intercultural communication & elt

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Intercultural Communication & ELT The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication General Understanding of Culture Attributes and Character of Culture Directions and Goals of Culture

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Page 1: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of

Intercultural Communication

General Understanding of Culture

Attributes and Character of Culture

Directions and Goals of Culture

Page 2: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural

Communication

Intercultural communication is a form of communication that aims to share information

across different cultures and social groups.

Why should you study how the field of intercultural communication got started ?

Page 3: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Whom do you think should be regarded as an expert in intercultural communication?

Someone who has actually lived in a variety of

cultures?

Or someone who has conducted scientific studies

on how cultural groups differ in values and

attitudes?

Or someone who analyzes what popular culture

(movies, television, magazines, and so on) has to

say about a particular group of people?

Page 4: Intercultural Communication & ELT

What is the best way to study intercultural communication behavior?

By observing how people communicate in various cultures?

By asking people to describe their own communication patterns?

By distributing questionnaires to various cultural groups?

Or by analyzing books, videos, movies, and other cultural performances of various groups?

Page 5: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Why should you study how the field of intercultural communication got started ?

To understand what intercultural communication is, we need to describe the

origins of the discipline

Whom do you think should be regarded as an expert in intercultural communication?

What is the best way to study intercultural communication behavior?

Page 6: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

The roots of the study of intercultural communication:the post–World War II era - the United States

domination

Government and business personnel workingoverseas: ill equipped to work among people fromdifferent cultures.

The language training they received: little preparethem for the complex challenges of working abroad.

Page 7: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

The Foreign Service Institute: The U.S. governmentestablished the Foreign Service Institute (FSI, 1946).

FSI hired some prominent anthropologists (e.g.Edward T. Halland) and linguists (including RayBirdwhistell and George Trager) to develop“predeparture” courses for overseas workers.

Intercultural training materials: scarce, developingtheir own.

FSI theorists: formed new ways of looking at cultureand communication.

Born of the field of intercultural communication.

Page 8: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The staff at the FSI: government workers not interested in theories of culture and communication; rather specific guidelines for getting along in the countries they were visiting.

Hall’s initial strategy in developing materials: observing variations in cultural behavior. At the FSI, people who spoke many languages and who were from many cultures, so it was a great place to observe and test his theories about cultural differences.

For example: observing that Italians tend to stand close to each other when conversing, or that Greeks use lots of hand gestures when interacting, or that Chinese use few hand gestures in conversations.

Confirming his observations by consulting members of different cultural groups.

Application of Theory

Page 9: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The scholars at the FSI: various disciplines – linguistics, anthropology, and psychology.

Theories pertinent to their specific disciplines. Linguistics: helping us understand the importance of

language and its role in intercultural interaction - shedinglight on the relationship between language and reality.

For example: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (Sapir & Whorf) -Language shapes our ideas and guides our view of social reality.

The use of formal and informal pronouns. French and Spanish: both formal and informal forms of the

pronoun you (In French, the formal: vous; the informal: tu; in Spanish, the formal: usted; the informal: tu).

English makes no distinction between formal and informal usage (you).

An Interdisciplinary Focus

Page 10: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Anthropologists: helping us understand the role that culture plays in our lives and the importance of nonverbal communication.

Psychologists: helping us understand notions of stereotyping and the ways in which prejudice functions in our lives and in intercultural interaction.

For example: Psychologists (Brislin, 1999; Landis & Wasilewski, 1999), reveal how variables like nationality, ethnicity, personality, and gender influence our communication.

This field: Interdiciplinary and pragmatic.

An Interdisciplinary Focus

Page 11: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International Communication

Cultural–Individual Dialectic: cultural: we share communication patterns with members of the groups to which we belong.

For example: Sandra, a fifth-generation Italian American, tends to be expressive, like other members of her family. However, some of her communication patterns—such as the way she gestures when she talks—are completely idiosyncratic (that is, particular to her and no one else).

Communication for all of us is both cultural and individual.

dialectic (1) A method of logic based on the principle that an idea generates its opposite, leading to a reconciliation of the opposites; (2) the complex and paradoxical relationship between two opposite qualities or entities, each of which may also be referred to as a dialectic.

Page 12: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International CommunicationPersonal–Contextual Dialectic: During communication the context of this communication is important. In some contexts, we enact specific social roles that give meaning to our messages. For example: When Tom was teaching at a Belgian university, he often spoke from the social role of professor. But this role did not correspond exactly to the same role in the United States because Belgian students accord their professors far more respect and distance than do U.S. students. In Belgium, this social role was more important than

his communication with the students. In contrast, his communication with students in the United States is more informal.

Page 13: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International Communication

Differences–Similarities Dialectic: Characterizing by both similarities and differences, in that people are simultaneously similar to and different from each other.

For example, Japanese and U.S. Americans communicate differently, just as do men and women.

