chances as
explained below:
115
“Most Thai people including our parent generation don’t know about the
conflicts between Thai and Burmese. However, if we took a history class, it will be
discovered.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)
“The conflicts between Thai and Burmese had ended and had no connection to
the present. Only those who learn history would perceive the Burmese as an “enemy.”
(Ranong, Construction, personal communication, May 23, 2016)
4.1.4.2 Perception of Burmese Workers towards Relationship between Thai
and Burmese
The majority of the Burmese workers revealed that they had no
knowledge and had never known about the historical conflicts between Thai and
Burmese as Thai people do. The participants explained that people with low education
might not get enough information about the historical conflicts between the two
nations. Most of them were not aware of its significance and realized that there were
no connections between the history and people at present. Basically, most of the
Burmese migrated to Thailand because of two reasons: more vacancies and more pay
to those in Myanmar. In addition, they seemed to go over the feeling of “enemy,”
which was widely spread in Thailand. The clarifications are below:
“At the beginning, I had no idea about Thailand. Those with high education
might know about it, but I had no chance to further my study.” (Surat Thani, Service,
personal communication, May 09, 2016)
I have no idea about where the saying about Thai and Burmese conflicts came
from. I am here to work. Now I am learning. Some Burmese might steal
things, but seeing them, as an “enemy” was wrong since the conflict happened
now. The conflicts happened but are too old now. (Ranong, Fishery, personal
communication, May 24, 2016)
Some groups of Burmese workers confirmed that there was no
information about Thai and Burmese conflicts in class, except the information about
their relationship with neighboring countries in ASEAN as they explained:
116
“When I was 5-6 years old, I studied English and learned about many areas
regarding Myanmar, but there was nothing about Thailand.” (Surat Thani, Fishery,
personal communication, May 22, 2016)
I started school at the age of 6 until I graduated (Mathayom 2 comparing to
Thai education). The lessons were delivered exclusively in Burmese, while
some general subjects were in English. There was no information about
Thailand. It was known as our neighbor. (Ranong, Fishery, personal
communication, May24, 2016)
“As far as I could remember, I have learned about Malaysia and Singapore,
but not about Thailand.” (Songkhla, Service, personal communication, July 28, 2016)
In Myanmar, I have no ideas about the conflicts. After moving here I learned
about it. Also, I learned it from a movie, which I couldn’t remember the name.
It was mainly about the past, which isn’t connected to us at present. If it is
true, it has happened and already ended. We don’t need to fight against each
other (sign)…(seemed like eager to say that where the idea was from).
(Songkhla, Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2016)
In addition, the results showed different problems in adaptation between
the two groups of the Burmese worker participants including the Burmese workers
whose original nationality was proven and those imported based on MOU. The
differences had influences on the control of the employers and their integration to
negotiate. Generally, the MOU workers were likely to have more communications
and work skills than the other group.
The interview data analysis provided answers to research question #1.
The results are concluded below:
1. Most Thai employers had positive perception towards employment of
migrant workers.
2. The Thai employers and Burmese workers working in the same
organization didn’t rely on each other.
117
3. One-way adjustment among the Burmese workers was more
outstanding than that of the Thai employers.
Therefore, this led to the investigation to respond to the two research
objectives: the research objective #2 and #3. The qualitative results, which answered
research objective #1, were baseline data for the design of the questionnaire. The
research tool was aimed to exclusively survey the Burmese workers’ opinions as
presented in the quantitative results below:
4.2 The Quantitative Results
Research Objective #2: To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards
Thai culture and their own
Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and
organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves to work in the south
A set of closed ended questionnaire was distributed to 421 Burmese workers
in 3 provinces including Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. The respondents were
limited to those in 4 businesses: agriculture and livestock, construction, service, and
fishery.
The results are reported into two parts. They are as follows:
118
4.2.1 Results from a Survey of the Burmese Workers
Table 4.5 Frequencies and percentage of working areas, types of businesses, and
organizational structures
Variables Numbers of
Organizations Percentage
Working Areas
Surat Thani 159 37.8
Ranong 136 32.3
Songkhla 126 29.9
Total 421 100.0
Types of Businesses
Agriculture and livestock 83 19.7
Construction 115 27.3
Service 86 20.4
Fishery 137 32.5
Total 421 100.0
Organizational Structures
Clear organizational
structures
157 37.3
No organizational structures 264 62.7
Total 421 100.0
According to table 4.5, 37.8 percent of the respondents worked in Surat Thani.
Meanwhile, 32.3 of the workers were in Ranong, and 29.9 percent of them settled in
Songkhla. Most of them or 32.5 percent were in fishery businesses, followed by 27.3
in construction and 20.4 in service, while 19.7 percent were in agriculture and
livestock. Next, regarding types of the workplaces considering from the
organizational structures, 62.7 of the respondents were in the organizations with no
structures, while 37.3 worked for the organizational with clear internal structures.
119
Table 4.6 Frequencies and percentage of genders, ages, nationalities, education,
characteristics of living, and work experiences in Myanmar
Variables Numbers (person) Percentage
Genders
Male 163 38.7
Female 258 61.3
Ages
20 or lower 43 10.2
21-30 209 49.6
31-40 121 28.7
41-50 44 10.5
More than 50 4 1.0
Nationalities
Mon 68 16.2
Thai Yai 25 5.9
Karen 39 9.3
Burmese 282 67.0
Others 7 1.7
Education
Primary (1-4) 112 26.6
Early High School (5-8) 220 52.3
Late High School (9-10) 77 18.3
Bachelor Degree 12 2.9
Characteristics of Living
Staying with Thai people 101 24.0
Staying with Burmese workers 261 62.0
120
Table 4.6 (Continued)
Variables Numbers (person) Percentage
Staying alone 57 13.5
Others 2 .5
Work Experiences in Myanmar
With work experiences 237 56.3
Without work experiences 184 43.7
Table 4.6 reveals that the majority of the respondents was female and shared
61.3 percent. Regarding the age, 49.6 percent of the respondents aged from 21 to 30
years old. Most of them or 67 percent were Burmese. Next, in terms of education,
52.3 percent of the respondents finished early high school level (grade 5-8). Besides,
62 of them stayed with Burmese colleagues. Finally, more than half of the
respondents or 56.3 percent had experiences working in Myanmar.
Table 4.7 Frequencies and percentage of the media, objectives of media exposure,
presentation of contents about Myanmar by Thai mass media, and
responses to negative contents about the Burmese
Variables Numbers (person) Percentage
Types of Media
1.Radio 58 13.9
2.Television 153 36.7
3.Facebook 183 43.9
4.YouTube 45 10.8
5.Other media/ social media 38 9.1
Objectives of Media Exposure
1.To entertain 57 13.6
2.To practice Thai 82 19.6
121
Table 4.7 (Continued)
Variables Numbers (person) Percentage
3.To follow situations in Thailand 109 26.0
4.To follow situations in Myanmar 135 32.2
5.To complement to their life in Myanmar 88 21.0
6.Others 18 4.3
Presentation of Contents about
Myanmar by Thai Mass Media
1.Political news in Myanmar 130 30.9
2.Crime news conducted by the Burmese in
Thailand
138 32.8
3.Travel documentary in Myanmar 86 20.4
4.Thai and Burmese historical soap operas 49 11.6
Others 18 4.3
Responses to Negative Contents about
the Burmese
1.Convinced by the contents 59 14.0
2.Searching for more information from
acquaintances
150 35.6
3.Searching for more information from
online media
76 18.1
4.Comparing to prior knowledge 81 19.2
5.Comparing to employers’ and colleagues’
behaviors
46 10.9
6.Others 9 2.1
122
According to table 4.7, 43.9 percent of the respondents used Facebook, 36.7
percent exposed to television, and 13.9 percent preferred the radios. Regarding the
objectives of Thai media exposure, 32.2 percent of the respondents wanted to follow
the situations in Myanmar, 26 percent focused on learning new situations in Thailand,
while 21 percent of them exposed to the media in order to complement to their life in
Myanmar
Most respondents (32.8 percent) realized that Thai mass media presented the
contents of “crimes committed by the Burmese in Thailand” most frequently, 30.9
believed that “political news in Myanmar” was second most frequently presented, and
20.4 percent observed the presentation of “travel documentary in Myanmar.”
After the exposure to negative contents about the Burmese on Thai media,
35.6 percent of the respondents “search for more information from acquaintances,
19.2 “compared the new information to their prior knowledge,” while 18.1 “ seek for
more information from online media.”
In addition to the investigation of variables of demographic characteristics, 3
extra variables were included to examine the Burmese workers’ adaptation abilities.
The variables are 1) Ethnic attitudes, 2)Religious behaviors, and 3)Knowledge about
Thai cultures
123
Table 4.8 Mean and S.D. of ethnic attitudes
Ethnic attitudes Mean S.D. Scales
1. Thai people usually look down on the Burmese 3.35 1.51 Moderately Agree
2. Thai people avoid communicating with the
Burmese
3.09 1.39 Moderately Agree
3. Burmese workers are usually accused of
committing bad things.
3.18 1.48 Moderately Agree
4. Thai employers assign tasks unfairly. 3.09 1.46 Moderately Agree
5. Thai people usually take advantage of the Burmese,
especially those in recruiting agencies.
3.32 1.43 Moderately Agree
6. Thai employers are too strict with Burmese
workers.
3.30 1.42 Moderately Agree
7. Thai people usually complaint on how the Burmese
apply Tanaka and wear Sarong.
3.37 1.51 Moderately Agree
8. The Burmese are more competent than Thai people. 3.61 1.34 Mostly Agree
9. The Burmese are more tolerate than Thai people. 3.82 1.37 Mostly Agree
10. Sellers usually sell defected products to the
Burmese
3.19 1.45 Moderately Agree
Total 3.33 1.08 Moderately Agree
Table 4.8 reveals that in general the majority of respondents had moderate
ethnic attitudes with the mean of 3.33 (S.D.= 1.08). Most of them highly agree with
item 9, “The Burmese are more tolerate than Thai people.” The mean was 3.82 with
S.D. of 1.3, which referred to “Mostly Agree.” Next, most of them believed that their
English was better than the Thai with the mean of 3.61 (S.D.=1.34). It also fell into
“Mostly Agree.” Finally, they believed that the Thai shouldn’t complain on how they
apply Tanaka or wear Sarong. The mean was 3.17 and S.D. was1.34, which fell into
“Moderately Agree.”
124
Table 4.9 Mean and S.D. of religious behaviors
Religious Behaviors Mean S.D. Scale
1. Frequencies of going to Thai temples to make merit
on Buddhist special days
4.01 1.30 High
2. Frequencies of participating in religious ceremonies such
as praying, worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to
religious lessons in Thailand.
3.88 1.30 High
3. Frequencies of participating in Buddhist activities such as
donating money to temples, Kathin Ceremony (Offering
yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering
showering ropes to the monks).
3.90 1.24 High
4. Frequencies of applying the Buddha’s words such as
those about being tolerate, patient, and grateful in work.
3.85 1.20 High
5. Frequencies of offering food, necessary stuffs, rice, or
dried food to the monks in Thailand.
3.65 1.30 High
6. Frequencies of renovating Thai temples by fixing them or
assisting in construction of chapels, halls, or buildings.
3.43 1.42 High
7. Frequencies of promoting your children or relatives to
become a monk or novice monk in Thailand.
3.24 1.47 Moderate
8. Frequencies of participating in ordination ceremonies of
your children or relative in Thailand.
3.04 1.50 Moderate
Total 3.63 .99 High
Table 4.9 indicates high frequencies of religious behaviors of most
participants. The mean was 3.63 and S.D. was .99. Most of them preferred going to
Thai temples to make merit on Buddhist special days. The item gained the mean of
4.01 with the S.D. of 1.30, which referred to “High” scale. Next, the respondents
participated in Buddhist activities such as donating money to temples, Kathin
Ceremony (Offering yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering showering
ropes to the monks) with “High” frequencies. The mean was 3.90 and the S.D. was
125
1.24. Finally, the frequencies of the participation in religious ceremonies such as
praying, worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to religious lessons in Thailand
was also “High” with the mean ad S.D. of 3.88 and 1.30, respectively.
126
Table 4.10 Mean and percentage of the Burmese workers’ knowledge about Thai
culture
Knowledge about Thai Culture Correct Answers Wrong Answers
(Persons) (Percentage) (Persons) (Percentage)
1. It is acceptable to wear shoes in Thai temples,
but you must take them off before entering a
chapel.
64 15.2 357 84.8
2. The “Wai” (bow, with the palms pressed
together) is commonly for greeting and showing
respect to others in various situations such as to
sellers.
95 22.6 326 77.4
3. It is acceptable to wear red clothes to the
funeral if the dead person is not your relatives.
132 31.4 289 68.6
4. It is unnecessary for men to wear a top when
contacting with governmental offices, but women
need to do it every time.
234 55.6 187 44.4
5. It is acceptable to greet Thai monks as do to
other people such as saying, “Hi, Sir.”
117 27.8 304 72.2
6. It is acceptable to share the food on your plate
to others provided that the hands are clean.
211 50.1 210 49.9
7. While eating it is acceptable to loudly talk to
people on a nearby table, but not too long in a
restaurant.
286 67.9 135 32.1
8. In public transportation, it is acceptable for
everyone to sit close to the monk’s seat.
257 61.0 164 39.0
9. It is acceptable to address the elders without
using pronouns such as brother, uncle, aunt, and
etc.
309 73.4 112 26.6
10. It is acceptable to put your feet on the table
when talking to friends you are familiar with.
303 72.0 118 28.0
Total 200.8 47.7 220.2 52.3
Table 4.10 indicates that the respondents had poor knowledge about Thai
culture. Only 47.7 percent of them chose the correct answers, while 52.3 marked the
wrong alternatives. To be specific, the three most correct items included: 1)
127
addressing the elders without adding pronouns such as brother, uncle, aunt, and etc
with 73.4 correct answers, 2) 72 percent of the answers were correct when being
asked about whether it is acceptable to put your feet on the table when talking to
friends due to the familiarity, and 3) 67.9 percent of the correct answers was found
when being asked whether it is acceptable to loudly talk to people on a nearby table,
but not too long in a restaurant.
In addition to the poor knowledge about Thai culture, another outstanding
problem for adaptation abilities to work of the Burmese was their poor knowledge and
understanding of Thai law, for example, the low understanding of the significant
changes in the Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560
(2017), and etc.
128
Table 4.11 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese Workers’Adaptive Abilities to Work
Adaptive Abilities to Work Mean S.D. Scale
Wellness
1. Being happy with your life in Thailand 5.70 3.37 Moderately Agree
2. Having enough time to relax from work 6.43 3.17 Moderately Agree
3. Being healthy and ready to work everyday 6.62 3.22 Moderately Agree
Mean 6.25 2.90 Moderately Agree
Being accepted and having relationship with others
4. Being close to all colleagues 6.59 3.29 Moderately Agree
5. Being able to work without monitoring from the
employers
6.60 3.12 Moderately Agree
6. Always being assigned to take care of new workers 6.33 3.04 Moderately Agree
Mean 6.51 2.86 Moderately Agree
Success in Work
7. Always being able to finished assigned tasks 6.81 3.17 Moderately Agree
8. Always being praised by the supervisor 6.24 3.19 Moderately Agree
9. Being able to collect money and send it back to your
family in Myanmar on time
6.62 3.18 Moderately Agree
Mean 6.55 2.91 Moderately Agree
Familiarity with Thai Culture/ No Stress
10. Being able to go to Thai market alone 6.46 3.38 Moderately Agree
11. Being able to ask for help from Thai people such as
when seeing the doctor
6.50 3.26 Moderately Agree
12. Participating in activities in Thailand such as going to
the temple with the Thai
6.63 3.20 Moderately Agree
Mean 6.53 2.79 Moderately Agree
Overall Mean 6.46 2.50 Moderately Agree
Table 4.11 shows that the respondents had “Moderate” adaptive abilities to
work in Thailand with the mean of 6.46 (S.D.=2.50). Considering from all the four
aspect of the items, the most outstanding adaptive abilities referred to the abilities to
successfully work. The mean score of the item was 6.55 with the S.D. of 2.91,
129
followed by familiarity with Thai culture, which obtained the mean of 6.53
(S.D.=2.79). The third place related to being accepted and having relationship with
others with the mean of 6.51 and S.D. of 2.86. Finally, regarding wellness, the lowest
mean of 6.25 was found (S.D.=2.90).
Moreover, concerning their abilities to adapt to work of the Burmese workers
according to the 4 aspects, it can be concluded that:
Regarding the success in work, the respondents were the most successful in
being able to finished every assigned task with the mean of 6.81,
In terms of familiarity with Thai culture/ no stress, the most outstanding
adaptive abilities were found in how they participate in activities in Thailand such as
going to the temple with the Thai. The mean was 6.63, which was equal to
“Moderately Agree.”
Regarding wellness, most of the respondents were healthy and ready to work
every day with the mean of 6.62 or equal to “Moderately Agree.”
Finally, regarding the acceptance and relationship with others, the respondents
successfully adapt to environment without monitoring from the employers, which
gained 6.60, equal to “Moderately Agree.”
