MUSLIM COSMOLOGY : A REFLECTION ON THE CASE STUDY OF THEOLOGIAN (MUTAKALLIMUN ) AND

PERIPATETIC (MASHSHA’IYYUN ) ON NATURE (COSMOS) AS A FUNDAMENTAL OF ISLAMIC SCIENCE.

By:Ahmad Daud Ishak El-Merbawiy*

Abstract :

The writting is trying to describe a study on some points of view about Cosmos (nature) which has established by Muslim Theologians (al-Mutakallimun) and Muslim Philosopher Scientists (al-Mashsha’iyyun). Here I could point out their discussions occured from different angle in doctrine, methodology, rationality and explanation. Amazingly both of them seem to be agreed that cosmoslogy as the fundamental of the emergence of Islamic Science from the very basic ontological and epistemic inference. _____________________________________________________

1. Introduction

In Muslim Cosmology, the cosmos (‘Aalam) is defined as ‘everything other than God’. This definition is generally accepted in Islam and occurs repeatedly in al-Quran. It’s created by God Almighty and al-Quran refers to everything in the heaven and the earth. This creation order came into existence through Divine Creative Command as (kun), so the as the world produces its to be (fayakun...). From the command, it derives a name of the cosmos refers as ‘al-kawn’, means the world was preceded from God. The knowledge about world (al-kawn) so called ‘ilm al-kawn’ literally meaning as the science of the cosmos.1

The uniqueness of Islamic Cosmology is inseparable from Quranic conception of God. Hence, Islamic Cosmology offers God is the central reality. Islam deals with all dimension nature or cosmos physical or non-physical 1 Osman Bakar, Cosmology,: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, New York: Oxford Press, Vol. I,(1995), p.322

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entities. Prof. S.H. Nasr asserted on describing Ikhwan as-Soffa’s Cosmology as follows; 2

“The cosmology is all the spiritual and material beings who postulate the immensity of the skies, who constitutes the reign of multiplicity which extend to the spheres, the stars, the elements, their products and to man.”

This Islamic Cosmological range is contributed the nature mathematical and physical studies on cosmos. From the legitimate cosmological principles enable indeed the exstension of particular sciences, such as the physics, biological sciences etc. The main sources of Islamic cosmological studies are the indigenous tradition, al-Quran, al-Hadith (prophetic tradition) and the authentic exegeses of theologians and the inspired foreigner traditions like Hermetic, Pythagorean and Aristotelian-Ptolemic cosmologies that was synthesized into Muslim world. The main two cosmological schools of thought in Islamic world are firstly, Muslim Peripatetic Cosmology is based on the syntheses between Aristotelian philosophy as interpreted mainly by Neo-Platonist and cosmological teaching of Islam3 like al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Avicenna etc. Secondly, the atomist’s Cosmology is based on the traditional text and theological cosmology like al-Asha’arite, al-Maturidite, al-Razi, al-Ghazali etc. Subsequent to al-Ghazali’s criticism over Peripatetic school of philosophy, it was paved the emergence of Illuminations School of philosophy of Suhrawardi and the mystical philosophy of ibn ‘Arabi and they had developed their own cosmological sciences.

2 Ibid., p.323; See also Nasr, S.H., An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrine, Boulder (1978), p.53. 3 Ibid., p.326-27.

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2. Islam and Cosmology

In Islam, cosmological science has close related to revelation because; First is the immutable reveled principle manifests itself everywhere in the cosmos where the civilization breathes. Second is it integrates the phenomenon of nature into conceptual scheme of reveled principles and central of many applied contingential domains. Third is the wedding occurs between ‘form’ and ‘matter’ has came into Muslim mind, in which reveled by al-Quran and precisely insisted in general principle towards researching nature in particular truth therein. And finally is the study of nature closely depends on the observers. So, they again depend on the revelation for the qualitative essence of the civilization.4

In Muslim cosmology, the literature is well known as nature and it’s conditions. It’s very rich vocabulary in term of Semitic approach. Nature (cosmos) in al-Quran refers to the ‘sealed or veil’ which is separated man from God 5

which called from the root word – Arb., tab‘u or tabee‘ah. The earlier used as the term of kiyaan or kawn from the Syriac used as kjono is similarity to tabee‘ah. In order to realize the meaning, Moslem authors always use identical phrase as being created (khalq) and haqq mean that nature as a distinct domain of reality, melt away in the absolute power of the creator.6