Many similarities in human experiences and ways of communicating. Emphasizing only differences can lead to stereotyping and prejudice (e.g., that women are emotional or that men are rational); emphasizing only similarities can lead us to ignore the important cultural variations that exist.

Trying to emphasize both similarities and differences

Page 14: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International Communication

Static–Dynamic Dialectic: tending to be at once static and dynamic. Some cultural and communication patterns remain relatively constant, whereas other aspects of cultures (or personal traits of individuals) shift over time.

For example: Anti-immigrant sentiment traditionally has been a cultural constant in the United States, although the groups and conditions of discrimination have changed.

The antagonism against Irish and Italian immigrants that existed at the turn of the 20th century has largely disappeared.

Page 15: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International Communication

History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic: emphasizing the need to focus simultaneously on the past and the present in understanding intercultural communication.

Need to be aware of contemporary forces and realities that shape interactions of people from different cultural groups; need to realize that history has a significantimpact on contemporary events.

A students described how this dialectic was illustrated in a televised panel discussion on race relations:

Page 16: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International Communication

History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic: A students described how this dialectic was illustrated in a televised

panel discussion on race relations:

“The panelists frequently referred to and talked about the history of different cultural groups in the United States and the present. They also touched on racial conflicts of the past and future possible improvement

for certain groups. They were, therefore, communicating in a history/past–present/future dialectical manner. The discussions of past and present were critical to the overall goal of understanding current

cultural identity. Without understanding the history of, for example, the slave trade or the Jim Crow laws, can we truly comprehend the African

American experience in the United States today? The history of each cultural group plays a major role in the present role of that group.”

Page 17: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International Communication

Privilege–Disadvantage Dialectic: People may be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged, or privileged in some contexts and disadvantaged in others.

For example: Many tourists are in the position of economic privilege because they can afford to travel, but in their travels, they also may be disadvantaged if they do not speak the local language.

Being simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged because of gender, age, race, socioeconomic status, and other identities.

Example: An American man: simultaneously privileged because he is educated, middle class, and male and disadvantaged because he experiences subtle and overt mistreatment based on his race and accent.

Page 18: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication

Six Dialectics of International Communication

Intercultural communication is both

cultural and individual, personal and contextual, characterized by differences and similarities, static and dynamic, oriented to both the present and the past, characterized by both privilege and disadvantage.

Page 19: Intercultural Communication & ELT

CULTURE

General Understanding of Culture Attributes and Character of Culture Directions and Goals of Culture

Page 20: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Read the definitions of ‘culture’ below.

What do you think the writers mean by their descriptions?Which, if any, of the descriptions do you feel successfully

captures the complete or a partial meaning of ‘culture’?

1. A culture is ‘a text the vocabulary and grammar of which its members learn’ (Fay 1996).2. ‘Culture is a verb’ (Street 1991).3. Culture is ‘an evolving connected activity, not a thing’ (Fay 1996).4. ‘Believing . . . that man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun, I take culture to be those webs’ (Geertz 1973).

General Understanding of Culture

Page 21: Intercultural Communication & ELT

General Understanding of Culture

Standard view:

‘culture’ is ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.

Tylor (1871); an English antropologist

Page 22: Intercultural Communication & ELT

General Understanding of Culture

1. Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, Group-Related Perceptions

Communication scholars from the social science paradigm influenced by research in psychology: as a set of learned, group-related perceptions.

Hofstede (1984): a noted social psychologist: the programming of the mind” and explains his notion of culture in terms of a computer program:

“Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were learned throughout [his or her] lifetime. Much of [these patterns are] acquired in early childhood, because at that time a person is most susceptible to learning and assimilating.”

Hofstede: describing how these patterns are developed through interactions in the social environment and with various groups of individuals—first in the family and neighborhood, then at school and in youth groups, then at college, and so on.

Culture, a collective experience: shared with people who live in and experience the same social environments.

Page 23: Intercultural Communication & ELT

General Understanding of Culture

1. Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, Group-Related Perceptions

Social scientists: emphasized the role of perception in cultural patterns.

Cultural patterns of thought and meaning influence our perceptual processes, which, in turn, influence our behavior:

“Culture is defined as a pattern of learned, group-related perception—including both verbal and nonverbal language

attitudes, values, belief system, disbelief systems, and behavior.” (Singer, 1987, p. 34)

Page 24: Intercultural Communication & ELT

General Understanding of Culture

2. Interpretive Definitions: Culture as ContextualSymbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions

Interpretive scholars: influenced by anthropological studies, viewing culture as shared and learned

However, tending to focus on contextual patterns of communication behavior, rather than on group-related perceptions.

Many interpretive scholars borrow anthropologist Geertz’s (1973) definition of culture:

“Culture denotes an historically transmitted pattern of meaning embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions

expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men (sic) communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about

and attitudes toward life.”