4.2.2 The Results of Hypothesis Testing to Serve Research Objective #2
4.2.2.1 In responding Research Question #2, a set of closed-ended
questionnaire was created based on Hofstede’s Value Dimensions. The form consisted
of 4 dimensions. They are individualism vs. collectivism, high power distance vs. low
power distance, masculinity vs. femininity, and low uncertainty avoidance vs. low
uncertainty avoidance. The four dimensions were set as the criteria for the comparison
of the Burmese workers perceptions towards Thai and Burmese culture
The comparison to serve Research Objective #2 was related to some parts of
the answers to Research Question #1, in which the intercultural communication of the
Burmese workers in southern Thailand. The investigation relied on cultural
dimensions as a framework and the data were from an in-depth interview with Thai
employers and Burmese workers. The results indicated that most Thai employers
130
shared similar cultural dimensions and were likely to be positive to the Burmese
workers. However, the Burmese workers appeared to have different cultural
dimensions. The results were congruent to previous studies on intercultural
communication, employment of Burmese workers, and adaption abilities of Burmese
workers, in which different attitudes between the two parties were found.
As a result, a survey research tool was designed to provide answer to the
second research objective: To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai
culture and their own. The hypotheses are as follows:
H1: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards power distance in
Thai and Burmese cultures
H2: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards individualism/
collectivism in Thai and Burmese cultures
H3: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards masculinity/
femininity in Thai and Burmese cultures
H4: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards uncertainty
avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures
131
Table 4.12 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and
Burmese culture
Attitudes towards Cultures Thai Burmese
Mean S.D. Scales Mean S.D. Scales
High/Low Power Distance
1. Clear scopes of work between the
supervisors and subordinates are set.
4.01 1.12 Highly
Agree
3.75 1.15 Highly
Agree
2. Supervisors and subordinates are
clearly divided.
3.94 1.09 Highly
Agree
3.79 1.13 Highly
Agree
3. Subordinates’ opinions are usually
approved by supervisors.
3.50 1.23 Highly
Agree
3.53 1.28 Highly
Agree
Mean 3.81 .85 Highly
Agree
3.69 .90 Highly
Agree
Individualism/Collectivism
4. Being a sharing society 3.77 1.17 Highly
Agree
3.86 1.08 Highly
Agree
5. Focus on the family and groups 3.87 1.10 Highly
Agree
3.74 1.12 Highly
Agree
6. Egotism society 3.65 1.20 Highly
Agree
3.70 1.16 Highly
Agree
Mean 3.76 .92 Highly
Agree
3.77 .89 Highly
Agree
Masculinity/Femininity
7. Men usually have more power
over women.
3.81 1.25 Highly
Agree
3.71 1.24 Highly
Agree
8. Focus more on money than
relationship in the family
3.40 1.30 Moderately
Agree
3.39 1.27 Moderately
Agree
9. Focus on competitiveness, rivalry,
and victory over the opponents.
3.34 1.38 Moderately
Agree
3.25 1.39 Moderately
Agree
10. Focus on success of the tasks
rather than the relationship
3.70 1.23 Highly
Agree
3.63 1.25 Highly
Agree
Mean 3.56 9.42 Highly
Agree
3.49 .90 Highly
Agree
132
Table 4.12 (Continued)
Attitudes towards Cultures Thai Burmese
Mean S.D. Scales Mean S.D. Scales
Uncertainty avoidance
11. Officially task assignment
instead of informal oral assignment
3.58 1.33 Highly
Agree
3.45 1.29 Highly
Agree
12. Have strict social rules 3.94 1.08 Highly
Agree
3.92 1.17 Highly
Agree
Mean 3.76 .95 Highly
Agree
3.69 .97 Highly
Agree
Overall Mean 3.73 .71 Highly
Agree
3.67 .71 Highly
Agree
Table 4.12 indicates that most of the answers on Thai and Burmese cultures
were “Highly Agree.” The comparison of the attitudes towards Thai and Burmese
culture revealed the following results:
Firstly, the Burmese workers perceived high power distance in both the two
cultures. However, they seemed to be aware of higher power distance in Thai culture.
Secondly, the workers realize collectivism in both societies. To be specific,
they perceived slightly more collectivism in Thai society than theirs.
Next, the Burmese workers realized the masculinity in both cultures, but they
perceived Thai culture as more masculine.
Finally, high uncertainty avoidance was detected in both Thai and Burmese
culture according to the Burmese workers. However, they believed that Thai culture
was with higher uncertainty avoidance.
133
Table 4.13 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and Burmese
cultures
Burmese Workers’ Attitudes towards
Thai and Burmese Culture Mean S.D. t P
1. High/ low power distance .121 .843 2.95* .003
2. Individualism/ collectivism -.002 .843 -.06 .954
3. Masculinity/ femininity .069 .789 1.63 .074
4. Low/high uncertainty avoidance .074 .960 1.71 .116
Note: *P<.05
According to table 4.13, the results can be concluded as follows:
H1: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards power distance in
Thai and Burmese cultures.
The data analysis showed that the Burmese workers had different attitudes
towards power distance in Thai and Burmese cultures at a significant level of .05.
They appear to perceive higher power distance in Thai culture than in Myanmar.
H2: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards individualism and
collectivism in Thai and Burmese cultures.
The results indicated no significant difference of the Burmese workers’
attitudes towards the ideas of individualism and collectivism in Thai and Burmese
cultures.
H3: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards masculinity and
femininity in Thai and Burmese cultures.
The findings revealed no significant different of the respondents’ attitudes
towards masculinity and femininity in Thai and Burmese cultures.
H4: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards uncertainty
avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures.
The findings confirmed no significant difference between the respondents’
attitudes towards uncertainty avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures.
134
To conclude, the results gained from the hypothesis test revealed that the
Burmese respondents perceived Thai and Burmese cultures to be different exclusively
regarding the power distance concept. In addition, even though they realized high
social avoidance in both Thai and Burmese cultures, but they seemed to notice more
of it in Thai culture.
4.2.2.2 Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’
personal factors and organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves
to work in the south
The variables in the investigation to serve Research Objective #3 are presented
below:
1) Independent Variables
In this study the independent variables consisted of personal
factors and organizational factors as presented below:
(1) Personal factors
(2) Organizational variables
Personal factors :
(a) Demographic variables including 8 aspects:
Nominal variables consisted of genders, ethnics, working areas, characteristics
of living, and work experiences in Myanmar and interval variables included age, and
educational levels.
(b) Media and media exposure was in nominal scale.
(c) Ethic attitudes were measured through interval scale.
(d) Knowledge about Thai culture was in interval scale.
(e) Religious behaviors were measured in interval scale.
Organizational variables :
(a) Characteristics of the organization were in nominal scale.
(b) Attitudes towards Thai culture were measured through interval scale. They
included 4 aspects: 1) power distance, 2) individual/collectivism, 3) masculinity/femininity,
and 4) uncertainty avoidance.
135
2) Dependent variables
The dependent variables referred to adaptive abilities to work
in the south of the Burmese workers. The variable was measured through interval
scale.
To conclude, as the independent variables were in both qualitative and
quantitative scales, the following hypotheses were included to serve the variables:
H5 : Different personal and organizational factors have different impacts on
the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south, with following sub-
hypotheses:
H5.1: Genders have different impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive
abilities to work in the south
Table 4.14 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by genders (n = 421)
Table 4.14 reveals no difference in the adaptive abilities between male
and female Burmese workers.
Genders Numbers Mean S.D. t P
Male 163 6.64 2.42 1.163 .245
Female 258 6.35 2.54
136
H5.2 : Different working experiences in Myanmar have different
impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Table 4.15 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by working experiences in Myanmar (n = 421)
Table 4.15 shows that the Burmese workers with work experiences in
Myanmar and those with no experiences had no significantly different adaptive
abilities to work in the south.
H5.3: Different organizational structures have different impacts on the
Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Table 4.16 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by organizational structures (n = 421)
Table 4.16 indicates that the Burmese workers in different organizational
structures had no significantly different adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Working Experiences Numbers Mean S.D. t P
With work experiences 237 6.66 2.36 1.854 .064
Without work experiences 184 6.20 2.64
Organizational Structures Numbers Mean S.D. t P
Clearly Structured 157 6.65 2.09 1.189 .235
Unstructured 264 6.35 2.71
137
H5.4 : Different exposure to traditional media (radios and TV) has
different impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south
Table 4.17 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by exposure to traditional media (n = 421)
Exposure to Traditional
Media Numbers Mean S.D. t P
With Exposure 197 6.18 2.61 -2.150* .032
No Exposure 224 6.70 2.37
Note: *P<.05
According to table 4.17, the Burmese workers with and without exposure to
traditional media had different adaptive abilities to work in the south at a significant
level .05.
H5.5 : Different exposure to new media (Facebook and YouTube) has
different impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the southern
Thailand.
Table 4.18 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by exposure to new media (n = 421)
Exposure to New Media Numbers Mean S.D. t P
With Exposure 210 6.85 2.37 3.247* .001
No Exposure 211 6.07 2.56
Note: *P<.05
138
Table 4.18 reveals that the Burmese workers with and without exposure to
new media had different adaptive abilities to work in the south at a significant level
.05.
Table 4.19 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to
work in the south classifying by demographic characteristics
Personal Factors Numbers Mean S.D. t P Meaning
Genders 1. Male
2. Female
163
258
6.64
6.35
2.42
2.54
1.163 .245 No
significant
difference
Working
experiences in
Myanmar
1. With
experiences
2. Without
experiences
237
184
6.66
6.20
2.36
2.64
1.854 .064 No
significant
difference
Types of
Organizations
1. Clearly
structured
2. Unstructured
157
264
6.65
6.35
2.09
2.71
1.189 .235 No
significant
difference
Exposure to
Traditional
Media
1. With
Exposure
2. Without
Exposure
197
224
6.18
6.70
2.61
2.37
-2.150* .032 Significantly
difference
Exposure to
New Media
1. With
Exposure
2. Without
Exposure
210
211
6.85
6.07
2.37
2.56
3.247* .001 Significantly
difference
139
H5.6 : Different ethnicity has different impacts on the Burmese workers’
adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Table 4.20 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by ethnicity (n = 421)
Ethnicities Numbers Mean S.D. F
PostHoc
comparison
(Scheffe)
1. Mon
2. Thai Yai
3. Karen
4. Burmese
5. Others
68
25
39
282
7
6.54
4.44
5.56
6.79
4.82
2.64
3.04
2.93
2.23
1.47
7.80 * 4 > 1, 2
Note: *P<.05
Table 4.20 shows the results of Post Hoc comparison using Scheffe Test. It is
obviously that the Mon workers had different adaptive abilities to the Thai Yai, while
the Thai Yai had different adaptive abilities to the Burmese workers.
It was noticeable that the Burmese workers had higher adaptive abilities than
the Thai Yai and the Mon.
140
H5.7 : Different types of living have different impacts on the Burmese
workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Table 4.21 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by types of living (n = 421)
Types of Living Numbers Mean S.D. F
PostHoc
comparison
(Scheffe)
1. Staying with Thai roommates
2. Staying with Burmese roommates
3. Staying alone
4. Others
101
261
57
2
7.36
6.27
5.78
5.79
2.16
2.51
2.62
.412
6.65 * 1 > 2, 3
Note: *P<.05
Table 4.21 reveals the results of Post Hoc comparison through Scheffe Test. It
was found that the Burmese workers staying with Thai roommates had different
degrees of adaptive abilities to those with the Burmese or alone.
In other words, the Burmese workers who shared a room with Thai people
seemed to have higher adaptive abilities than those who were with Burmese
roommates or alone.
141
H5.8 : Different types of businesses have different impacts on the
Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Table 4.22 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by types of businesses (n = 421)
Types of Businesses Numbers Mean S.D. F
PostHoc
comparison
(Scheffe)
1. Agriculture and Livestock
2. Construction
3. Service
4. Fishery
83
115
86
137
6.98
5.85
6.89
6.39
3.07
2.76
2.17
1.91
4.503 * 1 > 2, 3
Note: *P<.05
Table 4.22 presents the results of Post Hoc comparison by using Scheffe Test.
The results indicated that the Burmese workers in agriculture and livestock had
different adaptive abilities to those in construction business, while adaptive abilities of
the workers in construction were different from those in service business.
To clarify, the Burmese workers who worked in agriculture and livestock had
higher adaptive abilities than those in service businesses, while the workers in service
businesses had more adaptive abilities than those in construction.
142
H5.9 : Different working areas have different impacts on the Burmese
workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Table 4.23 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south classifying by working areas (n = 421)
Working Areas Numbers Mean S.D. F
PostHoc
comparison
(Scheffe)
1. Surat Thani
2. Ranong
3. Songkhla
159
136
126
6.34
5.91
7.20
2.83
1.89
2.47
9.268 *3 > 1, 2
Note: *P<.05
Table 4.23 reveals that the results of Post Hoc comparison through Scheffe
Test. The data analysis showed that the Burmese workers in Songkhla had different
adaptive abilities to the workers in Surat Thani and Ranong.
The results indicated that the Burmese workers in Songkhla had higher
adaptive abilities than those in Surat Thani and Ranong.
143
Table 4.24 Summary of One-Way-ANOVA of the Burmese workers’ adaptive
abilities to work in the south classifying by demographic characteristics
as a personal factor
Personal Factors Numbers Mean S.D. F
Post Hoc
Comparison
(Scheffe)
Ethnicity 1. Mon
2. Thai Yai
3. Karen
4. Burmese
5. Others
68
25
39
282
7
6.54
4.44
5.56
6.79
4.82
2.64
3.04
2.93
2.23
1.47
7.80 * 4 > 1, 2
Types of
Living
1. Staying with Thai
roommates
2. Staying with
Burmese roommates
3. Staying alone
4. Others
101
261
57
2
7.36
6.27
5.78
5.79
2.16
2.51
2.62
.412
6.65 * 1 > 2, 3
Types of
Businesses
1. Agriculture and
Livestock
2. Construction
3. Service
4. Fishery
83
115
86
137
6.98
5.85
6.89
6.39
3.07
2.76
2.17
1.91
4.503 * 1 > 2, 3
Working
Areas
1. Surat Thani
2. Ranong
3. Songkhla
159
136
126
6.34
5.91
7.20
2.83
1.89
2.47
9.268 *3 > 1, 2
144
H6: Personal factors and organizational factors are related to the Burmese
workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis was conducted to evaluate the
relationship among personal factors and organizational factors with the Burmese
adaptive abilities of the Burmese workers. The variables are as follows:
(1) Personal variables included: ages (age), education (edu), knowledge about
Thai culture (culkno), and ethnic attitudes (ethno), and religious behaviors (relig).
(2) Organizational factors consisted of the following aspects:
- Attitudes towards power distance in Burmese culture, which was coded
as PDI-M
- Attitudes towards individualism or collectivism in Burmese culture,
which was coded as IDV-M
- Attitudes towards masculinity or femininity in Burmese culture, which
was coded as MAS-M
- Attitudes towards high or low uncertainty avoidance in Burmese
culture, which was coded as UAI-M
- Attitudes towards high or low power distance in Thai culture, which
was coded as PDI-T
- Attitudes towards Individualism or collectivism, which was coded as IDV-
T
- Attitudes towards masculinity or femininity, which was coded as
MAS-T
- Attitudes towards high or low uncertainty avoidance in Thailand which
was coded as UAI-T.
145
Table 4.25 ANOVA outputs of personal, organizational, and adaptive abilities to work in the south of the Burmese workers
PDI -T IDV-T UAI-T MAS-T PDI-M IDV -M MAS-M UAI-M culkno ethno relig age edu adjust
PDI -T .495** .438** .449* .540** .399** .274** .279** -.090 .326** .186** -.147** .047 -.028
IDV-T .466 .337** .315** .570** .170** .268** -.095 .090 .328** -.106* -.025 -.003
UAI-T .554** .283** .340** .350** .563** -.134** .296** .270** -.097* .052 -.109*
MAS-T .282** .229** .616** .336** -.233** .447** .186** -.098* .037 -.073
PDI-M .572** .413** .428** -.091 .277** .279** -.043 -.013 .012
IDV -M .387** .407** -.008 .171** .356** -.049 -.095 .023
MAS-M .425** -.170** .509** .270** -.082 -.005 -.074
UAI-M -.040 .245** .292** -.027 -.075 -.035
culkno -.067 -.083 .168** -.038 .115*
ethno .225** -.136** .009 -.269**
relig .004 .027 -.069
age -.073 .175**
edu .106*
adjust
Note:**correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
Organizational
Factors
Personal Factors
146
Table 4.26 Output of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of the Burmese
workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south
Model Unstandardized
Coefficients (B)
Standardized
Coefficients
(Beta)
t P
Constant 5.177 6.564 .000
Ethnic Attitudes -.633 -.274 -5.674 .000
Age .402 .136 2.891 .004
Education .422 .127 2.747 .006
Power Distance .288 .104 3.167 .031
Knowledge about Thai culture .110 .093 1.983 .048
Note: R=.351 R square =.123 Adjusted R Square = .112 F=11.633
Table 4.26 presents that output of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of
the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south. It was found that ethnic
attitudes were the best predictor in forecasting the adaptive abilities to work in the
south of the Burmese workers, followed by age, education, attitudes towards Burmese
culture regarding power distance, and knowledge about Thai culture, respectively. In
was obviously that ethnic attitudes had negative relationship with the workers’
adaptive abilities. That is to say, the workers with high ethnic attitudes were likely to
have low adaptive abilities. Moreover, all of the five predictors including ethnic
attitudes, age, education, attitudes towards Burmese culture regarding power distance,
and knowledge about Thai culture accounted for 12.3 (R=.123) of the Burmese
workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
147
4.2.3 Summary of Hypothesis Testing to Serve Research Objective #3
Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and
organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves to work in the south
H5 : ethnics, types of living, types of businesses, working areas, and exposure
to different media resulted in different levels of adaptive abilities.
