intercultural approaches to the teaching of english · intercultural approaches to the teaching of...

Theoretical Foundations

Intercultural Approachesto the Teaching

of English

RRiicchhaarrdd FFaayyLecturer, University ofManchester

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ound

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°°7700//11

VOLUME 1

ISBN 978-960-538-759-4

INTERCULTURAL APPROACHES

TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH


NoteThe HOU is responsible for the editing of the publication and for the development of the texts in accordancewith the Distance Learning Methodology. The writers, critical readers and academic coordinators whoundertook the development of the given publication bare full responsibility for the scientific context, accuracyand standard of the work.

The project is co-funded by the European Union and the Greek State

Copyright © 2008

For Greece and the world

HELLENIC OPEN UNIVERSITYStaxtouti 16 & Ag. Andreou St., 26222 Patras

Δel: (2610) 367300 / Fax: (2610) 367350

CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS MODULE


Academic Coordinator of the Programme and Coordination of the Module, Academic EditingSophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra

Prof. University of Athens

WriterRichard Fay

Lecturer, University of Manchester

Critical ReaderNicos Sifakis

Lecturer, Hellenic Open University

Art DirectorArtemis Glarou

Produced by the

Project Implementation Unitof the HOU

ISBN: 978-960-538-759-4

All rights reserved N. 2121/1993No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilizedin any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,

without prior permission in writing from the publishers.

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES

Master’s of Education for Teachers ofEnglish to Speakers of Other Languages

(M. Ed. in TESOL)

MODULE

Intercultural Approaches to the Teaching of English

VOLUME 1

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

PATRAS 2008

AUTHORS BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

Richard Fay studied English Language and Literature at the University of Oxford and then TESOLat the University of Manchester. In 2004, he completed his narrative-inquiry-based doctorate onintercultural aspects of distance learning projects (using the collaboration between the University ofManchester and the Hellenic Open University as a case study) at the University of Manchester wherehe has been a Lecturer in Education (TESOL and Intercultural Communication) since 1994. Hismain teaching areas for the Manchester MA TESOL programme are centred on the coursesexploring TESOL perspectives on intercultural communication and the development of researchercompetence. He has also been involved since 1998 in cultural and intercultural curriculum projectsin Bulgaria in collaboration with Leah Davcheva. His research interests include: appropriatedistance learning methodology; computer-mediated intercultural communication, and narrativeinquiry.

Richard Fay

General Introduction to the Module 21

Section 0.1Becoming intercultural explorers ....................................................................................21

0.1.1 Terminology (Key Words) .......................................................................................21

0.1.2 Decoding the module title........................................................................................22

0.1.3 Theoretical / conceptual and more practical / applied explorations.....................24

Section 0.2Aims, content, and learning outcomes.............................................................................25

Section 0.3The writing team ................................................................................................................28

0.3.1 The collaboration between the HOU and Manchester .........................................28

0.3.2 The writers.................................................................................................................28

Section 0.4Distance learning materials and methodology...............................................................30

Section 0.5Locating yourself in cultural terms .................................................................................33

0.5.1 Introducing ‘Richard’ ...............................................................................................33

0.5.1.1 A cautionary note..........................................................................................34

0.5.1.2 The enculturation process............................................................................34

Section 0.6Beginning to plan your wider reading for the module ...................................................35

7

CONTENTS

Section 0.7Assignment guidence .........................................................................................................36

References...........................................................................................................................37

Appendix 1: Initial Reading Recommendations..............................................................39

C H A P T E R 1Richard Fay

The Cultural and Intercultural Landscape 49

General Aims .....................................................................................................................49

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................49

Key Words ...........................................................................................................................49

Section 1.1Conceptualising the module’s coverage ..........................................................................51

Section 1.2Streams of ‘Cultural / Intercultural’ Thinking...............................................................52

1.2.1 The Manchester modules........................................................................................52

1.2.2 Stream 1: The ‘Cultural Revolution’......................................................................52

1.2.3 Stream 2: Enrichment from Cultural Studies........................................................53

1.2.4 Stream 3: The British Studies movement ..............................................................54

1.2.5 Stream 4: The rise of the Intercultural Speaker....................................................54

1.2.6 Stream 5: The English language phenomenon......................................................55

1.2.7 Stream 6: Educational Technology contributions.................................................55

1.2.8 Stream 7: Study abroad ...........................................................................................56

1.2.9 Further enrichment .................................................................................................57