Al-Faruqi Summarized of five principles of nature reveled in al-Quran. Those are profanity, created, orderliness, purposive and subservience.7 As regard to profanity Islam

4 Seyyed Hossien Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, Great Britain : Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1978: p. 1-25 Al-Quran LV: 155; IX: 92; and for Fakhru al-Din al-Razi in Tafsir al-Kabir (The Great Exegesis of al-Razi), is to mean the veil which hide God from men.6 Opcit, p. 8-9; He emphasized that Sunni and Shi’ite both interpreted in such way even certain Sufis including al-Hallaj interpreted as divine grace.7 Ismail Rajaie al-Faruqi, Islam and the Theory of Nature, Islamic Quarterly Vol. XXVI, No.1, First Quarterly (1982), London: The Islamic Culture Centre, p16-23.

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won’t allowed association between nature with god absolutely except it’s creation of God. No sacredness with nature as Neo-Platonist did to nature with the emanation means. Among the prohibitions are never attributed sacredness to nature,8 adopting nature as a part of God,9

adoring any part of nature beside God,10 claimed relationship geneacologically between God and gene (jinn),11 taking earth as divine and unpardonable sin is Shirk or ascription of any sacredness to the profane.12

Due the created, Islam urges that cosmos (nature) is a creature of God whereby it’s created from pre-existence or ‘ex nihillo’ by commandment of God.13It’s absolutely different form because of its ‘muhdath’ new creation and ‘takhattara’ numerical entity and non-eternity. God is very capable on destroying and creating it again in instant.14

Meanwhile nature is precept as exists orderliness in the single of the great creator. We found similarity of craft ship of the same cause event, consequences, same law pertinence to it and orderly in cause efficacy in measurement, fixed completed time and integral condition, perfect organized and out of well designed system.15 This condition will refer to the statement asserted as;

“it is God who created...Look into his creation for any discrepancy!, and look again, do you find any gap in its system?. Look again, your sight will return to you!, humbled having found none.”16

8 Al-Quran, 3:18 9 Al-Quran, 43: 1510 Al-Quran, 40: 6611 Al-Quran, 37:15812 Al-Quran, 21:21; 4: 48,11613 Al-Quran, 2:118; 3: 47,59; 6: 73;16: 40 etc.14 Al-Quran, 30:40; 10:3415 Op cit, p. 2016 Al-Quran, 67:3-4

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Nature is created for purposes in which it must willing to fulfill and towards which it moves. In fact Allah put certain measurement of ‘qadaran maqduura’.17There are two aspects of nature which are causality and purposive of being existing or created. For Allah had said;

”We have not created heaven and earth and all that stand between them in spot,... we have created them in righteousness”18

Man as a creation also a part from the finalist system of nature that derived from the finalist chain of creation from God. He created it purposses. He and nature are both exist in integrally coexistence. Finally nature is created to subservience to man as vicegerent on earth. It provides the place for doing goodness pertaining moral value of Allah in the human soul, having necessary instrument and under study in nature by reasoning and empirical efforts. This significant should be performed in term of ‘taskheer’, ‘zeenat’, ‘ta‘meer’, ‘tamkeen’ and ‘istikhlaaf’.19 Thus Islam has put in proper way on how to manipulate nature with care and responsibility on the cosmological sciences that ecologically has been confirmed.

3. The Concept of Ontology and Creation

Islam is the religion inline with and even strongly supported knowledge and science. Al-Quran explains precisely smart about the genesis of universe. Islam isn’t simply accepts originated definition of ‘creatio ex nihillo’ per se, because it’s impossible so called the creation out

17 Al-Quran, 30: 33-3818 Al-Quran, 44 : 38; 21: 1619 All kind of subservience to men such as taskheer means providence to understand and manipulation for scientific or economic purposes. Zeenat as instrument or cosmetic for seeking harmonious in beauty. Ta‘meer means using nature product to build settlement of shelter or town using something with full of responsibility. Tamkeen is enable human being stayed in power of administrative on the earth pretty well in order to serve and protect the truth of Allah (al-Amaanah). Istikhlaaf is to be actualized the vicegerent to human being.

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off substance. Al-Quran focused on subject of in which the creation would being produced as khalq is derived from root word khalaqa, means to create from something in many times.20 The creator Allah so called al-Khaaliq or al-Faatir and had put in one of the Quranic verses namely verse thirty-fifth of The Creator. G.P. Pardington as a Christian, he understands this as production without pre-existing materials21 in which we favor of.