H6: Personal and organizational factors were related to the Burmese workers’
adaptive abilities to work in the south. In other words, ethnic attitudes were the most
influential predictor of the workers’ adaptive abilities, followed by age, education,
attitudes towards Burmese culture regarding power distance, and knowledge about
Thai culture, respectively. The five predictors accounted for 12.3 (R=.123) of the
Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study, namely “Intercultural Communication in the Employment of
Burmese Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand,” aims to examine
intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers due to
the increasing numbers of Laotian, Cambodian, and Burmese migrant workers in
Thailand. However, generally, Burmese workers were mentioned more frequently and
appeared to be having dubious image for Thai people. According to Foreign Workers
Administration Office, in 2016 Burmese workers were the second most densely
concentrated in the south of Thailand. It was necessary for the workers to adapt to the
new environment by learning Thai culture in terms of the language, food, or clothing.
The workers in the south of Thailand were different from those in metropolitan areas
such as Samuthsakorn and Samuthprakarn in the way they unite. To put it simply, the
worker in the south are scattered around in the areas. They couldn’t form their own
community. Thus, these people have less power to negotiate or claim their rights than
those Burmese workers in the two provinces. Besides, Burmese workers are usually
perceived as an “enemy” by Thai people. As a result, it is questionable whether the
Burmese in the south who need to adjust themselves to the new society and culture as
a “worker” can work happily or continue working in the area under the circumstance
of labor shortage in the country. This leads to the research objectives in this study
indicated as follows:
a) To investigate the intercultural communications between Thai employers
and Burmese workers in the south.
b) To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai culture and
Burmese culture.
149
c) To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and organizational
factors relating to the abilities to adapt themselves to work in the south.
This chapter presents three major section including conclusion, discussion,
and recommendations for further studies.
5.1 Conclusion
5.1.1 Qualitative Results
This study employed both qualitative and quantitative approaches in the
investigation of intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese
workers. The results are concluded based on each research objective and presented in
the following section.
Research Objective #1: To investigate the intercultural communications
between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the south
In responding to this research objective, two qualitative methods were
employed. At the beginning, an in-depth interview was conducted followed by a
nonparticipant observation with Thai employers and Burmese workers. The results are
concluded below:
5.1.1.1 Cultural Dimensions
1) Individualism/collectivism: Data analysis revealed that Thai
employers were collectivistic and exhibited cronyism behaviors. They were
considerate and valued the society and other employers. In contrast, the Burmese
workers believed in individualism focusing on self and family benefits by trying to
finish tasks assigned.
2) High/ low power distance: The Thai employers reflected
high degree of power distance by indicating clear hierarchy in workplaces. The
workers were under control and needed to serve the employers’ commands. Similarly,
the Burmese workers exhibited high power distance. When they had work problems,
they usually talked to their colleagues rather than to the employers. Besides, they
could follow the employers’ commands.
3) Masculinity/ femininity: Thai employers preferred
femininity. They focused on the qualities of life and relationship building activities.
150
At the same time, the Burmese workers preferred masculinity. They focused more on
success of the work rather than relationship between people.
4) High/ Low uncertainty avoidance: The Thai employers
exhibited high uncertainty avoidance. They had plans and solutions to the potential
problems caused by the Burmese workers. For example, they confiscate the workers’
official document so that the workers couldn’t flee from work. Similarly, the Burmese
workers showed high uncertainty avoidance. They required high security at work;
hence, they were likely to favor jobs with high pay and more security.
Table 5.1 Summary of comparison of cultural dimensions between Thai employers
and Burmese workers
Cultural Dimensions Employers Employees
Individualism/collectivism Individualism Collectivism
Low/ high power distance High power distance High power distance
Masculinity/ femininity Femininity Masculinity
Low/ high uncertainty
avoidance
High uncertainty
avoidance High uncertainty avoidance
5.1.1.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences
Prior to the employment the Thai employers stereotypically perceived
the Burmese workers as fierce, wild, and unreliable. However, after having direct
experiences of hiring them the negative perceptions were changed. The Burmese
workers were seen to be hardworking, tolerated, loyal, and religious. Thus, positive
stereotypes replaced the negative ones. On the contrary, the Burmese workers realized
separation in Thai society, especially, among Thais who had no direct experiences
working with them. Thai individuals usually look down on them and regard them as
the causes of problems. Besides, they realized that Thais showed xenophobia towards
them. In addition to the separation between Thai and Burmese, ethnic division was
also found among the people from Myanmar who moved to Thailand.
151
5.1.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors
The Thai employers explained that sometimes the contents in Thai mass
media are exaggerated and distorted. Reproduction of hostility feelings against
Myanmar was significant. Thus, mass media played roles in forming negative
stereotypes towards the Burmese. As a result, Thai employers did not trust the
Burmese despite having direct experiences with them. In contrast, the Burmese
workers realized the key roles of Thai mass media in their lives in Thailand since they
gained knowledge and entertainment from the media. Moreover, exposure to Thai
online media such as YouTube could compensate for their feeling reminiscent of
being in Myanmar.
5.1.1.4 Perceptions Towards the History of Relationship Between Thai
Employers and Burmese Workers
Both the Thai employers and the Burmese workers believed that the war
between the two nations happened long ago and was not connected to the people’s
thought at present. Thus, when hiring the Burmese the Thai employers did not rely on
the historical event. It had no influences on the recruitment and work evaluation of the
workers. At the same time, the Burmese workers denied their perceptions towards
Thai people as their “enemy” and extended their guilt to their poor education in their
home country. However, Thais seemed to stick to the idea that the Burmese were their
enemy forever.
5.1.1.5 The Differences Between Two Groups of Burmese Workers
The participants in this study consisted of two groups. They were those
whose original nationality was proved and those imported through the government
MOU. The analysis of the interview data revealed problems in taking care of these
two groups of Burmese workers in Thailand. As a result, this affected the control of
the employers and integration among the workers. In other words, it was obvious that
the workers whose original nationality was proved needed more adaptation due to
their low education and skills. In contrast, the workers imported through MOU
usually had outstanding skills. Thus, they had more power to negotiate with their
employers and integrate with others to protect their rights. In Songkhla, a number of
MOU workers settled there until the employers worried about the conflict
management in the areas.
152
5.1.2 Quantitative Results
In response to Research Objectives #2 and 3, the quantitative method of data
collection was applied. A set of close-ended questionnaire was distributed to the
Burmese respondents. The survey results and results of hypothesis testing are
presented in the following section.
5.1.2.1 Demographics Information
Most of the respondents were Burmese workers residing in Surat Thani,
Ranong, and Songkhla, respectively. They were classified based on the business
types. The majority of the workers were in fishery, construction, service, and
agriculture and livestock, respectively. Most of them worked for unstructured
organizations and female workers outnumbered the male workers. They aged from 21
to 30 years old. Most of the respondents were Burmese, Mon, and Karen. They
graduated early high school (Grade 5-8) and most of them shared an apartment with
Burmese roommates and had previous work experience in Myanmar.
5.1.2.2 Media Exposure
Most Burmese respondents used Facebook and were exposed to
television, and radio, respectively. The purposes of the exposure were to follow
situations in Myanmar, those in Thailand, and substitute for real life experiences back
home in Myanmar. The Burmese respondents reflected that the crimes committed by
the Burmese were most frequently presented through Thai mass media, followed by
Burmese political news, and travel documentary in Myanmar, respectively. After the
exposure to negative contents about the Burmese, most of them searched for more
information from familiar people, compared the new information to their prior
knowledge and went online for more information, respectively.
5.1.2.3 Ethnocentric Attitudes
The Burmese workers showed moderate ethnocentric attitudes. They
appeared to highly regard the Burmese with more patience than Thais. Some of them
were aware of higher English proficiency than Thais. Finally, regarding the criticism
of applying Tanaka Powder, the Burmese workers were moderately aware of the
criticism.
153
5.1.2.4 Religious behaviors
The data analysis revealed high frequencies of three religious behaviors
among the Burmese respondents. Firstly, they preferred going to Thai temples to
make merit on Buddhist special days. Secondly, some of them participated in
Buddhist activities such as donating money to temples in Kathin Ceremony (Offering
yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering showering ropes to the monks).
Finally, they preferred participating in religious ceremonies such as praying,
worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to religious lessons in Thailand. In
addition, the results of interview data analysis were congruent to the quantitative
analysis. To put it simply, the most outstanding characteristic of the Burmese workers
was their strict participation in Buddhist ceremonies. The characteristic was obvious
among the Burmese in Thailand, for example, they came together to build a model of
Shwedagon Pagoda in Thai temples to secure their mental state. It is also a means for
the builders to make merit.
5.1.2.5 Knowledge about Thai culture
The data analysis showed that the respondents had poor knowledge
about Thai culture. Less than half of them could choose the correct answer regarding
Thai culture. The respondents realized the inappropriate practices in three items:
addressing the elders without adding pronouns such as brother, uncle, and aunt,
putting feet on the table when talking to friends due to the familiarity, and loudly
talking to people at a nearby table, but not too long in a restaurant, respectively. In
addition, another outstanding problem for adaptation abilities to work of the Burmese
was their poor knowledge and understanding of Thai laws. The Burmese respondents
explained that it might be resulted from the limited public relations from where they
could gain information.
5.1.2.6 The Burmese Workers Adaptive Abilities to Work in Thai
Society
The data analysis showed that the respondents had “Moderate” adaptive
abilities to work in Thailand. Considering from all the four aspects of the items, the
most outstanding adaptive abilities referred to the abilities to successfully work,
followed by familiarity with Thai culture. The third place related to being accepted
154
and having relationship with others. Finally, the respondents had the least adaptive
abilities in terms of wellness.
To conclude, the Burmese workers were most successful in adapting to
work in the south in the following areas:
Regarding success in work, it was found that the respondents were
moderately able to finish every assigned task.
In terms of familiarity with Thai culture/ no stress, the most outstanding
adaptive abilities were moderately found in how they participate in activities in
Thailand such as going to the temple with Thais. Most of the answers fell into
“Moderately Agree”.
Regarding wellness, most of the respondents were healthy and ready to
work every day in “Moderately Agree” scale.
Regarding the acceptance and relationship with others, the respondents
chose “Moderately Agree” scale when asking about successful adaptation to
environment without monitoring from the employers.
5.1.2.7 The Comparison of the Burmese Workers’ Attitudes Towards
Thai and Burmese Cultures
The data analysis revealed positive attitudes towards Thai and Burmese
culture. The results from the comparison between the Burmese workers attitudes
towards Thai and Burmese cultures are summarized in the following section.
Firstly, the workers realized collectivism in both cultures. To be
specific, they perceived slightly more collectivism in Thai society than their own
culture.
Secondly, the Burmese workers perceived high power distance in both
the two cultures. However, they seemed to be aware of higher power distance in Thai
culture.
Thirdly, the Burmese workers realized masculinity in both cultures, but
they perceived Thai culture as more masculine.
Finally, high uncertainty avoidance was detected in both Thai and
Burmese culture according to the Burmese workers. However, they believed that Thai
culture had higher uncertainty avoidance than Burmese culture. The Table 5.2
presents the summary of results.
155
Table 5.2 Summary of Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and Burmese
cultures
Cultural Dimensions Attitudes towards Thai
Culture
Attitudes towards
Burmese Culture
Individualism/
collectivism
Collectivism Collectivism
High/ low power distance High Power Distance High Power Distance)
Masculinity/ femininity Masculinity Masculinity
High/ low uncertainty
avoidance
High Uncertainty
Avoidance
High Uncertainty
Avoidance
5.1.2.8 The Results of the Comparison Between the Burmese Workers’
Attitudes Towards Thai Culture
This present study aims to investigate the Burmese workers’ adaptive
abilities while working in Thailand. A mixed-methods design was employed in this
phase. The qualitative and quantitative results are compared in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards
Thai culture
Cultural Dimensions Qualitative Method Quantitative Method
Individualism/ collectivism Individualism Collectivism
High/ low power distance High Power Distance High Power Distance
Masculinity/ femininity Masculinity Masculinity
High/ low uncertainty
avoidance
High Uncertainty
Avoidance
High Uncertainty
Avoidance
156
1) Research Objective #2: To compare the Burmese workers’
attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese cultures.
The results of hypothesis testing through Cultural Dimensions
revealed only one area of difference between the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards
Thai culture and Burmese culture. The dissimilar attitude towards power distance was
discovered. That is to say, even though high power distance was detected in both
cultures, the Burmese respondents realized higher power distance in Thai society.
2) Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’
personal factors and organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves
to work in the south.
(3) Ethnicity, types of living, types of businesses, working
areas, and different types of media had different impacts on the Burmese workers’
adaptive abilities to work.
(4) The factors most relating to the Burmese workers’
abilities to work in the south referred to ethnocentric attitudes, which was the most
effective predictor. The second most effective predictor was age, education, attitudes
towards power distance, and knowledge about Thai culture. These five variables
accounted for 12.3 (R=.123) of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the
south.
5.2 Discussion
The major aim of this study is to discover the body of knowledge in regards to
communications and cultures. Thus, the results are discussed based on each research
objectives taking results from previous studies, concepts, theories, and the
phenomenon in the research settings.
5.2.1 The Factors Relating to the Burmese Workers’ Adaptive Abilities
to Work in Thailand
Some interesting variables, which could clarify the extent of the Burmese
workers’ adaptive abilities to work in Thailand, were examined in this study. The
variables were included to test the reliability. They were different from those in other
previous studies. The results are discussed in the following section.
157
5.2.1.1 Knowledge about Thai culture -The analysis of the relationship
among the variables indicated that knowledge about Thai culture, for example, Thai
religion, clothing, eating custom, and manner had positive relationship with the
Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities. In other words, the workers with high
knowledge about Thai culture were likely to have high adaptive abilities. However,
the data analysis revealed their inadequate knowledge about Thai culture. Therefore,
this means that their adaptive abilities were rather low. In addition, the interview data
analysis showed the Burmese workers’ insufficient knowledge and understanding
about Thai laws, especially the laws on employment of migrant workers. The results
indicated that prior to moving to Thailand the workers were not aware of the
importance of learning about rights or welfare legalized by the law. They focused
exclusively on the pay as a reward from work. As a result, after working for a while
they might encounter with unfair employment and couldn’t ask for help from anyone
in Thailand. They had no idea about which organization to protect their rights. Hence,
they just barely tolerated the unfair treatment.
5.2.1.2 Types of businesses (careers)- The quantitative analysis
showed that the Burmese workers in agriculture and livestock had higher adaptive
abilities than those in service and construction. Meanwhile, the interview data
analysis showed that the Thai employers in construction, agriculture and livestock,
and fishery allowed their workers to fully reveal their identities. In contrast, in some
service businesses such as a hotel business the workers were not allowed to openly
show some elements of their identities. For example, they were not allowed to apply
Tanaka Powder, chew betel nuts, wear Sarong, and talk in Burmese while working. It
was obvious that in the businesses with no prohibitions on showing their identities,
Burmese workers seemed to work with ease, behaving freely, and being more relaxed.
Consequently, they appeared to adjust themselves more quickly and easily as the new
culture shared something in common to their own. However, most workers in the
hotel business were educated. They had more communicative competence than others.
Some of them could write and read Thai. Thus, they had more opportunities to
communicate internationally.
158
5.2.1.3 Areas- The quantitative data analysis showed that the Burmese
workers in Songkhla had more adaptive abilities than those in Surat Thani and
Ranong. Moreover, job transfer was less frequently found among the workers than in
the two other provinces. This might be because they learn and are familiar with Thai
culture due to the long-term work experiences for the same employers in the same
working areas. Hence, they are more able to adjust themselves to work than others,
especially those working in Ranong, which borders Myanmar. Thus, the migrant
workers are more likely to change their jobs or easily travel back to their home
country. The result is in line with Pholphirul (2013), who found that the job transition
among migrants, who work in the areas along the borders between Thailand and
Myanmar, are higher than in other areas.
Moreover, job transfer in Surat Thani was also high. The province was a
popular tourist attraction for both Thai and foreign tourists. Thus, in terms of
economy, the demand for labor was high so that they could fulfill the need of the
numbers of entrepreneurs in tourism industry. In line with this observation, the
province had the largest population of Burmese workers reported in 2016. Thus, with
more job opportunities, the Burmese workers tended to transfer their jobs more
frequently so that they got better jobs. The high frequencies of job transition resulted
in low motivation to adjust to new people and unfamiliar tasks as they might not be
aware of the necessity to do so. Consequently, the workers in Surat Thani had low
adaptive abilities to work than those in Songkhla.