1.2.10 Consolidating your explorations so far ..................................................................58

Section 1.3 Mapping the cultural / intercultural literature..............................................................60

1.3.1 The map....................................................................................................................60

1.3.2 Foreign language education versus TESOL..........................................................60

1.3.3 USA-oriented versus Europe-oriented discussions..............................................61

1.3.4 Engaging with the cultural / intercultural literature .............................................63

8

1.3.5 Space 1 – USA / FLE literature ..............................................................................64

1.3.6 Space 2 – USA / TESOL literature ........................................................................65

1.3.7 Space 3 – European / FLE literature......................................................................65

1.3.8 Space 4 – European / TESOL literature ................................................................66

1.3.9 The primary concerns of this module.....................................................................66

References...........................................................................................................................67

Suggested answers...............................................................................................................73

Appendix 1: A Developmental Case Study.......................................................................74


The ‘Culture’ Challenge 81

General Aims .....................................................................................................................81

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................81

Key Words ...........................................................................................................................81

Section 2.1Introduction........................................................................................................................83

2.1.1 Language and culture ...............................................................................................83

2.1.2 The problem with ‘culture’.......................................................................................84

Section 2.2Language teachers’ conceptualisations of ‘culture’ (I) .................................................86

2.2.1 Comparison with the definitions of other participants / authors ..........................86

2.2.2 Ingredients of ‘culture’ .............................................................................................88

2.2.3 The problem with an ingredients-approach to defining ‘culture’ .........................88

Section 2.3Language teachers’ conceptualisations of ‘culture’ (II)................................................89

2.3.1 Ideas, behaviours, and products ..............................................................................89

2.3.2 Objective and subjective culture..............................................................................90

2.3.3 Dealing with the problematic term ‘culture’ ..........................................................91

Section 2.4Three Polish stories ...........................................................................................................92

2.4.1 ‘Solving the Northern Irish problem’ – Focus on cultural content .......................92

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2.4.2 ‘Agnieszka and me’ – Focus on intercultural communication ..............................93

2.4.3 ‘Warm-up exercise’ – Focus on context and methodological appropriacy...........95

2.4.4 The original tri-focused conceptual / organisational framework..........................96

2.4.5 The multicultural focus ............................................................................................98

2.4.6 Focusing on ICT .......................................................................................................98

References.........................................................................................................................100

Suggested answers.............................................................................................................101

Appendix 1: Alphabetical List of ‘Culture’ Ingredients.................................................105


Defining Key Terms 109

General Aims ...................................................................................................................109

Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................109

Key Words .........................................................................................................................109

Section 3.1Introduction......................................................................................................................111

Section 3.2Tourist Trap (Channel 4) .................................................................................................113

3.2.1 Organisational note ................................................................................................113

3.2.2 The video experience..............................................................................................113

3.2.3 Notes to accompany the Contact Session experience of the video ....................113

Section 3.3Cultural Awareness - Social Behaviour (Tomalin and Stempleski) ..........................115

3.3.1 Cultural Awareness Materials ...............................................................................115

3.3.2 The dangers of generalisation................................................................................118

3.3.3 Defining ‘cultural awareness’.................................................................................118

Section 3.4

Betting on the Bull (Cushner and Brislin)....................................................................120

3.4.1 Narratives in ICT ....................................................................................................120

3.4.2 The critical incident exemplified ...........................................................................120

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Section 3.5

Critical Incidents in ICT perspective ............................................................................123

3.5.1 An initial taste of the world of ICT........................................................................123

3.5.2 The default ICT approach to ‘culture’ ..................................................................123

3.5.3 Critical Incidents as training tools.........................................................................124

3.5.4 The Cultural Assimilator .......................................................................................125

3.5.5 Culture-General and Culture-Specific Possibilities.............................................126

3.5.6 Terminological resonances ....................................................................................126

3.5.7 ICT and TESOL preparation for sojourners........................................................127

3.5.8 Diversity Training and TESOL courses in multicultural contexts ......................128

3.5.9 TESOL in multicultural Greek classrooms ..........................................................129

3.5.10Cultural Assimilators in ICT and Diversity Training programmes ....................129

3.5.11A final word on culture-general and culture-specific design considerations .....130

Section 3.6

Culture and Communication..........................................................................................131

3.6.1 Taking a communicational perspective ................................................................131

3.6.2 Edward T. Hall........................................................................................................131

3.6.3 Intercultural perspectives on culture-and-communication.................................132

3.6.4 Taking stock regarding the understanding of ‘culture’ ........................................133

Section 3.7

Communication and meaning attribution ....................................................................134