In particular Allah almighty mentioned that the earth and heaven has been created in six days; two days for earth and heaven and other four for mountains and vegetation’s.22 The time given has considered as metaphorical used which it might be one thousand or fifty thousand years presupposes in both Bible and al-Quran, meanwhile 300,000 years in normal human reckoning asserted alone in al-Quran.23 In line with this creation, Allah almighty mentioned the origin of the universe as previously adhesives together (kaanataa ratqan), and later on be separated apart them apart into pieces (fa fataqnaa huma).24 Furthermore the theory of creation also cited as originated way of resembles in form of universe such as form of watery entity, smoky status quo and informed into plurality world of planetary systems. Yet the very basic principle of creation is enclosed the Almighty creator in term of ‘Divine Command’ as be...(kun), hance it’s be... (fa yakuun) as instant reacting creations to the command25

with His Omniscience and utmost desirably Omnipotent, rather is not necessitate action.20 Al-Quran mentioned in this way Khalaqa, means had create for 60 times, as khalaqnaa means we created for 40 times and as khlaqnaahum means we did create thou for 16 times. In term of religious believe no doubt of Allah’s Omnipotent and Omniscience that He could create without existing substance.21 G.P. Pardington, Outline Studies in Christian Doctrine, Christian Publication Inc., USA, 1926, p. 97. Ishaq mentioned in his Creation Theories and The Quran, IQ p. 19222 Al-Quran, 4: 9-10; 12.23 Al-Quran, 22: 47; 77: 4; and in Peter , III:824 Al-Quran, 21: 30.25 The concept of Creation through Kun Fa Yakuun was mentioned in al-Quran in eight times as follows 2: 117; 3: 3,59; 4: 73; 16: 40; 19: 35; 36: 82 and 40: 68.

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Al-Quran corroborates the idea of the pre-creation watery entity in line with Bible on the theory of ‘creatio d’aqua’.26

The theory of separation of heaven and earth is common in many general civilizations and the latest is the Big Bang hypothesis in modern science affirming that heaven and earth previously as a single lump (ratqan), but than Allah put the way how to separate (fa fataqn¥huma) to human’s further research to be discovered. Both Bible and al-Quran, mentioned that God had spent six days on creation. One day in the world is consider as metaphorical used in which might have been one thousand or fifty thousand years. While the Big Bang Theory estimated that the world had been started twelve or sixteen billion years ago.27

Fathalla Kholief differentiates Islamic creation from pagan Greeks’ in which involved God emanating into the universe as asserted by Neo-platonism. He said:

“This idea of creatio ex nihilo, on which all the reveled faiths place such emphasizes, contains a deep philosophical insight, and treats God and its actions more reverently than the pagan Greek Ideas which would associate God with the world from all eternity, making it emanate from him in the same necessary..”28

Again he was taken from Shahrastani and al-Ghazali as saying:

“Shahrastani mentioned his objection and his contemporary Abu ‘l- Barakat al-Baghdadi who attributed it to the temporalist (al-hadthiyyeen), in which describing it as the strongest argument that the world is being created.”29

26 Ishaq Akintola, p.198; See also al-Quran, 21:32 and Genesis, I:227 Ibid, p.19828 Fathalla Kholief, Munaadzaraat Fakhruddin al-Raazi fi Bilaad Maa waraa’ al-Nahr, Beyrut: Daar al-Mashruuq, 1966: 139-40.29 Ibid, Munaadzaraat, p. 141; See also the original in Mu‘tabar, vol.3, p. 32;

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“al-Gahazali’s attack didn’t proceed merely from strong religious feeling. It was the result of full realization of compatibility of a philosophy which believed in the eternity of the world with the very spirit of religion. This awareness had been manifested among his fellow Asha’arites before him, and shows steadily, reaching it’s peak in the works of Shahrastani in ‘Nihaayat al-Iqdaam’. ..”30

Instead of mentioning the creation of universe, al-Quran isn’t exclude31 the genesis of human being in amazingly details at several places. This statement yet is very intellectual, scientific and full of knowledge and it’s never surpassed since the age of revelation in progressed until now the ages of Modern Science.