5.2.1.4 Characteristics of organizations- The quantitative analysis
revealed no relationship between the characteristics of organizations and adaptive
abilities of the Burmese workers. However, the interview data analysis showed that
the workers in organizations with clear structures seemed to have high quality of life
since better welfare was usually provided. Moreover, they were likely to feel safer
and more secure from the regular pay than those in unstructured organizations. In
contrast, the pay and employment duration might be unreliable for the workers in
organizations with no structures. These workers might sometimes need to get extra
jobs with other employers, which matched their skills in case the present employers
have no jobs for them. Unfortunately, transition to work for other employers without
permission is unacceptable according to Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign
159
Workers B.E. 2560 (2017), which states that the employers who hire a migrant worker
without a work permit (with a work permit for other entrepreneurs) is subject to a fine
ranging from 400,000 to 800,000 baht per person.
5.2.1.5 Types of the Burmese workers- The Burmese workers imported
through the government MOU seemed to have higher adaptive abilities than the
workers whose original nationality was proved due to their better work performances,
the processes of recruitment, and quality check from the origin country. MOU
workers were with evidence and information, which guaranteed their migration and
legitimate settlement. As a result, it was not too difficult for these workers to adjust
themselves. They usually got the information about the types of jobs and working
areas prior to the migration. Also, they might have some other friends coming along.
In some organizations, MOU workers can group together to argue for their rights. If
the employers do not approve the proposals, they strike. Meanwhile, the workers
whose original nationalities are proved are those who illegally enter the country. They
will be legalized until employers dealt with the legitimated processes later. Hence, it
might be tough for them to adjust to work and become accepted and trusted by the
employers.
5.2.1.6 Media exposure behaviors- The interview data analysis
revealed that Thai mass media were influential in establishing and improving the
understanding towards the Burmese. The nationalism in Thai media was transferred
along with historical lessons, which portrayed the Burmese as the “enemy” of the
nation. The presentation was engraved into Thai people’s mind until stereotypes and
separation thoughts became obvious (Pijitra Tsukamoto, 2015, p. 87). In terms of the
Burmese workers’ exposure, the three most popular media were Facebook and
YouTube, which are online media. Television was the only traditional media the
workers exposed to frequently since its functions were to report Thai current
situations in Thailand and Myanmar, provide knowledge and means for practicing
Thai. However, some Burmese workers could not expose to Thai mass media and
social media due to their tiredness from work.
The interview data analysis revealed that the Burmese workers used
social media via their mobile phones for entertainment. For example, a teen worker in
the fishery business usually watched Burmese music videos after docking at the
160
harbor as they had 2-3 days off. Meanwhile, the workers in the construction business
could go online during lunchbreak and in the evening after work. They preferred
using Facebook to contact with relatives in Myanmar and listen to prayer in Burmese
via YouTube. Therefore, it can be concluded that Thai mass media are not able to
engrave and equip a mindset about being “an enemy of Thai people” owning to time
limitation and the characteristics of the jobs they are taking. Moreover, it is easier for
them to expose to online media as a new alternative. Online media are usually
approachable and ubiquitous since the contents on these new media substitute those
on television. Consequently, the Burmese workers have more opportunities to choose
the contents that match their needs.
5.2.1.7 Ethnicity- The quantitative data analysis indicated that the
Burmese workers had higher adaptive abilities than the Thai Yai and the Mon. The
interview data analysis revealed that the Burmese workers had different adaptive
abilities to different ethnic groups in Myanmar such as Mon, who regarded their
language abilities to be higher than the Burmese groups and complained about the
exploitation by the Burmese while the Mon were in Myanmar. In addition, most
employers realized the differences and conflicts between ethnic groups in Myanmar.
They usually came up with basic solution by putting the same workers with the same
ethnicity on the same job to avoid the potential ethnic conflicts.
5.2.1.8 Types of living conditions- The quantitative analysis indicated
that the Burmese workers who shared a room with Thai people seemed to have higher
adaptive abilities than those who were with Burmese roommates or alone. In addition,
the interview data analysis and the non-participant observation revealed that
businesses providing accommodation usually separated Thai workers from the
Burmese. As a result, the Burmese stick together and rarely communicate in Thai
making it difficult for them to assimilate into Thai culture. Therefore, the
opportunities to learn the new culture are limited.
5.2.2 Buddhism and the ways of lives of the Burmese workers
The qualitative data analysis revealed that the Burmese workers frequently
performed religious rituals while working in Thailand. The result was in line with the
results of the interview with Thai employer and Burmese workers of all the four
161
businesses in the three provinces. The interview focused on examining piety and
values on Buddhism of the Burmese workers in Thailand. In general, three significant
concepts of Buddhism were emphasized. They were Karma and merit, precepts, and
practices. Karma referred to past actions, while merits were good past actions, and the
five precepts associated with how to do good actions. As a result, the Burmese
workers made merit with no regret regardless of their financial status (Naruemon
Teerawat et, al., 2008, pp. 256-57). Thus, “religion” is a factor, which encourages and
supports the Burmese workers to work successfully in Thailand. Besides, funding for
merit events and building of Shwedagon Pagoda Model in Thai temples are the
ultimate goal for the workers. Thus, these people spare some of their income from
working in Thai society for making merit as we usually see models of Shwedagon
Pagoda in many places in Thailand.
Moreover, worshiping the pagoda is a must for all Burmese Buddhists. The
underlying concepts behind their good deeds are the belief about Karma and donation
to maintain Shwedagon Pagoda, which is huge merit leading to good actions and
helping them to get through all obstacles in their lives. The pagoda unites the
Buddhists together. Whenever, a new pagoda is being built, conflicts are solved.
Everyone would get together and help each other. They may donate money and
objects or devote their labor in the event (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p.45 and 58).
Considering the connection between the results and the Burmese’s ways of
life, it can be concluded that the Burmese workers relate their Buddhism beliefs to the
impacts of Karma on each individual. Hence, people of all genders at all ages are
strict Buddhists. They are likely to have similar religious behaviors to those in their
country. As a result, they can adjust themselves faster and easier. Moreover, their
religious behaviors are congruent to those of Thai Buddhists. The Burmese are
praised by the Thai people and the Thai usually have positive attitudes towards the
Burmese strict religious behaviors, which are perceived as a part of Thai culture.
Thus, intercultural communications between the Thai and Burmese occurs
unconsciously. This leads to their higher adaptive abilities to work in Thailand. The
results are in line with an investigation of Akha’s cultural adaptation through the
application of religious principles. It was found that Akha have selected the Christian
meaning to assimilate with their traditional beliefs. They apply “freedom” in
162
Christianity to free themselves from restricted regulations so that their ways of life are
matched with modern changes. The study reveals Akha’s adaptive abilities to
continuous change (Sirinya Kijprayoon, 1998).
5.2.3 The ethnic attitudes
The most prominent psycho-cultural dimension in this study is ethic attitudes
between Thai and Burmese. The test of correlation revealed that ethnic attitudes had
negative correlation to adaptive abilities of the Burmese. In other words, the Burmese
workers who stick to their traditional ethnic attitudes seem to have problem adjusting
to working in Thailand. Similarly, the quantitative analysis pointed out that the
Burmese participants were with stereotypes, bias, and pride over the Thai, especially
in terms of patience with work and English abilities. Whereas, the results showed
moderate attitudes and the qualitative analysis only found the Burmese workers’
awareness of more patience with work over Thai people. Thus, the bias or stereotype
is not critical.
However, the interview data analysis showed that the Burmese workers were
sad, fearful, and worried when communicating with Thai people as they realized that
the interactants perceived them as minorities with no power in Thai society. This
might result from strong nationalism and ethnocentrism, which seem to be a part of
their thinking process and interpretation engraving into Thai cognitive system. They
form attitudes and stereotypes towards a certain individual or group. This negative
stereotype is a crucial problem hindering the adaptive abilities of the Burmese
workers. The results are congruent to the results of the study titled “Perception and
Intercultural Communication between Thai Students and ASEAN People.” The study
reveals that Thai students appear to stereotypically perceive the Burmese to be low
educated. Concerning stereotypes, it was found that most Thai students seem to have
negative ethnic stereotypes. To dig deeper, they appear to have stereotypes and bias
towards the people from the neighboring countries, especially to Cambodian and
Burmese people from the influences of historical lessons and the presentation of mass
media. Next, most of them are affected by ethnocentrism. They regard their country to
be livable and ideal; thus, for them foreigners are required to adapt to Thai culture.
163
This might result from their pride of sovereignty over other countries transferred
through lessons, educational systems, and media (Metta Vivatananukul, 2013).
Similarly, different accents and message of superiority complex and
discrimination also result in racism and stereotypes. For example, the investigation of
different accents of Ugandan immigrants in the U.S. reveals that the participants were
not confident to communicate in English. This is in line with the result from the
interview data analysis, which showed that some Burmese workers with poor Thai
skills were not confident to speak Thai to Thai people. Similarly, Holmes (2015)
discovers that the migrant workers from South East Asia in New Zealand use English
with accents. Sometimes, New Zealanders can’t understand it. As a result, the workers
became depressed, unconfident, and unmotivated to communicate after that. Some of
them even sought recluse from the society or quit their jobs.
5.2.4 Communication to boost relationship
The qualitative analysis revealed communication problems when the Burmese
workers communicated with Thais. The solution for them was to avoid interacting
with Thai people. They try not to communicate to Thais and avoid making eye contact
with them since these might lead to misunderstanding and fights between the two
parties. The avoidance of interaction with Thai people is similar to the results in a
study by Peerayut Oraphan (2008). He investigated Malay- Thai and Thai people in
the south. The Malay-Thai are afraid of negative impacts from the interaction with
Thai people; thus, they avoid interacting with Thais. The result in Peerayut Oraphan’s
study is comparable to the one in this study. That is to say, Thai employers and
Burmese workers seem to adjust themselves when performing the intercultural
communications. To start with the Thai employers clearly exhibit two characteristics
of their communications. They say things half-jokingly and avoid sensitive topics.
Meanwhile, the Burmese workers employ various methods. For example, they avoid
the interaction and try to be unfriendly. Also, they implicitly protect their groups,
participate in outgroup social religious activities, while maintaining their own
identities, and try to camouflage their identities by applying other identities.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the Burmese workers might perform more
164
adaptation through many means. Their efforts are more obvious than those of the Thai
employers.
Apart from verbal communications, nonverbal communications such as
gesture is vital for interpretation of feelings between the two parties due to their
limited verbal communications ability. Even though verbal cues, both spoken and
written forms, are obvious in intercultural communications, previous studies proposed
that its importance is only limited to 20% in the understanding between interactants,
while nonverbal cues takes 80% (Kanjana Kaewthep, 2014).
The data analysis in this study revealed that a number of Burmese workers did
not speak Thai, especially new migrants. On the other hand Burmese was not widely
used among Thai employers. However, they could work together since the workers
tried to adjust to Thai culture by observing the nonverbal communications of the
employers while working. They put efforts in interpreting the cues, perceiving, and
memorizing them when performing tasks. This resulted in fewer mistakes. They
learned to behave appropriately to satisfy the employers. The result is congruent to a
study of Fan & Hebbani (2014). The study found that Taiwanese people need to adapt
to the language and interaction with the host because it is crucial for the employment
in Australia. In addition Warangkana Tipayachon (2014) has proposed solution to
intercultural communications problems using nonverbal communications. The scholar
suggests interactants to express their ideas through using gestures and try to
understand them from the cultural stances. Meanwhile, positive relationship can
promote familiarity and cultural learning should be performed simultaneously.
In terms of language, most previous studies on languages and cultures
discover that people in the host culture rarely adapt to the new comers. Instead, it is
necessary for the immigrants to perform such task. However, Amaro (2015) has
proposed different findings. The investigation pointed out that the Portuguese
immigrants in Macau were not aware of the necessity to adapt to the target culture.
They were unmotivated to learn Cantonese blaming on the difficult characteristics of
the language. They believed that they could survive in Macau without using
Cantonese. In addition, the immigrants usually worked there temporarily, so they
were inactive to learn the language. Most of the time, they just remembered useful
expressions and used nonverbal communications. For example, they just remembered
165
the dish they would like to eat, and then they pointed the picture on the menu. In
addition, the Portuguese immigrants were in higher status than the people in the host
culture. Hence, adaptation to the host culture was not necessary. The study shares
similar findings to O-larick Khunsit (2012)’s study. The researcher found that Thai
personnel who worked for branches in the neighboring countries such as Cambodia,
Malaysia, Laos, and Myanmar were in higher positions than the local officers. As a
result, they maintained Thai culture and performed less adaption.
5.2.5 The comparison of cultural dimensions
Hofstede’s value dimensions were applied as a research framework in this
study. The framework has celebrated its popularity among previous studies. For
example, marketing research was employed to investigate marketing consumers (Yoo
et, Donthu & Lenartowicz, 2011), to set organization management plans (Vasile &
Nicolescu, 2016), and to seek for guideline for coexistence of people in a
multicultural society (Nguyen, 2015).
The investigation of cultural dimensions in this study aims to examine two
areas below:
5.2.5.1 To compare cultural dimensions of between Thai employers
and Burmese workers.
5.2.5.2 To compare cultural dimensions from the attitudes of the
Burmese workers towards Thai and Burmese cultures.
To begin with the comparison of cultural dimensions between Thai employers
and Burmese workers through a qualitative approach, the analysis revealed different
attitudes of Thai and employers and Burmese workers towards two cultural
dimensions. On the one hand, the Thai employers focused on collectivism, while the
Burmese workers favored individualism. Secondly, femininity was outstanding
among Thai employers. However, the Burmese workers were more masculine.
The other area of the comparison referred to the comparison of cultural
dimensions from the attitudes of the Burmese workers towards Thai and Burmese
cultures. A quantitative analysis showed that the attitudes towards four dimensions of
the two cultures were in the same trend, but different levels. Similarly, the test of
correlation between cultural dimensions and adaptive abilities revealed only one
166
cultural dimension correlating to the abilities to adapt to work, which was power
distance. The results are discussed in the following section.
1) Low/high power distance- the qualitative analysis revealed
that both Thai employers and the Burmese workers favored high power distance.
While the Burmese workers established hierarchies of a person by considering their
work experiences and educational levels, hierarchies among the Burmese workers
were not clearly established. Some of them had been teachers in Myanmar, but after
moving to Thailand they were workers as others. In other words, their education
certificates and work experiences in their home country were not accepted in
Thailand. The situation is similar to that of Russian-German immigrants, who fled
back to Germany after the dependence declaration from Russia. The immigrants
needed to face a long-term unemployment as they did not gain acceptance. Some of
them got rather low pay. While some could not maintain the same positions they once
held in Russia (Dementeva, Franzke & Loyko, 2015).
In addition, the Burmese workers in Thailand were aware of the
inequality in Thai society. They realized that they must encounter with it and ignored
it as their ultimate goal was the “income” from work. Thus, it was more likely for the
workers to adapt to the Thai employers. In contrast, the results also revealed that the
Burmese workers could negotiate with the employers in some cases such as asking for
jobs after quitting or getting back from their own country. For some workers they
might be away from work for a month. This was acceptable for most employers due to
the shortage of labor. However, the employment of migrant workers required clear
rules and punishment to avoid later problems, especially in the organizations with
clear structures.
According to Hofstede’s ranking of degrees of power distance
of more than 50 countries across the globe, Thailand was in the 21th which was rather
low when comparing to other countries in ASEAN Community, especially Malaysia,
which was ranked in the 1st place (Samovar et al., 2013, p.177). However, according
to the quantitative data analysis, the Burmese workers were aware of high power
distance in Thai and Burmese cultures, with a higher degree in Thai context. Thus it is
noticeable that roles and status of the supervisors or employers of Thai people
broadened the gaps in the relationship between the two parties. The workers were
167
afraid and don’t dare to tease or be close to the employers. They preferred
communicating through foremen. Thus, much distance between the employers and the
workers was established.
2) Individualism or collectivism- The qualitative data analysis
revealed that the Thai employers were more collectivistic. In general, they relied on
other employers, government officers, and the public close to the organizations. They
valued stakeholders for the sustainability of their businesses. Previous studies also
support the finding. Most of them found out that Thai people who worked for
branches in neighboring countries also focused on collectivism. Shared principles
were established as a policy for all members so that they reached the organizational
goal (O-larick Khunsit, 2012). In addition, according to Hofstede’s study,
individualism was scarcely found in Thai society. The scholar proposed that Asian
people were less individualistic than western people; for example, the U.S was ranked
on top, while Thailand is ranked at 39th
. This implied rather low individualism in the
country (Samovar et al., 2013, p.178).
Meanwhile, in general most Burmese workers focused highly
on human rights and their responsibilities. They ultimate goal for working was the
pay. As a result, they were inactive to reflect value of reliance and focused on public
interest while working in Thailand. Consequently, collectivism was not the focus.