3.7.1 Communication as meaning attribution ...............................................................134

3.7.2 Revisiting Betting on the Bull................................................................................135

3.7.3 The methodological rationale for Critical Incidents............................................135

3.7.4 Meaning attribution and ambiguity.......................................................................135

Section 3.8

Intercultural communication .........................................................................................136

3.8.1 Louise Damen.........................................................................................................136

3.8.2 Reader-friendly definitions....................................................................................137

Section 3.9

Concluding comments .....................................................................................................138

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References.........................................................................................................................140


Appendix 1: Richard’s Commentary on Tourist Trap ...................................................145


Possible Paradigms for TESOL 147

General Aims ...................................................................................................................147


Key Words .........................................................................................................................148


4.1.1 TESOL is different .................................................................................................150

4.1.2 The paradigm possibilities for TESOL .................................................................151

4.1.3 Cultural / intercultural aspects of TESOL and FLE............................................151

4.1.4 You and your teaching context ..............................................................................152

Section 4.2Initial reflections on the underpinnings of your TESOL practices ...........................153

Section 4.3The spread of English ......................................................................................................155

4.3.1 The spread of English.............................................................................................155

4.3.2 Varieties of English ................................................................................................156

Section 4.4Circles of English users / usage and varieties of English ............................................157

4.4.1 Circles of English language users / usage..............................................................157

4.4.2 Circles of users / usage linked to varieties of English...........................................157

Section 4.5Possible paradigms for TESOL .....................................................................................159

4.5.1 Circles of English language users / usage linked to possible TESOL

paradigms ................................................................................................................159

4.5.2 Linking possible paradigms to the different circles .............................................160

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4.5.3 Alternative paradigms............................................................................................162

4.5.3.1 An explanatory note ...................................................................................162

4.5.3.2 The linguistic strategy.................................................................................163

4.5.3.3 Revised thinking .........................................................................................164

4.5.3.4 The intercultural communication solution ...............................................165

4.5.3.5 Discussion of the newer paradigm possibilities ........................................166

4.5.3.6 Cultural content in the newer paradigms..................................................168

4.5.4 Multicultural awareness possibilities (by Maria Ntavaliagkou)..........................169

4.5.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................169

4.5.4.2 The Cross-Thematic Curriculum Framework for TESOL in Greece ....169

4.5.4.3 The multicultural profile of the Greek society ........................................170

4.5.4.4 Pedagogic possibilities................................................................................170

4.5.5 Transnational paradigm possibilities (by Richard once more) ...........................171

4.5.5.1 Taking stock ................................................................................................171

4.5.5.2 A paradigm ‘push’ .......................................................................................172

4.5.5.3 A paradigm shift?........................................................................................172

Section 4.6Comparing the TEFL and TEIC paradigms.................................................................174

4.6.1 The TEFL Paradigm ..............................................................................................174

4.6.2 The TEIC Paradigm ...............................................................................................175

Section 4.7Assignment guidance.......................................................................................................178

4.7.1 Assignment 1 options .............................................................................................178

4.7.2 Assignment Option 1: Paradigms option..............................................................178

4.7.3 Further notes on the assignment ...........................................................................179

Section 4.8Critical incidents revisited..............................................................................................180

4.8.1 Jane and John..........................................................................................................180

4.8.2 Maria José and Rosa ..............................................................................................181

4.8.3 Baxter’s contribution ..............................................................................................182

Section 4.9Concluding comments .....................................................................................................185

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References.........................................................................................................................187



Cultural Learning 199

General Aims ...................................................................................................................199


Key Words .........................................................................................................................200


5.1.1 Linking the chapter with the Contact Session ......................................................202

5.1.2 Initial terminology ..................................................................................................202

5.1.3 Cultural learning and the simulation experience .................................................203

5.1.4 Introduction to the simulation...............................................................................203

5.1.5 Assignment 1, Option 2: Simulation option .........................................................203

5.1.6 Organisation of this chapter ..................................................................................204

5.1.7 A final word of ‘warning’ ........................................................................................204

Section 5.2The life-long stages and processes of cultural learning ..............................................206

5.2.1 Terminology............................................................................................................206

5.2.2 Conceptualising the cultural learning territory ....................................................206

5.2.2.1 The stages of socialisation..........................................................................208

5.2.2.2 Childhood and enculturation.....................................................................208

5.2.2.3 Ethnocentrism.............................................................................................208

5.2.2.4 Acculturation ..............................................................................................209

5.2.2.5 Stereotypes ..................................................................................................209