In al-Quran, there are several words which describe God’s creative activities like ibda’, khalq and tadbeer.32The word ibda’ is describing how Allah bring the world into being from non-existence stage. It’s means a thing came out from the concealment of non-being without there being any matter.33The word khalq means Allah brings into being of something from something else, as He created Adam from clay, created the genes (jann) from the smokeless fire etc.34Finally the tadbeer means the Divine management of the world of engendered thing. This occurs within the complexity system which has proved by Divine system. For instance He sent down rain from the 30 Ibid, Munazaraat, p. 140-14131 Al-Quran, 23: 12-14 so forth.32 Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi, Hujjatul al-Balighah, Trans. By Marlia K. Hermansen, The Condusive Proof from God, nd. p.27-2833 See Mishkaat al-Masobih p.129; al-Bukhari al-Sahih, bab Tawhid, No.22; Ahmad, in Musnad, fi bad’i al-Khalq. No.1 Where Prophet said : “There was God and there was nothing before him”34 Al-Quran, 55:15

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clouds and with them brought forth the plants of the earth for the people and herds to eat, and this became a cause for their living until the appointed time.35

After all, the potentialities are placed in created things that never separated, collided and conflicted one another. With the wisdom of God, requires the production of various developmental states of natures (atwaara). Thus in Islam, all the planetary systems are well organized by the wisdom and expertise of God Almighty.

4. The Muslim Doctrine of Cosmos (Nature - al-‘Aalam)

In Muslim world, cosmological science has been discussed by many schools of thought; starting with theologians (al-Mutakallimuun), peripatetic philosophers (al-Mashshaa’iyyeen), Hermertic-Illuminationist (ishraqi), Gnostics (‘urafaa’) and the school of (muta’aaliheen) so called the theosophist (the utmost highest ranking of wisdom or the wisdom of God Almighty). Due to the limited time, discussion and coverage, I would like to expose in very closed sight on two schools of thought36

which are very close to Sunnite School of thought. They are the theologian figures (al-Mutakallimuun) and the peripatetic philosophers (Muslim philosopher-scientist - al-Mashshaa’iyyeen).

4.1 The Theologian Cosmology ( of Mutakallimuun)

a) Asha’arite Doctrine of Cosmology (d.330/941)

Asha’arite stand point on nature is representing ‘atomic conception’. The cosmos was perceived as the

35 Op cit, p.29 36 If time available this assignment shall be extended into further details and be covered all discussions upon all Moslem’s schools of thought pertaining cosmological sciences.

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discontinuity of reality and it was a domain of separated entities and rather very concrete matter. They atomized matter, space and time and broke the bond of interrelated causality into the will and the power of the most Omnipotent and the most Omniscience37 of God Almighty. The segmentation and division are paved the cohesion and connexion in the Divine will which creates all things at every moment and it is the direct cause of things.

Mainly secondary cause (such as animal and human action or law of nature) is depending on the prime cause (God Almighty). Asha’rite atomic negated Asristotelian causality, but not causality itself because his point of view unlike philosophers who admitted the continuous chain of causality that caused the eternity of the world. Asha’rite causality is apparently not necessary preceeds the result, but it has possibile opperating permitted by the will (iraadat) and the power (qudrat) of Allah almighty. The segmented portion of world’s bodies require continually innihilated and created the new existences in every moment (muhdath).38 This is reality of temporality of the world existence that coherences to Islam. Subequent to atomic concept of devoid, space for Asha’arite is where the realms which accupied by atoms. Even the transmission of the atomic paticles or bodies requires time that so called time atom.

b) Abu Mansur al-Maturidite Doctrine of cosmology (232-333/847-944 )

Abu Mansur didn’t present his definition of nature clearly. Though it could be inferred his as an atomist and orthodox theologian who accepted that the world has elaborated as 37 Seyyed Hosein Nasr, The Meaning of Nature in Various Intellectual Perspectives in Islam, In Islamic Quaterly, Vol. IX. No. 1-2 (1384 -1385 / 1965), p.25-26.38 Osman Bakar, Tawhid and Science, Kuala Lumpur : Nurin Enterprise, 1991, p. 89-90 ; 91-100; Also see the comprehensive explanation on the world habitual of temporal existence from Syed Muhammad Naquib al-‘Attas, A Commentaray on the Hujjaat al-Siddeeq of Nuur al-Deen al-Raaniriy Kuala Lumpur : The Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport, 1986, p.256.