However, integration among the workers was clearly when they made merit and built
temples in Thailand. The activities reflected their strong collectivism through more
integration and harmony than among Thai people. At the same time, the quantitative
data analysis indicated that the Burmese workers had high attitudes towards
collectivism both in Thai and Burmese cultures with a slightly more awareness of the
value in Thai society. The results showed the only cultural dimension the workers
shared were different degrees of attitudes.
3) Masculinity or femininity- The results showed that
masculinity was more influential among the Burmese workers. They appeared to
focus on success in work and pay slight attention to quality of life. They could take
any job, which provided money, especially the jobs Thai people were inactive to take.
Those jobs were usually with high pay and they were known as 3Ds jobs, which
referred to “Difficult,” “Dirty,” and “Dangerous.” Thus, the Burmese workers were
168
rarely away from work. Some of them get extra jobs after work or they worked on
weekends. They were economized and focused less on eating. They preferred eating
vegetables than meat due to its high prices. This reflected the traditional ways of life
of the Burmese in rural areas who were self-reliant. In the socialism era in which their
country was still closed, the government ran a campaign for their people to be
economical and self-reliant. A motto in the campaign was launched to warn and
encourage young people. It was, “Build your own shop in your own backyard.”
Besides, another famous moral saying about how to economically use money is
“Don’t waste your money on households” meaning if you did not use money
carefully, you will waste it. The saying was aimed to remind the people not to spend
too much on food (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b , p. 182). This became their
values until this day. The results were in line with the quantitative data analysis,
which found that the Burmese workers were aware of masculinity in Thai and
Burmese cultures, but more masculinity in Thai society.
In contrast, the Thai employers preferred femininity. Even
though they were task-oriented, they were flexible. The employers focused on the
relationship between workers as well as their quality of life. The employers in the all
three provinces conducted similar activities to improve relationship such as holding
sport events to boost morale and encouragement, giving presents on New Year or
Songkran Festival, providing transportation to nearby temples, or offering better
welfare. For example, food and apartment were provided for free to promote the
workers’ higher quality of life. In doing so the workers had less expense and could
collect more money. In this case they usually become more motivated to work.
According to Hofstede’s study, Japanese was the most outstanding country with
femininity, while Thailand fell into the 44th
place, which was lower than many other
countries in ASEAN (Samovar et al., 2013, p.184).
4) Low or high uncertainty avoidance- The qualitative data
analysis discovered high uncertainty avoidance among the Thai employers. They were
afraid of uncertainty in the future and usually rely on strict legitimate laws and
regulations, especially regarding fleeing of migrant workers by seizing the workers’
official document and passport. The workers were allowed to keep the copied
versions. Similarly, the Burmese workers also reflected high uncertainty avoidance.
169
They were uncertain about changes in the future. They needed plans and security for
work. Besides, regular pay and security at work are necessary. Thus, they usually
sought for better jobs by frequently changed their jobs for higher pay and more
security. The workers in Ranong appeared to have a high frequency of job transfer.
The result was in line with the quantitative analysis, which indicated the Burmese
workers’ high attitudes towards uncertainty avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures.
However, higher uncertainty avoidance in Thai society was observed by the workers.
5.3 Recommendations
5.3.1 Recommendations for intercultural communications between Thai
employers and Burmese workers
5.3.1.1 Burmese workers’ identity formation should be promoted in the
migration destinations. In all the research settings, the employers usually refer to the
workers’ devotion to donate their money and labor as well as morale in making merit
and building pagodas for other Burmese in the adjacent areas as it might be
impossible for them to worship the Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar. For example, a
model of the pagoda can be found in Klong Hae Temple in Had Yai District,
Songkhla, Suwankeeree Temple in Kraburi, Ranong, and Pho Wai Temple in
Mueang, Surat Thani. In Pho Wai Temple, a school for Burmese children was
established. Initially, the school was for the children of a Burmese lawyer and
workers, who resided near the temple. They would like their kids to be educated in
Thailand; thus, the school was established with the funding from organizations in
Thailand and Myanmar. Until now the school provides Thai, English, and Burmese
programs. Thus with more volunteers or supporters, Burmese workers’ education
would serve more students. Consequently, social problems in Thailand such as
stealing, crimes, and conflicts due to poor language skills would be lessened. At the
same time, the workers could relieve their worry about their children in Myanmar.
Finally, Thai employers do not encounter labor shortage or job transfer among
Burmese workers.
5.3.1.2 Promoting equality in employment is necessary. Not only the
workers in all the four research settings across the four types of businesses are
170
worried about dealing with Thai police officers. They are concerned about being
unemployed and inconsistency of the employment by a certain employer. Provided
that inconsistency occurs they need to look for a new job. As a result, some workers
do not stick to specific types of jobs or organizations after immediate termination of
the previous jobs. For example, a worker in a fishery business in Surat Thani had
taken a construction job and worked in fishery business in Pattani for about 10 years.
Later, fishery in Pattani was not as prosperous as that in Surat Thani. Then he moved
to the new working area. Hence, the underlying reason of job transfer among Burmese
workers associates with no jobs available or inadequate jobs in the previous
workplaces until they gain insufficient pay to cover their expense or the high rate of
registration fee, which cost about 10,000 baht. However, learning to perform new
tasks frequently requires much patience since it is essential or the workers to
understand the key characteristics of the new jobs as well as the new employers’ and
coworkers’ characteristics. Unsurprisingly, those workers can tolerate the 3Ds jobs
(Difficult, Dirty and Dangerous jobs). Next, regarding the promotion of equality in
the employment, employers could assign tasks, which suit specific groups of the
workers, while the wage should be reasonable for the labor and their outstanding
characteristic of being much more patient than Thai people. Provided that all the
suggestion was met, the feeling of being exploited by Thai employers would be
reduced, while their working morale would be promoted.
5.3.1.3 Presentation of positive historical events between Thai and
Burmese should be promoted. So far, history of negative relationship between the two
nations has been presented in class until the hatred towards Burmese people is
accumulated into their mindset. Only those Thai people who have shared experiences
with the Burmese appear to feel less dubious. However, the Thai with direct
experiences with the Burmese form a minority group of people. Thus, media and
lessons in class should focus on presenting history of positive relationship between
Thai and Burmese in order to promote positive relationship and attitudes towards
Burmese people to serveindustrial and agricultural sectors. The aim is to encourage
investment and employment in Thai contexts where labor shortage is critical.
5.3.1.4 Cultural knowledge to boost mutual understanding and reduce
stereotypes between ethnic groups in formal education should be provided. It should
171
be parts of the curriculum along with knowledge about AEAN Community. People
must be encouraged to realize the significance of coexistence of others in
multicultural contexts. The promotion should focus on children so that they are open
to the circumstance. Also, the children will become open-minded at primary,
secondary, and university levels. The promotion should be performed in local,
regional, and national levels.
5.3.1.5 Migrant conflict management should be provided. The data
analysis revealed two areas of conflict. Firstly, the conflict between employers and
Burmese workers imported through the government MOU and worked for
organizations with clear structures was discovered. In this circumstance, the workers
negotiate and associate with each other to maintain their rights. Once a cooperation is
formed, it became challenging for the employers to deal with problems occurred.
Thus, a survey on the workers through an observation, survey questionnaires, and
relationship boosting activities are likely to be useful in an organization hiring MOU
Burmese workers. The executives can apply the results in the organizational planning
and analysis. For example, thus study found that the Burmese participants noticed
high power distance between employers and workers. Sometimes, it might be
impossible to show it explicitly. Thus, when the employers realize the problems, they
will be able to manage them appropriately.
The other aspect of the conflict associates with the conflict among
ethnic groups in Myanmar. Provided that it is impossible for the employers to recruit
Burmese workers who share different ethnic groups to work in the same organization,
they should promote balance between work and personal life of all groups of the
workers so that each ethnic group is treated equally. In addition, a close observation
on the workers’ behaviors should be conducted, especially the Burmese as they are
usually blamed on by the Mon, Karen, and Thai Yai. Other people usually do not
want to work with the Burmese. The problems have been in Myanmar for a long time
and no solution seemed to work under the dictatorial government. Unluckily, the
conflict has escalated to employment of Burmese workers in Thai society.
172
5.3.2 Recommendations for Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign
Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)
Considering the Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E.
2560 (2017) and the results of this study, the following suggestion for policy making
of governmental sector is presented in the following section.
5.3.2.1 Promotion of awareness on equality of migrant employment in
Thai society
The data analysis indicated that the respondents noticed differences
between the employment of Thais and the Burmese in terms of pay and welfare. Also,
Thais appear to be with ethnic stereotypes and seemed not to open to Burmese
workers. Most of the Thai people believe that they are better and more superior to the
Burmese (ethnocentrism). A survey with the workers on their adaptive abilities to
work in the south showed that the lowest score was on “Being unhappy with everyday
life in Thailand”. Thus, we should reconsider the situations, especially insulting to
migrant workers as far as we still rely on their labor to accelerate the production.
Similarly, clear amount of the fine for relevant people or others, both the employers
and migrant workers should be established. This might be helpful as the guilty people
are pleased to take care of the fine if they violate the law. As a result, the law is more
strict and applied with every one with no exception for influential people.
In addition, the results revealed the Burmese workers’ observation of
high power distance among Thai people. This means that they perceived unfair
employment by the government officers and other Thais. Thus, this might be one of
the reasons they fled home after the declaration of Royal Decree on the Management
of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 (2017).
5.3.2.2 Appropriate channels for publicizing the law should be
provided to promote correct and clear knowledge about law for Thai employers and
Burmese workers. There are various reasons why Burmese workers flock back to their
home country and may not get back after the establishment of the decree. First, some
of them might hear about a rumor, while some of them learn from social media.
Sometimes, the rumor or news is distorted. However, one influential factor is the high
registration fee they need to take care of without any details or correct information.
Hence, during the extension of the enforcement time of this Act, the government
173
should promote correct information and clear understanding of the new regulations to
Burmese workers and Thai employers for more understanding and effective practices.
5.3.3 Recommendations for further study
5.3.3.1 Researchers should boost trust by the participants. The
participants in this study are migrant workers. They are usually panic when interact
with unfamiliar people. Most of them might not give clear and precise information as
they are afraid of negative impacts. They appear to be very careful when giving
information and usually provide positive information. Thus, the researchers must be
neutral and trusted by the employers since they can relief the workers’ worry in the
early phase. However, while collecting data, the researchers must observe their
communication behaviors to evaluate their readiness. If they feel uncomfortable, other
topics should be brought up to relief their intense, for example, talking about activities
during the weekend or favorite food. Moreover, informal communications is advisable
as it is more relaxing. Then the participants will gradually reveal more information.
5.3.3.2 A preliminary investigation of the targeted participants prior to
the visit of the researcher site can boost reliability of quantitative research. In the
present study, some of the workers are illiterate. However, they speak Burmese or
Thai. Therefore, researchers should classify the participants into groups and be with
them while filling up the questionnaire form. Researchers can read the items and
check their answers. It is necessary to simplify some terms or provide examples,
which are close to their daily life so that they understand the item well before filling
the form for the most reliable data.
174
5.3.3.3 Researchers should pay attention to the questionnaire format to
facilitate the respondents, who have no experiences filling up close-ended
questionnaire. Researchers should learn the potential problems and obstacles, which
are resulted from the lack of experiences. In this study, it was found that some
Burmese workers were not familiar with the questionnaire format. As a result they left
some items blank and the form had missing data despite using the Burmese version.
Therefore, the researchers should be aware of the challenging issue by avoiding
stratified items such as age and income. In this case open-ended items would be more
appropriate.
5.3.3.4 The potential topics for further studies on discovering body of
knowledge of intercultural communications, which is compatible with modern
situations. This would include investigation of communications channels for migrant
management in Thailand or an in-depth study of cultural dimensions, which show
incongruent results to other previous studies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amaro, V. (2015). 'We', 'They' and the spaces in-between: hybridity in intercultural
interactions between Portuguese and Chinese residents in Macau.
Multilingua, 34(3), 293-318. doi:10.1515/multi-2014-0084
Analyst Association Suggested If Less Than 50% of Foreign Workers Got Back
‘Royal Decree on The Management of Foreign Workers’ Might Hinder
Government Investment. (2017, July 15th). KrungThep Turakij, p.8. (In
Thai)
Athitaya Duangumphai. (2013). Policy suggestion on management of immigrant
workers in special economic area, Mea Sord district, Tak province
(Unpublished master’s thesis). Naresuan University, Phitsanulok. (In Thai)
Athitpura Suwannarat. (2010). Quality of work life of foreign labours in Nakhon Si
Thammarat province as perceived by workers (Unpublished master’s
thesis). Burapha University, Chonburi. (In Thai)
Baraldi, C. (2015). Intercultural communication systems and discourses of cultural
identity. Applied Linguistics Review, 6(1), 49-71. doi:10.1515/applirev-
2015-0003
Belden, A. K. (2010). As seen on TV: The relationship between body image and
cultivation (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
Theses database. (UMI No. 3408694)
Boontham Kitpreedaborisut . (2006). Techniques for designing research tools for
research data collection. Nakon Pathom Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Mahidol University. (In Thai)
Bundit Panwiset. (2017, July 4th). Royal Decree on The Management of Foreign
Workers 2017 Requiring Effective Solution. KrungThep Turakij.
Retrieved e from http://voicelabour.org/.(In Thai)
Chauetong, Ritthinun.& Rujira Rojanaprapayon. (2016). Values, ideologies, and
communication patterns indicated Thais' culture. NIDA Development
Journal, 21(29), 110-137. (In Thai)
176
Croucher, S. M., Galy-Badenas, F., & Ruotsalainen, M. (2014). Host culture
acceptance, religiosity, and the threat of Muslim immigration. Journal of
Intercultural Communication, (35), 3
Dementeva, S., Franzke, M. Coletta, & Loyko, O. (2015). Russian-German
immigrants in Germany and their intercultural communication. Procedia-
Social and behavioral sciences, (166), 516-520. Retrieved from
doi.org./10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.564
Eguchi, S. (2013). Revisiting asiacentricity: Toward thinking dialectically about
Asian American identities and negotiation. Howard Journal of
Communications, 24(1), 95-115. doi:10.1080/10646175.2013.748556
Ekachai Eutanpisit. (2011). Maids : migrant domestic workers in Thai households
and state protection (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok.(In Thai)
Erba, J. (2013). " That's what they see on TV, that's How they view our culture."
Exploring the relationship between cultural identification and media
representations of Latina/os and Latino students experiences, identity
development and relationship with the university they attend (Doctoral
dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations Theses database.
(UMI No. 3606681)
Fan, P., & Hebbani, A. (2014). Navigating through the Australian workplace:
mapping the experience of Taiwanese working holiday makers (WHMs) in
Brisbane. Intercultural Communication Studies, 23(2), 33-53.
Foreign Worker Administration Office. (2016). Total figures of foreign workers
allowed to work in the kingdom. Division of transfer of workers in private
sector administration according with regards to free trade agreement and
department of information technology. Retrieved from
http://wp.doe.go.th/wp/index.php/th/.
From TIP Report –IUU fishing to labor laws of foreign workers, a more critical
problem…solving human trafficking. (2017, July 7-13), Matichon Weekly,
(1925), p.22. (In Thai)
177
Geert H. Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, & Michael Minkov. (2010). Cultures and
organizations : software of the mind : Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival (3 rd ed.). New York : Mc Graw Hill.
Holmes, P. (2015). ‘The cultural stuff around how to talk to people’immigrants'
Iintercultural communication during a pre-employment work-placement.
Language & Intercultural Communication, 15(1), 109-124.
doi:10.1080/14708477.2014.985309
How Do We See Foreign Workers. (2017, July 7-13). Matichon Weekly, p.97.
Jie, X. (2013). Public attitudes toward globalization in East Asia. Journal of
Intercultural Communication, (32), 8.
Kanjana KaewThep. (2013). Mass communication: Theories and principles.
Bangkok: Parbpim. (In Thai)
Kanjana KaewThep. (2014). The art of media and cultural study. (3rd ed.). Bangkok:
Parbpim. (In Thai)
Kiatchai Phongphanit. (2010). Invading Burmese: Analyzing politic in Myanmar
under military dictatorship. (3rd ed.). Bangkok: Praphansan. (In Thai)
Kin Meaw Chid. (2012). Colorful Myanmar. translated by Hom Klayanon. Bangkok
: Investigating five regions.
Kritaya Archavanitkul & Kulapa Vajanasara. (2011). Executive summary
Employment of immigrant workers under the working of aliens Act 2008
and the list of occupation allowed to foreigners. (In Thai)
Kwanchanok Pantufuk. (2014). Communication and adaptation of Burmese workers
in Thai society (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok. (In Thai)
Maitra, S. (2011). Redefining "Enterprising selves": Exploring the "Negotiation" of
South Asian immigrant women working as home-based enclave
entrepreneurs (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations Theses database. (NS22272)
Maung Htin Aung. (2013). History of the Burma. Burmese: Toyota foundation. (In
Thai)
Maung Swe Thet. (2015). From Ayeyarwaddy to Chao Phraya. translated by
Pongpanit, Pirat. Bangkok: Matichon. (In Thai)
178
Metta Vivatananukul (Krittawit). (2016). Intercultural communication. Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University Press. (In Thai)
Metta Vivatananukul. (2005). Cross-cultural communication. Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University Press. (In Thai)
Metta Vivatananukul. (2013). Perception and intercultural communication between
Thai students and ASEAN people. Chulalongkorn University. (In Thai)
Montakarn Chimmamee. (2014). Migration, human capitalization and migration
plan of migrant labor in Thailand. (Unpublished master’s thesis).