5.2.2.6 Otherisation ................................................................................................209

5.2.2.7 Ethnorelativism...........................................................................................209

5.2.2.8 FLE and encounters with otherness..........................................................210

5.2.2.9 Culture shock ..............................................................................................210

Section 5.3Monocultural and multicultural contexts of cultural learning ..................................211

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Section 5.4Adult Cultural Learning .................................................................................................213

5.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................213

5.4.2 Language learners and cultural learning opportunities.......................................213

5.4.3 Intercultural perspectives ......................................................................................214

Section 5.5Sojourner acculturation – culture shock.......................................................................216

5.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................216

5.5.2 Sojourner diaries.....................................................................................................216

5.5.3 Blogging sojourners................................................................................................218

5.5.4 The U- and W-curves of acculturation..................................................................218

Section 5.6Longer-term acculturation .............................................................................................220

5.6.1 Berry’s model ..........................................................................................................220

5.6.2 Longer-term acculturation and TESOL ...............................................................221

Section 5.7Lifelong cultural learning ...............................................................................................224

5.7.1 The Bennetts ...........................................................................................................224

5.7.2 The Developing Intercultural Sensitivity (DIS) model .......................................224

Section 5.8The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) ...................................................229

5.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................229

5.8.2 A word of caution ...................................................................................................229

5.8.3 CCAI instructions and instrument completion ....................................................229

5.8.4 Scoring.....................................................................................................................231

5.8.5 Plotting the Results ................................................................................................232

5.8.6 The four dimensions of crosscultural adaptability ...............................................233

5.8.7 Some Concluding Comments ................................................................................235

Section 5.9

Assignment guidance.......................................................................................................236

5.9.1 Assignment 1: Option 2..........................................................................................236

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5.9.2 Linking the simulation experience to your own academic acculturation ...........236

5.9.3 Understanding the assignment design ..................................................................237

References.........................................................................................................................238


Appendix 1: Simulations in Intercultural Communication Training............................245

Appendix 2: Culture Shock ..............................................................................................250


A Cultural Dimensions Approach (to methodological

appropriacy) 263

General Aims ...................................................................................................................263


Key Words .........................................................................................................................264


6.1.1 Hofstede and Holliday - tensions and connections..............................................265

6.1.2 Chapter organisation..............................................................................................266

Section 6.2Case Studies as an ICT method......................................................................................267

Section 6.3The Harold in Korea case study (Goodman, 1994) .......................................................268

Section 6.4The rationale for case studies.........................................................................................273

Section 6.5Introducing Hofstede’s research ....................................................................................274

6.5.1 Introducing the theory set ......................................................................................274

6.5.2 Hofstede and the software of the mind metaphor ...............................................274

6.5.3 Clarifying the main features of Hofstede’s research ...........................................275

6.5.4 Hofstede and cultural relativism ...........................................................................276

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Section 6.6Hofstede’s four dimensions of cultural difference .......................................................278

6.6.1 Overview..................................................................................................................278

6.6.2 The Power Distance (PD) Dimension ..................................................................279

6.6.3 The Individualism-Collectivism (I / C) Dimension..............................................281

6.6.4 The Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) dimension......................................................283

6.6.5 The Masculinity-Femininity (M / F) Dimension..................................................284

Section 6.7Applying Hofstede’s cultural dimensions to your own contexts .................................286

Section 6.8Extending Hofstede’s dimensions ..................................................................................287

6.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................287

6.8.2 Ethnocentrism in Intercultural Research .............................................................287

6.8.3 The fifth dimension – Confucian Dynamism........................................................288

6.8.4 Extending Hofstede’s research to new contexts ...................................................289

Section 6.9Other dimensions of cultural difference .......................................................................290

6.9.1 Introductory comments..........................................................................................290

6.9.2 Hall’s High / Low Context Cultures ......................................................................291

6.9.2.1 The High / Low Context distinction ..........................................................291

6.9.2.2 Communication Strategies in High- and Low-Context Cultures ...........291

6.9.2.3 IC Discussions of the distinction ...............................................................292

6.9.3 Fons Trompenaars..................................................................................................292

6.9.4 Some other possibilities .........................................................................................293

6.9.4.1 Immediacy ...................................................................................................293

6.9.4.2 Tight and Loose ..........................................................................................294

6.9.5 The eight ‘icks’ ........................................................................................................294