Page 25: Intercultural Communication & ELT

General Understanding of Culture

3. Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone

A more recent approach to culture: emphasizing the heterogeneity of cultural groups and the often conflictual nature of cultural boundaries. For example:

What is the “U.S. American culture”? Is there an American culture? How many perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs and behaviors

are actually shared among the many diverse people living in the United States?

Page 26: Intercultural Communication & ELT

General Understanding of Culture

3. Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone

Critical scholars: suggesting that by emphasizing only the shared aspects of culture, we gloss over the many interesting differences among U.S. Americans.

Emphasizing that cultural boundaries are often contested (questionable) and not easily agreed upon.

“move beyond hegemonic definition of culture as “shared and transmitted from generation to generation” that assumes that we all experience a “common culture” and . . . is passed down

from one generation to the next in a linear and seemingly static fashion. . . . [T]his is a dangerous myth . . . “

Page 27: Intercultural Communication & ELT

General Understanding of Culture

Culture can be viewed as

Learned patterns of group-related perceptionsContextual symbolic patterns of meaning,

involving emotionsHeterogeneous, dynamic, and a site of debate

Page 28: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Attributes and Character of Culture

Attributes: helping us define what characteristics might make one culture different from another culture.

1. Language: Language is one attribute of culture.

different languages incorporating different systems of meaning (such as expressions) that cannot be translated directly into another language without losing some of the original essence.

Page 29: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Attributes and Character of Culture

1. Language

Page 30: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Attributes and Character of Culture

2. Values

What one culture deems as valuable might be inherently contradictory to another culture's concept of what is valuable.

Example: American culture considers youth to be one of its most valuable features, while many Asian cultures show great respect for old age and wisdom.

Page 31: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Attributes and Character of Culture

3. Beliefs

Most cultures: associated with a religion or some kind of belief system that explains how the world came to be or the spiritual realm of life.

Beliefs have been ruled by ethnocentrism: one's own culture has embraced the only appropriate way of being or thinking and that all others are incorrect

Example: Beliefs may incorporate stories, prayers and methods of worship etc.

Page 32: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Attributes and Character of Culture

4. Tradition Set of traditions: influencing behavior in everyday

life and determining the ceremonies that occur at milestones such as birth, marriage and death.

determining what is appropriate and inappropriate in a variety of situations.

Example: who can marry who, how many individuals someone can marry and whether divorce is acceptable.

Cuisine and style of dress are also elements of a

Page 33: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Attributes and Character of Culture

Is race one of the attributes of culture? Why, why noy?

Page 34: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Attributes and Character of Culture

Race: Race cannot be an attribute of culture.

Culture: not inborn or transmitted through genes.

Children abandoned in the wild or deprived of human contact: not any concept of values or beliefs.

Page 35: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The Directives and Goal of Culture

Culture Is An Adaptive Mechanism The first humans evolved in tropical and subtropical

regions of Africa about 2.5 million years ago. Since then, we have successfully occupied all of the

major geographic regions of the world. What made it possible for our ancestors to live in

temperate and in the northern hemisphere? The invention of efficient hunting skills / fire use /

clothing / warm housing / agriculture / commerce. Culture: a highly successful adaptive mechanism for

our species.

Page 36: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The Directives and Goal of Culture

CultureChanges

All cultural knowledge does not perpetually accumulate.

New cultural traits are added, some old ones are lost because they are no longer useful.

For example: no need the skills required for survival in a wilderness. - The ability to drive a car, use a computer, and understand how to obtain food in a supermarket or restaurant.

Page 37: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The Directives and Goal of Culture

CultureChanges

The rate of change and the aspects of culture that change varies from society to society.

Example: people in Germany, eager to adopt new words from other languages while many French people are resistant to it (because of the threat of "corrupting" their own language.)

Page 38: Intercultural Communication & ELT

The Directives and Goal of Culture

CultureChanges Changing one trait: an impact on other traits

because they are functionally interconnected. A resistance to major changes: Example: many men in North America and Europe

resisted the increase in economic and political opportunities for women over the last century because of the far ranging consequences.

Change in the nature of marriage, the family, and the lives of all men.

Change in the workplace as well as the legal system and the decisions made by governments.

Page 39: Intercultural Communication & ELT

Culture Gives Us a Range of Permissible Behavior Patterns

The Directives and Goal of Culture

Culture Gives Us a Range of Permissible Behavior Patterns

Cultures allow a range of ways in which men can be men and women can be women: how we should dress based on our gender / but it allows us to dress in different ways in different situations in order to communicate varied messages and statuses.

Culture also tells us how different activities should be conducted: how one should act as a husband, wife, parent, child, etc.

Culture presents the range of permissible ways of dressing and acting as a Muslim, Jewish, Christian, and Hindu.