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Murdoch, A. (2006). Diversity and complementary of cultures as principles of
universal. Dialogue & Universalism, 16(5/6), pp.117-128.
Muwanguzi, S. & Musambira, G. (2012). Communication experiences of Ugandan
immigrants during acculturation to the United states. Journal of
Intercultural Communication, (30),6 .
Nakharin Srilert. (2017, July 11th). TDRI” Suggested Holistic Methods of “Foreign
Worker. Management. KrungThep Turakij, p.2. (In Thai)
Naruemon Teerawat, et al. (2008). Understanding the Burmese through Shwedagon
Pagoda. Bangkok: O S printing. (In Thai)
Narumon Wongduan. (2015). Intercultural communication competence for health
care services in migrant workers (Unpublished master’s thesis). Mahidol
University, Nakhon Pathom. (In Thai)
New Royal Decree on The Management of Foreign Workers Enforced, Illegally
Employment Subjected for 8 Hundred Thousand, Agent Sentenced for 10
years and fined 1 Million Baht. (2017, June 23th). Matichon Online, Front
Page. Retrieved from http://www.manager.co.th/home/. (In Thai)
New Royal Decree on The Management of Foreign Workers with Severe Punishment
and High Fees Might Effect Labors in Thailand Where Numbers of
Foreign Workers Are Needed. (2017, June 30th). Kom Chad Luek.
Retrieved from http://www.komchadluek.net/news/scoop/285389 .(In
Thai)
Nguyen, T. S. (2015). Using Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions to describe and to
analyze cultural differences between first generation and second
179
generation Vietnamese in the Vietnamese church in America (Doctoral
dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations Theses database.
(UMI No.3707879)
O-larick Khunsit. (2012) . Communication and cultural adaptation of Thai
expatriates in a subsidiaries of multinational corporations in neighboring
countries (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok. (In Thai)
Pachara U-Suk. (2012). Image of immigrant laborers as viewed by citizens in Sunsai
district, Chiang Mai (Unpublished master’s thesis). Mae Joh University,
Chiang Mai. (In Thai)
Parida Kochek. (2005). Intercultural communication affecting the adaptation of
transitional people : Case study of Myanmar people in the provinces of
the Thai border (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Thammasart
University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Parinya Chaowsamoon. (2017, July 11th ) Royal Decree on The Management of
Foreign Workers and The Fading of Betel Nut Waste. KrungThep Turakij,
p.33. (In Thai)
Pathita Kimprakon,. (2008). Interracial communication between Thais And Indian-
Thais (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
(In Thai)
Peerayut Oraphan. (2008). Intercultural communication of Malay-Thai in southern
Thailand and Thai-Malaysian in Kelantan, Malaysia (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). Thammasart University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Phanthip Teeranet. (2017, July 14th). Matichon Daily, p. 13. (In Thai)
Pholphirul, P. (2013 ). Immigration, job vacancies, and employment dynamics:
evidence from Thai manufacturers. Journal of Asian Economics,
(24), pp.1-16.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2012.10.005
Pichet Saiphan & Piyanat Sroikum. (Editors). (2014) Series : People and the
awareness of ASEAN. ( 3rded.). Bangkok: The Princess Maha Sirindhorn
anthropology center (Public organization). (In Thai)
180
Pichit Tantanakun. (2000). Circumstances of employment, availability, and impacts
of national labor usage: A case study of Chonburi (Unpublished master’s
thesis). Burapa University, Chonburi. (In Thai)
Pijitra Tsukamoto. (2015). Prejudice in Thai media coverage towards Burmese labor
and Thai stereotype toward Burmese labor in Samutsakorn. Journal of HR
Intelligence, 10 (1), 88-94. (In Thai)
Pirote Phosai, Setthachai Chaisanit, Nichapa Natesiri, & Kanjana Rattarasarn. (2012).
Background of Phyu , Mon, and Burmese. Bangkok: Wangaksorn. (In
Thai)
Pitch Pongsawat. (2017, July 11th). Problems with Foreign Workers and Human
Trafficking, Where There Is a Will, There Is a Will. Matichon Daily, p.
16. (In Thai)
Podsakorn Yothinneeranath. (2012). Government policies and approaches towards
migrant labours in regard to workmen’s compensation Act BE 2537
(1994) (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok. (In Thai)
Poksuk Nilubon. (2009). Understanding the Burmese based on experiences of Poksuk
Nilubon. Bangkok: The Thai research fund. (In Thai)
PolThep Poonpol. (2017). The influence of personal, social and cultural factors on
cross-cultural adjustment among international students in Thailand and the
mediating impact of online social capital. Journal of Behavioral Science,
33(1), 118. (In Thai)
Poranee Kaewboworn. (2015). Identity changes among Myanmar laborers in Chiang
Rai after media exposure (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).Mae Fah
Laung University,Chiang Rai. (In Thai)
Pornwipa Haotawanit. (2011). Cultural adjustment of Thai migrant workers: A
qualitative study (Unpublished master’s Thesis).Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok. .(In Thai)
Rubdy, R. & McKay, S. L. (2013). “Foreign workers" in Singapore: conflicting
discourses, language politics and the negotiation of immigrant identities.
International Journal of The Sociology of Language, (222), 157-185.
doi:10.1515/ijsl-2013-0036
181
Samovar A. Larry, Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel & Carolyn S. Roy. (2013).
Communication between culture. (8th ed.).Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Sarunya Jarusspinit. (2014). Factors affecting cross-cultural adaptation of Koreans in
Thailand: A case study of Koreans residing in Bangkok (Unpublished
master’s thesis). Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Sastharam Thammaboosadee. (2012). The political economy of transnational
worker’s welfare : A case study of Burmese workers in Samuthprakarn.
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
(In Thai)
Seate, A. A. (2012). Understanding the role of emotions in mediated intergroup
threat: a cultivation and appraisal theory approach . (Doctoral
dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations Theses database.
(UMI No. 3522051)
Shim, C. (2010). Mediated contact and intergroup relations: When Koreans met
Americans through U.S. TV Dramas. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved
from ProQuest Dissertations Theses database. (UMI No. 3412070)
Sipim Sornbanlung. (2015). Securitization of migration workers: A case study of
Burmese workers in Thailand (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Sirinya Kijprayoon. (1998). Adoption of buddhism and cultural adjustment: A case of
Arkha minority in Mae Suai, Chiang Rai (Unpublished master’s thesis).
Chiang Mai University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Somsuda Wattananont. (2004). Intercultural communication between Thai and
western employees at work (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Special Report: Royal Decree on The Management of Foreign Workers and The
Effects on Thai Agricultural Sector. (2017, July 4th). Neawna, Retrieved
from http://www.ryt9.com/s/prg/2684027. (In Thai)
Steven Brown & Blenda Hayashi & Kikue Yamamoto. (2012). The handbook of
intercultural discourse and communication.( Chapter 13). Blackwell
Publishing Ltd. Retrieved from http://doi
.org/10.1002/9781118247273.ch13
182
Suklun, H. (2014). Professional immigrant women in medium and large
organizations in The USA: A phenomenological study exploring
communication conflicts that arise froml Language barriers.
Sunait Chutinataranon. (2001). Understanding Thais: Thai history and arts in the
view of the Burmese. Bangkok : Matichon. (In Thai)
Supattra Tantijariyaphan. (2013). The political economy analysis and transnational
labor management in Thailand: A case study of the Myanmar labor in
Chiang Mai area. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mae Joh
University, Chiang Mai. (In Thai)
SuThep Keawnunchai. (2008). Employment standards and working conditions of
immigrant workers in Mueang Chiang Mai district. (Unpublished master’s
thesis). Chiang Mai University,Chiang Mai. (In Thai)
Taylor, H. Robert. (2007). The state in Burma. translated by Phangam
Ngaothammasan, Sodsai Khantiworrapong, and R. Sasitorn. Na Ayuthaya
The foundation for promotion of Social Sciences and Humanities
textbooks project. Bangkok: Toyota Thailand foundation. (In Thai)
Tears& Tears. (2017, July 7-13), Tears& Tears. Matichon Weekly, p.10. (In Thai)
Thai-Burmese forming of committee for revision of laws on foreign workers for
“Economic sector” to raise registration fee.(2017, July9th) Matichon daily,
p.9. (In Thai)
Tien, N. C. (2013). Communication and relationships of intercultural/multilingual
couples: cultural and language differences. (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations Theses database. (UMI No.
3606017)
To Increase Registration Fees of 3 Millions “Foreign Workers” in Agricultural Sector.
.(2017, July10th) KrungThep Turakij, p.1. (In Thai)
Urban, E. (2008). "Bird in a cage:" Exploring transnational immigrants' identity
negotiations. International & Intercultural Communication Annual, (31),
197-225.
Vasile, A. C, & Nicolescu, L. (2016). “Coporate communication challenges in
multicultural environments”. Cross-Cultural Management Journal, 18(1),
55-63.
183
Warangkana Tippayachon. (2013). Intercultural communication between Thai
employers and Burmese workers (Unpublished master’s Thesis). National
Institute of Development Administration, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Warunsiri Prasitsuntorn. (2014). Methods of immigrant worker recruitment of fishery
entrepreneurs in Kuraburi district, Phang Nga (Unpublished master’s
thesis), Mae Fah Laung University, Chiang Rai. (In Thai)
William B. Gudykunst. (2003). Cross-cultural and intercultural communication.
Sage : USA.
Wirat Niyomtham. (2008a). Think as the Burmese do: The nation and heroes in
course books. Maha Sarakham: Maha Sarakham University Press. (In
Thai)
Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham,. (2008b). Learning Burmese society and culture.
Burmese study, faculty of humanities, Naresuan University. Phitsanulok:
Trakunlthai. (In Thai)
Wonghatai Tancheevawong. (2011). Cross-cultural advertising. Bangkok:
Thammasart University Press. (In Thai)
Yod Santasombat. (2008). Power, space and ethnic identities: Cultural politics of
nation State in northern Thai society. Bangkok: The Princess Maha
Sirindhorn Anthropology Center (Public organization). (In Thai)
Yoo, B., Donthu, N., & Lenartowicz,T. (2011). “Measuring Hofstede’s five
dimensions of cultural values at the individual level development and
validation of CVSCALE”. Journal Of International Consumer
Marketing, 23 (3-4), 193.
Yuth Kaiyawan. (2014). Multivariate statistical analysis for research. Bangkok: V
Print. (In Thai)
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Guide Question
Title: Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese Workers by
Local Businesses in Southern Thailand
This in-depth interview is a part of the data collection for an academic
investigation. The researcher is not revealing your data to others, so you are not going
to be subjected to any cases. Therefore, please kindly give true information which is
compatible with your opinions. Your information is invaluable for this study.
_____________________________________________________________________
Types of Employers Business ……………………Province…………………………
Age…………………………….Educational Level ………………………………….
Elements of Hofstede’s Value Dimensions
1.Which communicative technique do you use when assigning tasks to
subordinates?
2. Have you ever experiences unfair treats by officials?
3. What is your opinion about the saying, “Adults are more experienced than
the young” in working?
4. Do you talk or exchange your ideas to subordinates after work?
5.When you disagree with someone, how do you respond?
6.Which do you prefer, working alone or in group, why?
7.On which occasions do you gain favor from others, and how do you pay
them back?
8.When making decision about work, who do you usually ask for advice?
Why?
9. In your opinion, what factors constitutes “being successful?”
10. How do you manage personal life and work? Do you think it is effective?
11.What is your opinion about the saying, “The husband brings money to the
house, the wife takes care of the family?”
12. Apart from wage and welfare, what do you think should be provided by
the employers?
187
13. How could you cope with immediate absence from work to Myanmar?
14. If you need to move to a far new company, which you are not familiar
with, how will you react?
15. Are you worried about “stability and security” in your life? How much?
And how do you manage the worry?
Media Exposure and Cultivation
1. How much do you expose to the media a day? What is your favorite
medium? Why?
2. In what way are Burmese workers presented through Thai mass media?
3. Do you like how Burmese workers presented on Thai mass media?
4. Would you like Thai mass media to reconsider the presentation of the
Burmese? How?
5. From which media do you usually expose to the contents about Burmese
workers?
6. How would Burmese workers feel if they expose to the contents about
Burmese workers
7. How do Thai mass media convey ethnic and culture discrimination?
8.When you hear about crimes committed by Burmese workers in Thailand,
do you believe in the news? Why?
9. Do you more critically monitor the work performed by the Burmese after
hearing the news from the media?
Psycho-Cultural Influences
1. What is your opinion about describing Burmese people as patient, honest,
and grateful?
2. What is a necessary characteristic of your future Burmese workers
according to types of jobs?
3 Have you ever made fun of Burmese workers by using words? Which words
do you usually use?
4. Do you allow the Burmese workers to apply Tanaka Powder, eat betel nuts,
and ware Sarong in your workplace?
5. How do you react to the Burmese workers when getting angry or
unsatisfying with their work?
6. What techniques do you apply when you assign tasks for Burmese workers?
What are the consequences?
7. How do you support the Burmese workers in terms of their traditional
activities?
8. How do you adapt to Burmese culture such as practice how to speak or
remember Burmese?
Perceptions of Historical Events
1. Have you ever read or studied history events? How do you feel after
learning the historical events?
2. How have you perceived the relationship between Thai and Burmese? After
you employ Burmese workers, is your perception changed?
Title: Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese Workers by
Local Businesses in Southern Thailand
This in-depth interview is a part of the data collection for an academic
investigation. The researcher is not revealing your data to others, so you are not going
to be subjected to any cases. Therefore, please kindly give the true information which
is compatible with your opinions. Your information is invaluable for this study.
____________________________________________________________________
Types of Business Burmese Working ……………Province…………………………...
Age…………………………….Educational Level …………………………………..
Ability to speak Thai…………………………………………………………………...
Elements of Hofstede’s Value Dimensions
1.What welfare is provided for you in your workplace? Is it sufficient?
2. Does your employer instruct you how to perform tasks or you can take care
of them by yourselves?
3. Have you ever treated unfairly by Thai government officials?
4. How do you show respect or honor to your employers?
5. If your friends plan to be away from work and go back to Myanmar during
a busy schedule at work, are you pleased to get home with them? Why?
6. Would you suggest your friends work here? If yes, why?
7. How would you react to your friends when you disagree with them?
8. Would you prefer to work alone or in groups?
9. How do you define “being successful?”
10. How do you manage personal life and work? Do you think it is effective?
11. Should women work for money or should they stay home and take care of
the family members? Why?
12. What is your ultimate goal for work? Where are you now? Are you almost
there?
191
13.What do you think about “stability and security” of working in Thailand?
14. Provided that there are more job vacancies in Myanmar and the pay is
similar to that in Thailand, would you decide to move back to Myanmar? How?
15. How many times have you changed your jobs? What are the major
reasons?
16. Provided that the employer tell you to move to work in another area, what
would you react?
Media Exposure and Cultivation
1. How much do you expose to the media per day? What is your favorite
medium? Why?
2. What do you expect from exposing to Thai media?
3. In what way are the Burmese presented through Thai mass media?
4 Do you like how Burmese workers presented on Thai mass media? Do you
like it?
5. Would you like Thai mass media to reconsider the presentation of the
Burmese? How?
6. From which media do you usually expose to the contents about Burmese
workers? How do you feel?
7. Do you feel low or gloomy when exposing to the contents on Thai mass
media?
Psycho-Cultural Influences
1. How do you feel of living with two cultures?
2. Do you think you are different from other Burmese workers? How?
3. Have you ever teased by the employers? How do you feel?
4. If the employer asks you not to apply Tanaka Powder, eat betel nuts, spill
the betel nuts, or wear Sarong, how do you feel?
5. When the employer is angry with you or get upset about something, how do
you respond to him/her?
6. Have you ever been insulted or hurt by the employer or other Thai people?
7. Would you like your employer to provide job description for you in your
language? Why?
8. How would you like the employer to promote your traditional activities?
9. How do you learn Thai? Do you prefer using Thai while being in Thailand?
Why?
Perceptions of Historical Events
1. Have you ever read or studied historical relationship between Thai and
Burmese? How do you feel after learning it?