6.9.6 Inductive and deductive .........................................................................................295

6.9.6.1 Scollon and Scollon.....................................................................................295

6.9.6.2 High / Low Context and Inductive / Deductive dimensions ....................295

6.9.7 Dimensions in action ..............................................................................................295

6.9.7.1 Communicating Styles................................................................................295

6.9.7.2 A love of binaries ........................................................................................296

17


6.10.1Introductory comments..........................................................................................298

6.10.2The assignment itself ..............................................................................................298

6.10.3Making the assignment task more concrete .........................................................299

References.........................................................................................................................302


Appendix 1: Power Distance (PD) Rankings .................................................................308

Appendix 2: Individualism / Collectivism (I / C) Rankings ...........................................309

Appendix 3: Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) Rankings....................................................311

Appendix 4: Masculinity / Femininity (M / F) Rankings ...............................................312

Appendix 5: Cultural Dimensions in TESP Materials ...................................................313


A Small Culture Approach (to methodological appropriacy) 321

General Aims ...................................................................................................................321


Key Words .........................................................................................................................322


7.1.1 An epiphany remembered .....................................................................................324

7.1.2 Working towards appropriate methodology ........................................................324

7.1.3 The problematic, default use of a large culture approach...................................325

7.1.4 Thinking small.........................................................................................................325

7.1.5 Holliday’s contributions .........................................................................................326

7.1.6 Organisation............................................................................................................327

Section 7.2

The Holliday seminar ......................................................................................................329


7.2.2 The seminar context ...............................................................................................329

7.2.3 Holliday’s presentation ..........................................................................................330

18

Section 7.3Holliday’s two notions of ‘culture’..................................................................................334

7.3.1 Cultures large and small.........................................................................................334

7.3.2 A large culture approach (in comparison to a small culture approach) .............335

7.3.3 My summary of Holliday’s distinction...................................................................337

Section 7.4Methodological appropriacy in TESOL........................................................................339

7.4.1 Appropriate methodology .....................................................................................339

7.4.2 Methodological mismatches and divisions in the world of TESOL....................340

7.4.3 The Host Culture Complex....................................................................................344

7.4.4 Teaching spectacles and learning festivals............................................................346

7.4.5 Developing appropriate methodology ..................................................................347

7.4.6 Ethnography in TESOL .........................................................................................349

Section 7.5

Conceptualising an MEd TESOL programme in Holliday-an terms ........................351

Section 7.6

Politicising TESOL..........................................................................................................353

7.6.1 Imperialism .............................................................................................................353

7.6.2 Is TESOL culture-bound? .....................................................................................353

7.6.3 Revisiting the terms EIL / ELF..............................................................................355

7.6.4 Is TESOL imperialistic?.........................................................................................355

7.6.5 Imperialism defined ...............................................................................................357

7.6.6 Conspiracy theory? .................................................................................................359

7.6.7 Some concluding comments regarding political sensitivities ..............................360

Section 7.7Thinking small, thinking complex .................................................................................362

7.7.1 Introductory comment ...........................................................................................362

7.7.2 The culturally-complex and culturally-unique individual (Marshall Singer).....362

7.7.2.1 Identity groups ............................................................................................362

7.7.2.2 Ascriptions of identity ................................................................................363

7.7.2.3 Identity groups and culture ........................................................................363

7.7.2.4 Complexity and uniqueness .......................................................................363

19

20

7.7.2.5 Rank-ordering identity groups ..................................................................364

7.7.2.6 Rank-ordering cultural aspects..................................................................364

7.7.2.7 The fluidity of identity groups and rank-orderings ..................................365

7.7.2.8 Revisiting the Betting on the Bull critical incident ....................................365

7.7.3 Languaculture (Michael Agar) .............................................................................365

7.7.3.1 Hot issues of yesteryear ..............................................................................365

7.7.3.2 Generalist and specificist discourses .........................................................366

7.7.3.3 Linguistic (cultural) determinism and relativity.......................................366

7.7.3.4 The challenge posed by the complexity of human existence ...................367

7.7.3.5 Languaculture ..............................................................................................367

7.7.4 Other links...............................................................................................................368

7.7.4.1 Culture is a verb (Brian Street)..................................................................368

7.7.4.2 Intercultural communication as interpersonal communication..............368

7.7.4.3 Pulling the threads together.......................................................................368



7.8.2 The assignment itself ..............................................................................................369

References.........................................................................................................................371


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