2. Do you think Thai and Burmese are enemy? Have you ever thought about i
เรอง การสอสารระหวางวฒนธรรมในการจางแรงงานเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต (ส าหรบนายจาง)
แบบสอบถามครงนเปนสวนหนงของการเกบรวบรวมขอมลเพอการศกษาวจยเทาน น ผวจยจะไมเปดเผยขอมลใดๆ ของทานทจะท าใหสงผลกระทบตอตวทานเปนอนขาด ดงนนผวจยจงขอความอนเคราะหจากทานในการใหขอมลทเปนจรงและสอดคลองกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด ซงขอมลของทานจะเปนประโยชนส าหรบการศกษาวจยครงนเปนอยางยง ______________________________________________________________________________ ประเภทกจการ ………………………..จงหวด …………………อาย……………… ระดบการศกษา ……………………. มตทางวฒนธรรมของฮอฟสเตด (Hofstede) 4 ดาน
1.ในการมอบหมายงานใหแกลกจาง ทานมกเลอกใชวธการสอสารดวยวธใด เพราะเหตใด 2.ทานเคยโดนเจาหนาทของรฐแสดงออกถงความไมเปนธรรมตอทานบางหรอไม ทาน
รสกอยางไรบาง 3.ทานคดเหนอยางไรตอค าพดวา “ผใหญยอมมประสบการณมากกวาเดก”ในการท างาน 4.ทานและลกนองมเวลาพดคยเพอแลกเปลยนประสบการณนอกเวลางานบางหรอไม
อยางไร 5.หากทานมความคดเหนทไมสอดคลองกบคนหมมาก ทานมกจะแสดงออกอยางไรบาง
ในการท างานทานมกเลอกการท างานเดยวๆ หรอการท างานเปนกลมมากกวา เพราะเหตใด 6.ทานเคยไดรบความชวยเหลอจากเพอน ๆ ของทานเกยวกบเรองใดบาง และทานตอบแทน
เพอนทานอยางไรบาง 7.หากทานตองตดสนใจเกยวกบงาน ทานมกจะปรกษากบคนกลมใดบาง เพราะอะไร 8.ส าหรบทานแลว ค าวา ‘ประสบความส าเรจ’ ตองประกอบไปดวยปจจยอะไรบาง 9.ทานแบงเวลาสวนตวกบเวลางานอยางไรบาง ทานคดวาการแบงเวลาดงกลาวเหมาะสม
หรอไม อยางไร
194
10.จากค ากลาวทวา ‘สามตองเปนผหาเงนเขาครอบครว ภรรยาตองเปนผคอยดแลสมาชกทกคนในครอบครว’ ทานมความคดเหนอยางไร
11.ทานคดวานอกจากคาจางและสวสดการแลว ลกจางควรไดรบอะไรเพมเตมอกบางจากนายจาง
12.หากลกจาง รวมตวกนเพอขอหยดงานกลบประเทศเมยนมารในขณะทมงานเรงดวนทานจะมวธการแกปญหาอยางไร
13.หากทานจ าเปนตองยายสถานประกอบการ ไปนอกพนทซงทานไมคนเคย ทานจะรสกอยางไรบาง
14.ปจจบนทานมความกงวลเกยวกบ ‘ความมนคงและความปลอดภย’ในชวตของทานบางหรอไม เพยงใด และถามทานมวธการจดการกบความกงวลดงกลาวอยางไร
การเปดรบสอและการปลกฝงจากสอ
1.ทานมเวลาในการเปดรบสอมากนอยแคไหนในแตละวน และนยมเปดรบสอประเภทไหนมากทสด เพราะเหตใด
2.ทานคดวาสอมวลชนไทยมกจะน าเสนอขอมลดานไหนเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมาร 3.จากการน าเสนอขอมลเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมารของสอมวลชนไทย ทานชอบหรอไม
อยางไร 4.ทานอยากใหสอมวลชนไทยปรบรปแบบการน าเสนอขาวหรอเนอหาเกยวกบแรงงาน
เมยนมารหรอไมอยางไร 5.ทานมกเหนการน าเสนอภาพขาวหรอเนอหาเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมารจากรายการ
ประเภทไหนบาง 6.ทานคดวาหากแรงงานเมยนมารเปดรบสอมวลชนไทยทน าเสนอเนอหาเกยวกบแรงงาน
เมยนมาร แรงงานเมยนมารจะรสกอยางไรบาง 7.สอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอเนอหาเกยวกบการเหยยดทางชาตพนธและวฒนธรรมอยางไร
บาง 8.หากทานตดตามขาวสารเกยวกบการกออาชญากรรมจากแรงงานเมยนมารในเมองไทย
ทานเชอตามทขาวน าเสนอหรอไม เพราะเหตใด และทานเคยเฝามองดพฤตกรรมการท างานของลกจางเมยนมารเปนพเศษหรอไมเมอมขาวอาชญากรรมจากการกระท าของแรงงานเมยนมารในเมองไทยผานสอมวลชน
195
องคประกอบทางดานจตวทยา-วฒนธรรม 1.ทานคดเหนอยางไรกบการกลาวถงพฤตกรรมของแรงงานเมยนมารวาเปนกลมทมความ
อดทนในการท างาน มความซอสตย และมความกตญญ 2.ในอนาคตหากตองการจางแรงงานเมยนมารเพมทานตองการแรงงานเมยนมารทม
คณลกษณะอยางไรจงจะเหมาะสมกบประเภทงานของทาน 3.ทานเคยหยอกลอแรงงานเมยนมารดวยการใชค าพดบางหรอไม และทานนยมใชค าวา
อะไรในการหยอกลอ 4.ทานอนญาตใหแรงงานเมยนมารทาแปงทานาคา กนหมาก และนงโสรงในสถาน
ประกอบการของทานหรอไม เพราะเหตใด 5.เมอแรงงานเมยนมารท าใหทานโกรธหรอไมพอใจจากการท างานทานแสดงความรสก
อยางไรตอพวกเขา 6.ทานใชวธการสอสารใดในการมอบหมายงานใหแกแรงงานเมยนมาร และผลจากการใช
วธการสอสารดงกลาว เปนอยางไรบาง 7.ทานใหการสนบสนนกจกรรม ประเพณและวฒนธรรมของแรงงานเมยนมารอยางไรบาง 8.ทานมการปรบตวเพอใหเขากบวฒนธรรมเมยนมารอยางไรบาง เชน การฝกพดหรอจดจ า
ภาษาเมยนมาร การรบรประวตศาสตร
1.ทานเคยอานหรอเรยนประวตศาสตรระหวางไทยและเมยนมารบางหรอไมและทานรสกอยางไรบางจากเนอหาในประวตศาสตรทเคยอานหรอเรยนมา
2.ทานเคยรบรความสมพนธระหวางไทยและเมยนมารอยางไรบาง และเมอทานมลกจางเ ป น แ ร ง ง า น เ ม ย น ม า ร ก า ร ร บ ร ข อ ง ท า น เ ป ล ย น ไ ป ห ร อ ไ ม อ ย า ง ไ ร
เรอง การสอสารระหวางวฒนธรรมในการจางแรงงานเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต (ส าหรบลกจาง)
แบบสอบถามครงนเปนสวนหนงของการเกบรวบรวมขอมลเพอการศกษาวจยเทาน น ผวจยจะไมเปดเผยขอมลใดๆ ของทานทจะท าใหสงผลกระทบตอตวทานเปนอนขาด ดงนนผวจยจงขอความอนเคราะหจากทานในการใหขอมลทเปนจรงและสอดคลองกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด ซงขอมลของทานจะเปนประโยชนส าหรบการศกษาวจยครงนเปนอยางยง ______________________________________________________________________________ ประเภทกจการ ……………………………….จงหวด ………………………………อาย………… ระดบการศกษา …………………………….ความสามารถในการพดภาษาไทย ………………… มตทางวฒนธรรมของฮอฟสเตด (Hofstede) 4 ดาน
1.ทานไดรบสวสดการใดบางจากการท างาน ทานคดวาสวสดการดงกลาวเหมาะสมหรอไม อยางไร
2.ในการท างานของทานสวนใหญนายจางจะเปนคนสงใหท าหรอทานท าตามหนาททไดรบมอบหมาย
3.ทานเคยไดรบการปฏบตอยางไมเปนธรรมจากบคคลซงเปนตวแทนจากหนวยงานของรฐไทยบางหรอไม อยางไร
4.ทานใหความเคารพหรอใหเกยรตนายจางของทานอยางไรบาง 5.หากเพอนของทานนดกนหยดงานเพอกลบบาน (เมยนมาร) ในชวงทมงานยงมาก ทาน
ยนดจะกลบบานพรอมกบเพอน ๆ ของทานหรอไม เพราะเหตใด 6.ทานแนะน าใหเพอนมาท างานทนกบทานบางหรอไม เพราะหตใดจงแนะน ามา 7.หากทานมความคดเหนทแตกตางจากเพอนๆ ทานมกจะแสดงออกอยางไรบาง 8.ในการท างานทานชอบการท างานคนเดยวหรอการท างานเปนกลมมากกวา 9.‘การประสบความส าเรจ’ ในชวตของทานตองมลกษณะอยางไร 10.ทานแบงเวลางานกบเวลาสวนตวอยางไรบาง และทานคดวาการแบงเวลาดงกลาวม
ความเหมาะสมหรอไม อยางไร
197
11.ทานคดวาหนาทของผหญงตองหาเงนเลยงครอบครวหรอผหญงควรอยดแลสมาชกในครอบครว เพราะเหตใด
12.เปาหมายสงสดในชวตการท างานของทานคออะไร แลวตอนนทานสามารถท าไดถงจดไหน อยางไรแลวบาง
13.ทานคดเหนอยางไรเกยวกบ ‘ความมนคงและความปลอดภย’ กบการท างานในเมองไทย
14.หากประเทศเมยนมารมแหลงงานเพมขนและมอตราคาจางทเทากบเมองไทย ทานจะตดสนใจกลบไปเมยนมารหรอไม อยางไร
15.ทานมการเปลยนงานมาแลวกครง และสาเหตการเปลยนงานเกดจากอะไร 16.หากนายจางแจงวาทานจ าเปนตองเปลยนสถานทท างาน ทานจะตอบนายจางวาอยางไร
การเปดรบสอและการปลกฝงจากสอ
1.ทานมเวลาในการเปดรบสอมากนอยแคไหนในแตละวน และนยมเปดรบสอประเภทไหนมากทสด เพราะเหตใด
2.ทานคาดหวงจะไดประโยชนอะไรจากการเปดรบสอมวลชนไทย 3. ทานคดวาสอมวลชนไทยมกจะน าเสนอขอมลดานไหนเกยวกบชาวเมยนมาร 4.จากการน าเสนอขอมลเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมารของสอมวลชนไทย ทานชอบหรอไม
อยางไร 5.ทานอยากใหสอมวลชนไทยปรบรปแบบการน าเสนอเกยวกบเมยนมารหรอไมอยางไร 6.ทานมกเหนการน าเสนอภาพเกยวกบเมยนมารจากรายการประเภทไหนบางและทานรสก
อยางไรเมอมการน าเสนอดงกลาว 7.สอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอเนอหาทท าใหทานรสกหดหจตใจ และท าใหทานรสกต าตอยบาง
หรอไม อยางไร องคประกอบทางดานจตวทยา-วฒนธรรม
1.ทานรสกอยางไรกบการมวถชวตใน 2 วฒนธรรม 2.ทานคดวาทานมความแตกตางจากแรงงานเมยนมารของนายจางรายอนบางหรอไม
อยางไร 3.ทานเคยถกนายจางหยอกลอดวยการใชค าพดบางหรอไม และทานรสกอยางไรตอค า
หยอกลอดงกลาว
198
4.หากนายจางของทานหามทาแปงทานาคา กนหมาก บวนน าหมากและนงโสรง ทานรสกอยางไรบาง
5.เมอนายจางท าใหทานโกรธหรอไมพอใจทานสามารถแสดงความรสกอยางไรตอพวกเขาไดบาง
6.ทานเคยโดนคนไทยคนอน ๆ ทนอกเหนอจากนายจางของทานดถกหรอท าใหทานเสยใจบางหรอไมอยางไร
7.ทานอยากใหนายจางของทานอธบายลกษณะงานใหแกทานดวยภาษาของทานหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
8.ทานอยากใหนายจางสนบสนนกจกรรมในประเพณส าคญ ๆ ของทานอยางไรบาง 9.ทานเรยนรภาษาไทยดวยวธใด และทานรสกชอบทจะพดภาษาไทยหรอไมเมออย
เมองไทย เพราะเหตใด การรบรประวตศาสตร
1.ทานเคยอานประวตศาสตรระหวางไทยและเมยนมารบางหรอไมและทานรสกอยางไรบางจากเนอหาในประวตศาสตรทเคยอานมา
2.ทานคดวาคนไทยและคนเมยนมารมความรสกเปนศตรกนบางหรอไม ความรสกดงกลาวเกดจากอะไรบาง
Title : Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese
Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand
This questionnaire is a part of the data collection for an academic
investigation. The researcher is not revealing your data to others, so you are not going
to be subjected to any cases. Therefore, please kindly give the true information which
is the most compatible with your opinions. Your information is invaluable for this
study. The researcher is so grateful for your cooperation.
____________________________________________________________________
Section 1: Demographic Information
Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.
1. Gender Male Female
2. Age
20 or less 21 -30 31 - 40 41 - 50 more than 50
3. Ethnicity
Mon Thai Yai Karen Burmese
Others…………
4. Types of living
Staying with Thai roommates Staying with Burmese roommates
Alone Others ................Please specify
5. Business Types
Agriculture Construction Service Fishery
6. Educational Levels
Primary (1-4) Early High School (5-8)
Late High School (9-10) Bachelor
7. Working Areas
Surat Thani Ranong Songkhla
8. Work Experiences in Myanmar
With experiences Without Experienc
200
Section 2: Media and Media Exposure
Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.
1. Types of media you expose to (You can choose more than one alternatives)
Radios Television Facebook YouTube
Online media, please specify ………………..
2. What are your objectives of exposure to Thai media (You can choose more than
one alternatives)
To entertain To practice Thai To follow current situations in
Thailand
To follow current situations in Myanmar
To substitute for real experiences in Myanmar
Others ...................., please specify
3. Which contents about Myanmar are mostly presented on Thai Mass Media?
(Choose only one alternative)
Political news in Myanmar Crime news in Thailand
Travel documentary in Myanmar Thai and Burmese historical soap operas
Others ................, please specify
4. How do you respond to negative contents about the Burmese such as crimes in
Thailand? (Choose only one alternative)
Being convinced by the contents
Searching for more information from acquaintances
Searching for more information from online media
Comparing to previous knowledge
Comparing to the behaviors of the employer or colleagues
Others ................, please specify
5. From item 4 how is the most influential effect of the negative contents? (Choose
only one alternative)
The Thai are more suspicious of the Burmese
The Burmese are likely to commit more crimes.
More Burmese workers are laid off
More Burmese workers move back to their country
Others ................Please specify
201
Section 3: Ethnic Attitudes
Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.
Meaning of the Scale
5 = Totally agree 4= Mostly agree 3= Moderately agree
2= Partly agree 1= Hardly agree
Item Ethnic Attitudes Scales
5 4 3 2 1
1 Thai people usually look down on the Burmese.
2 Thai people avoid communicating with the Burmese.
3 Burmese workers are usually accused of committing bad
things.
4 Thai employers assign tasks unfairly.
5 Thai people usually take advantage of the Burmese,
especially those in recruiting agencies.
6 Thai employers are too strict with Burmese workers.
7 Thai people usually complaint on how the Burmese apply
Tanaka and wear Sarong.
8 The Burmese are more competent in English than Thai
people.
9 The Burmese are more tolerate than Thai people.
10 Thai people are cunning, for example, sellers usually sell
defected products to the Burmese
202
Section 4: Religious Behaviors
Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.
Meaning of the Scale
5 = Most frequently 4= Frequently 3= Often 2= Sometimes 1= Rarely
Item Religious Behaviors Scales
5 4 3 2 1
1 Frequencies of going to Thai temples to make merit on
Buddhist special days
2 Frequencies of participating in religious ceremonies such
as praying, worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to
religious lessons in Thailand.
3 Frequencies of participating in Buddhist activities such as
donating money to temples, Kathin Ceremony (Offering
yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering
showering ropes to the monks).
4 Frequencies of applying the Buddha’s words such as
those about being tolerate, patient, and grateful in work.
5 Frequencies of offering food, necessary stuffs, rice, or
dried food to the monks in Thailand.
6 Frequencies of renovating Thai temples by fixing them or
assisting in construction of chapels, halls, or buildings.
7 Frequencies of promoting your children or relatives to
become a monk or novice monk in Thailand.
8 Frequencies of participating in ordination ceremonies of
your children or relatives in Thailand.
203
Section5: Knowledge about Thai Culture
Instruction: Please mark a tick (√) in front of the correct expressions and cross (×)
for the incorrect ones.
___1. It is acceptable to wear shoes in Thai temples, but you must take them
off before entering a chapel.
___ 2. The “Wai” (bow, with the palms pressed together) is commonly for
greeting and showing respect to others in various situations such as to sellers.
___ 3. It is acceptable to wear red clothes to the funeral if the dead person is
not your relatives.
___ 4. It is unnecessary for men to wear a top when contacting with
governmental offices, but women need to do it every time.
___ 5. It is acceptable to greet Thai monks as do to other people such as
saying, “Hi, Sir.”
___ 6. It is acceptable to share the food on your plate to others provided that
the hands are clean.
___ 7. While eating it is acceptable to loudly talk to people on a nearby table,
but not too long in a restaurant.
___ 8. In public transportation, it is acceptable for everyone to sit close to the
monk’s seat.
___ 9. It is acceptable to address the elders without using pronouns such as
brother, uncle, aunt, and etc.
___ 10. It is acceptable to put your feet on the table when talking to friends
you are familiar with.
204
Section6: The Burmese Workers’ Attitude towards Thai and Burmese Cultures
Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.
Meaning of the Scales
5 = Totally agree 4= Mostly agree 3= Moderately agree
2= Partly agree 1= Hardly agree
Item Cultural Dimensions Attitudes towards
Thai Culture
Attitudes
towards Burmese
Culture
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
Power Distance
1. Clear scopes of work between the
supervisors and subordinates are set.
2 Supervisors and subordinates are
clearly divided.
3 Subordinates’ opinions are usually
approved by supervisors.
Individualism
4 A sharing society
5 Focusing on the family and groups
6 An egotism society
Masculinity
7 Men usually have more power over
women.
8 Focusing more on money than
relationship in the family
9 Focusing on competitiveness, rivalry,
and victory over the opponents.
10 Focus on success of the tasks rather
than the relationship
205
Section 7: Adaptive abilities of the Burmese workers in southern Thailand
Instruction: Please mark a tick () in the scale that best describe your adaptive
abilities.
Meaning of the scales
10= The Most and 1=The Least (Respectively)
Item Indicators of Adaptive abilities Levels of Adaptive Abilities
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Wellness
1 Being happy with your life in Thailand
2 Having enough time to relax from work
3 Being healthy and ready to work everyday
Being accepted and having relationship with
others
4 Being close to all colleagues
5 Being able to work without monitoring from
the employers
6 Always being assigned to take care of new
workers
Success in Work
7 Always being able to finished assigned tasks
8 Always being praised by the supervisor
9 Being able to collect money and send it back to
your family in Myanmar on time
Uncertainty Avoidance
10 Officially task assignment instead of
informal oral assignment
12 Having strict social rules
206
Item Indicators of Adaptive abilities Levels of Adaptive Abilities
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Familiarity with Thai Culture/ No Stress
10 Being able to go to Thai market alone
11 Being able to ask for help from Thai people
such as when seeing the doctor
12 Participating in activities in Thailand such as
going to the temple with the Thai
Thank you so much for your cooperation
The researcher
Appendix B
Questionnaire
แบบสอบถามการวจย เรอง การสอสารระหวางวฒนธรรมในการจางแรงงานเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต
แบบสอบถามฉบบนเปนสวนหนงของการศกษาวจยเทานน ผวจยจะไมน าขอมลใด ๆ ของทานไปเปดเผยอนจะท าใหสงผลกระทบตอตวทานเปนอนขาด ดงนน ผวจยจงขอความรวมมอจากทานในการกรอกขอมลทเปนจรงและสอดคลองกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด ซงขอมลจากทานจกเปนประโยชนอยางยงส าหรบการศกษาวจยครงน ผวจยขอขอบพระคณส าหรบการใหความรวมมอ ______________________________________________________________________________ ตอนท 1 ขอมลเกยวกบคณลกษณะดานประชากร ค าชแจง : กรณาตอบค าถาม ทตรงกบขอมลสวนตวของทานมากทสด 1. เพศ ชาย หญง 2. อาย 20 และต ากวา 21 -30 ป 31 - 40 ป 41 - 50 ป มากกวา 50 ป 3. เชอชาต มอญ ไทยใหญ กะเหรยง พมา อน ๆ ………… 4. ลกษณะการพกอาศย พกรวมกบคนไทย พกรวมกบคนเมยนมาร พกคนเดยว อน ๆ ................ 5. ทานท างานในกจการประเภทใด เกษตรและปศสตว กอสราง การบรการ ประมง 6. ระดบการศกษา ประถม (1-4) มธยมตอนตน (5-8) มธยมตอนปลาย (9-10) ปรญญาตร 7. ทานท างานอยในพนทจงหวดใด สราษฎรธาน ระนอง สงขลา 8. ประสบการณในการท างานจากประเทศเมยนมาร เคยท า ไมเคยท า
209
ตอนท 2 สอและการเปดรบสอ ค าชแจง : กรณาท าเครองหมาย หนาขอความทสอดคลองกบความเปนจรงของทาน 1. ประเภทของสอมวลชนไทยททานเปดรบ (ตอบไดมากกวา 1 ขอ) วทยกระจายเสยง วทยโทรทศน เฟซบค ยทป สอ /สอออนไลนประเภทอน โปรดระบ 2. ทานมวตถประสงคใดบางในการเปดรบขอมลขาวสารจากสอมวลชนไทย (ตอบไดมากกวา 1 ขอ) เพอความบนเทง เพอฝกภาษาไทย เพอตดตามสถานการณประเทศไทย เพอตดตามสถานการณประเทศเมยนมาร เพอทดแทนบรรยากาศจรงจากเมยนมาร อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................ 3. ทานมกเหนสอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอเนอหาเกยวกบเมยนมารดานใดมากทสด (เลอกเพยงค าตอบเดยว) ขาวการเมองของประเทศเมยนมาร ขาวอาชญากรรมในประเทศไทย สารคดเชงทองเทยวประเทศเมยนมาร ละครองประวตศาสตรระหวางไทยและเมยนมาร อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................ 4. เมอสอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอขอมลขาวสารเกยวกบคนเมยนมารในทางลบเชน การกออาชญากรรมในเมองไทย ทานมปฏกรยาใดมากทสดหลงจากเปดรบสอดงกลาว (เลอกเพยงค าตอบเดยว) เชอตามทสอน าเสนอ หาขอมลเพมเตมจากบคคลใกลชด หาขอมลเพมเตมจากสอออนไลน เปรยบเทยบกบขอมลและความรเดมทเคยม เปรยบเทยบกบพฤตกรรมของนายจางและเพอนรวมงานคนไทย อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................ 5. จากเหตการณ ขอ 4 ทานคดวาจะสงผลกระทบดานใดมากทสด (เลอกเพยงค าตอบเดยว) คนไทยระแวงตอคนเมยนมารมากขน กระตนใหคนเมยนมารท าความผดมากขน นายจางไทยเลกจางแรงงานเมยนมาร คนเมยนมารจะกลบประเทศมากขน อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................
210
ตอนท 3 ทศนคตทางชาตพนธ ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบทศนคตของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 5= มากทสด, 4= มาก, 3= ปานกลาง, 2= นอย, 1=นอยทสด ท ทศนตทางชาตพนธ ระดบความ
คดเหน
5 4 3 2 1
1 คนไทยมกแสดงอาการดถก เหยยดหยามคนเมยนมาร 2 คนไทยเลยงทจะสอสารกบคนเมยนมาร 3 ลกจางเมยนมารทท างานในเมองไทยมกถกกลาวหาวาเปนผกระท า
ความผดเสมอ
4 นายจางไทยมอบหมายงานอยางไมเปนธรรมใหแกลกจางเมยนมาร
5 คนไทยชอบเอาเปรยบ โดยเฉพาะกลมนายหนาจดหาแรงงานตางดาว
6 นายจางไทยจะออกกฎระเบยบทเขมงวดตอกลมเมยนมารมากกวาลกจางกลมอนๆ
7 คนไทยไมควรต าหนเมอคนเมยนมารทาแปงทานาคาและนงโสรงในเมองไทย
8 คนเมยนมารมความสามารถดานภาษาองกฤษดกวาคนไทย
9 ลกจางเมยนมารมความอดทนในการท างานมากกวาลกจางไทย
10
คนไทยมนสยขโกง เชน แมคามกจะเลอกขายของคณภาพไมดใหแกคนเมยนมาร
211
ตอนท 4 พฤตกรรมทเกยวของกบศาสนา ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบระดบพฤตกรรมของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 5= ถมากทสด, 4= มาก, 3= ปานกลาง, 2= นอย, 1=นอยทสด ท พฤตกรรมทเกยวของกบศาสนา ระดบความถ
5 4 3 2 1 1 ความถในการเขาวดในไทยเพอท าบญตามประเพณและวนส าคญทาง
พทธศาสนา
2 ความถในการประกอบพธกรรมทางพทธศาสนา เชน การสวดมนต ไหวพระ ฟงพระเทศนาในประเทศไทย
3 ความถในการมสวนรวมกจกรรมทางพทธศาสนา เชน การบรจาคเงนสรางวด การเขารวมทอดกฐน ทอดผาปาในประเทศไทย
4 ความถในการปฏบตตามค าสอนของพทธศาสนา เชน การน าค าสอนดานความอดทน ความเพยร ความกตญญมาประยกตใชในการท างานในประเทศไทย
5 ความถในการตกบาตร ถวายสงฆทาน ขาวสาร อาหารแหงในประเทศไทย
6 ความถในการบรณะ ปฏสงขรณวด เชน การชวยซอมแซม กอสรางโบสถ วหาร หรออาคารของวดทใชการไมไดในประเทศไทย
7 ความถในการสนบสนนใหบตรหลานหรอญาตบวชพระหรอสามเณรในประเทศไทย
8 ความถในการเขารวมพธบวชของบตรหลานหรอญาตคนเมยนมารในประเทศไทย
212
ตอนท 5 ความรเกยวกบวฒนธรรมไทย ค าชแจง : กรณาท าเครองหมาย √ หนาขอความททานคดวาถก และเครองหมาย × หนาขอความททานคดวาผด
___1. ทานสามารถสวมรองเทาเขาวดไทยได แตตองถอดรองเทากอนเขาโบสถ ___ 2. การไหวเปนกรยาแสดงการทกทายและเคารพกบทกคนและทกโอกาส เชน ไหว
คนขายของ ___ 3. ทานสามารถสวมใสเสอผาสแดงมารวมงานศพได ถาหากผเสยชวตไมใชญาตสนท
ของทาน ___ 4. ผชายไมจ าเปนตองสวมใสเสอเมอไปตดตอสถานทราชการ แตผหญงจ าเปนตอง
สวมใสเสอทกครง ___ 5. ทานสามารถกลาวค าทกทายพระสงฆไทยเชนเดยวกบททกทายบคคลทวไป เชน
สวสดคะทาน ___ 6. ทานสามารถใชมอหยบอาหารจากจานตวเองใสจานใหแกเพอนคนอน ๆ ไดถามอ
ไมสกปรก ___ 7. ในขณะทรบประทานอาหาร ทานสามารถพดเสยงดงขามโตะอาหารได แตไมควร
นานเกนไป ___ 8. ในการใชบรการขนสงมวลชนนนฆราวาสทกเพศสามารถนงเกาอใกลกบพระสงฆ
ได ___ 9. ทานสามารถเรยกชอผทอาวโสกวาโดยไมตองมค าสรรพนามน าหนาชอกได เชน พ
ปา ลง นา อา ___ 10. ทานยกเทาวางบนโตะ ขณะนงพดคยกบเพอน ๆ ไดเพราะเปนเพอนทสนทกน
213
ตอนท 6 ทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมไทยและทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมเมยนมารจากมมมองของลกจางเมยนมาร ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 5= มากทสด, 4= มาก, 3= ปานกลาง, 2= นอย, 1=นอยทสด
ท มตทางวฒนธรรม ระดบทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมไทย
ระดบทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมเมยนมาร
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
โครงสรางทางอ านาจ (power distance) 1. ก าหนดพนทในการท างานอยางชดเจนระหวาง
เจานายและลกนอง
2 ในการจางงานจะเรยกเจานาย – ลกนองอยางชดเจน
3 ความคดเหนของลกนองมกไมไดรบการยอมรบจากเจานาย
ความเปนปจเจก (individual) 4 เปนสงคมแหงการแบงปน 5 ใหความส าคญกบครอบครวและพวกพอง 6 ยดถอความคดตวเองเปนทตง บทบาทความเปนชาย (masculinity) 7 ผชายมกมอ านาจเหนอกวาผหญง 8 สงคมทใหความส าคญกบเงนมากกวาความ
อบอนในครอบครว
9 สงคมทเนนการแขงขน ชงดชงเดน และการเอาชนะเหนอคแขง
10 ใหความส าคญเรองความส าเรจในงานเหนอความสมพนธ
214
การหลกเลยงความไมแนนอน (uncertainty avoidance)
11 การมอบหมายงานทเนนลายลกษณอกษรมากกวาสงแบบปากเปลา
12 มการก าหนดกฎระเบยบอยางเครงครดในสงคม
215
ตอนท 7 ความสามารถปรบตวในการท างานของลกจางเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบความสามารถในการปรบตวของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 10= มากทสด และ 1=นอยทสด (ตามล าดบ) ท ตวชวดระดบความสามารถปรบตวในการท างาน ระดบการปรบตว
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
อยด มสข
1 ทานมความสขกบวถชวตประจ าวนในเมองไทย 2 ทานมเวลาพกผอนจากการท างานอยางเพยงพอ 3 ทานมสขภาพแขงแรง พรอมทจะท างานไดทกวน ไดรบการนบถอและมความสมพนธกบคนรอบขาง
4 ทานมความสนทสนมกบเพอนรวมงานทกคน
5 ทานสามารถท างานไดโดยไมตองมนายจางคอยควบคม 6 นายจางไววางใจใหทานคอยดแลเพอนรวมงานทเขามาใหม
เสมอ
ท างานไดอยางประสบความส าเรจ
7 ทานสามารถท างานไดส าเรจตามทไดรบมอบหมายทกครง
8 ทานไดรบการยกยองในการท างานจากหวหนางานเสมอ
9 ทานสามารถออมเงนจากการท างานและสงเงนกลบบานไดตรงเวลา
คนเคยกบวฒนธรรมไทย/ไมมความเครยด
10
ทานสามารถเดนทางไปซอของในตลาดในไทยไดโดยล าพง
11
ทานสามารถขอความชวยเหลอจากคนไทยได เชน เมอไปหาหมอ
12
ทานมกเปนสวนหนงของการท ากจกรรมในไทย เชน ไปวดกบคนไทย
ขอขอบพระคณในการใหความรวมมออยางดยง ผวจย
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………
……………………
217
………………..
........................
........................
........................
218
........................
= ====
219
= ====
×
___
___
___
___
___
220
___
___
___
___
___
= ====
(power distance)
(individual)
(masculinity)
221
= =
(uncertainty avoidance)
222
Appendix C
Illustration of Data Collection
Construction Workers, Surat Thani
The researcher (Left) with a service worker (Hotel), Surat Thani
Illustration of Data Collection
224
The researcher (Left) with a construction worker, Surat Thani
The researcher (Right) with a service employer (Hotel), Surat Thaini
225
The researcher (Left) with a service worker (Hotel), Surat Thani
The researcher (Left) with a fishery employer (Right) and a worker (Middle),
Surat Thani
226
The researcher (Right) with a fishery worker, Surat Thani
i
A Construction Employer, Ranong
227
A Service Worker (Hotel), Ranong
The researcher (Right) with a service worker (Hotel), Ranong
228
The researcher (Left) with agriculture and livestock workers, Ranong
The researcher (Left) with an agriculture and livestock employer, Ranong
229
The researcher (Left) with agriculture and livestock employers, Songkhla
The researcher (Left) with agriculture and livestock workers, Songkhla
230
The researcher (Left) with an agriculture and livestock worker, Songkhla
The researcher (Right) with a construction worker, Songkhla
231
A Construction Employer, Songkhla
The researcher (Middle) with agriculture and livestock employers, Surat Thani
232
The researcher (Left) with service employers and workers, Surat Thani
Service workers, Surat Thani
233
The researcher (Right) with fishery workers, Surat Thani
Fishery Workers, Surat Thani
Appendix D
Respondents in an In-depth Interview
Respondents in an In-depth Interview
Date Types of
Businesses
Thai employers Burmese
Employees
Sarat Thani
May08, 2016 Construction Khun Puen(Male) A (Male)
May09, 2016 Service Daeng Roi Koh (Female) Sow (Female)
Jass (Male)
Aug24, 2016 Agriculture Pirote/ Mhoo (Male)
Sri Subun Farm
B (Male)
May22, 2016 Fishery Nan (Female) C (Male)
D (Male)
Ranong
May23, 2016 Construction Tui (Male)
Petch (Male)
-
May22, 2016 Service Saow/ Tik Eiffel Hotel
(Female)
E (Male)
May24, 2016 Agriculture Wut (Male) F (Male)
May22, 2016 Fishery Kung Racha Kanpramomg
(Male)
G (Male)
Songkhla
July30, 2016
Aug05, 2016
Construction Da (Female)
Pong (Male)
I (Female)
J (Female)
July28, 2016 Service Chanchai (Male) Porn (Female)
Pia (Female)
Aug04, 2016 Agriculture Chart (Male)
Jit (Female)
Maew (Female)
Mon (Mon)
BIOGRAPHY
Name Assistant Professor Preeda Nakaray
Academic Background 2006 Master of Arts (M.A.) (Mass Communication),
Thammasart University
2000 Bachelor of Public Administration Program in
Public Administration (B.PA.) (Human Resource
Management), Prince of Songkhla University
Present Position Lecturer, Program in Communication Arts, Faculty of
Management Sciences, Nakhon Si Thammarat Rajabhat
University