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“the totality of existence of substances or atoms and accidents except the existence of God. With an additional concept of body (jism) which is meant it couldn’t express God by that name”.39 As a member of Muslim theologian, he tries to deny the eternity of the world and confirm the creationism. He used three arguments on creation,40

perceptual argument41 to negate the eternity of the world and rational argument42 to show that the concept of creation of the world is the best argument to carry out the massage of creation ‘ex nihilo ’. His special argument is dealing with or response to the opponent’s argument and indirectly falsified through the impossibility of eternity world.

Briefly, al-Maturidite proof on the temporality word is ‘al-kawn ’ meaning the world cannot be eternal because the only God is eternal. He the only has will and power to create and He is the prime cause and need no other causes to act. Also finitude of a part of the world shows the whole world is finite and it originated and innihillated. So, it’s impossible the world be eternal. Meanwhile he argued also on creation ‘ex nihillo ’ stand point. Using the argument of unpreceivable things to negate existence, the is no world without starting point, the failure exploring potentiality came into reality. Though many different existing things from the same substratum and it dues to

39 Mustafa Ceric, Al-Maturidi’s Theological Ideas In Root of Synthetic Theology in Islam, ISTAC: K.Lumpur, (1995), p.115; This statement is adopted from Kitaab al-Tawhid by al-Maturidi himself.40 He offered generation of a‘yaan (substances or atoms) and his proof through Quranic verses such as in 39:62 where God is the creator; in 2:117 where God is the originator of the heaven and earth and in 3:189 ; 5:18,40,120 where God is belonging all the domains.41 Al-Maturidi’s arguments are on dependency of substances, its corruptibility, its composition into a body, the finites part, it could be change and its annihilation and proof on the possibility its beginning. See also Mustafa Ceric, p.111-113. 42 He used his argument of istidaal (reasoning) into the concept of creation of the world, weaving the finitude part of the world encompanying with al-Kindi’s advocacy of creation ‘ex nihillo’ argument against eternity of Aristotle’s notion, Neo-plantonic concept of emanation and against whoever entertained the eternity of the matter; See also Mustaffa Ceric, p.119-141.

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the composed substances by something prior to them in time it come into existence is never external.43

c) Al-Razi Fakhr al-Din al-Razi’s Doctrine of Cosmology (544-606/1149-1209)

Al-Razi is considered as the great theologian has his own stand point towards nature as it has been created by creation ‘ex nihillo ’ theory,44 the world is composed of the contingent being, isn’t positive quality and originated entities. For him all kind of things other than God are contingents, and the contingent is discerned as privation (‘adam).45 Some basic principle has drawn by al-Razi, could be summarized as follows;

1. On Causality,46al-Razi argues that the world has caused by the Necessary Being which took part after the passage of chosen particular time. So this determine, must preceded the act of creation. It is the nature of God’s will to choose a particular time for creation.47He denied the effectiveness an effect of ‘mu’aththiriyya’ is identical with agent, because it merely attributes like accidents are need a substratum for their existence’s.

2. On Contingency quality and contingent priory,48 al-Razi denied the positive quality of contingency over contingent isn’t acceptable as priories on it. In fact the contingent is originated for the existence of God.

3. On temporal time49 al-Razi has an argument of rejection Aristotelian definition of time because time and movement

43 Mustafa Ceric, al-Maturidi’s Ideas, p.137-138.44 Yassin Ceylan, Theology and Tafseer in Major Work of Fakhr al-Deen al-Raazi, ISTAC : K.Lumpur, (1996) p.51-61.45 Ibid, p.58; Also see Original of Sharh al-Ishaarat, p.222; Kitab Arba‘een fi Usuul al-Deen, p. 53; Mulakhkhas (Manuscript) at British Museum, Oriental Ms no.54226/2, fol.137a.46 To refute the Aristotle principle of causation or causality.47 Op cit, p.51-5248 To refute the contingent is prior and positive quality of contingency49 To refute the Aristotelian eternal time.

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are dependent to enable transference of substance occurs from the location to another. And movement cannot be conceived except in conjunction with time. This dependence of time and movement will violate the rules50

of the impossibility of circular dependence.

4. On the creation of God is temporal,51 al-Razi refutes as all the accidents and changes in the world are due to the benevolence of God but they’re not eternal, yet God with His free will may choose something without any attracting of perfection or advantage.52

5. Al-Razi argued on the temporal would using finitude of world bodies and loci motion, later he supports with asserting the world is (composed of) contingent being must be temporal or being contingent in-itself (mumkin binafsihi), that is originated. We can conceive body without a conception of eternity and it is acceptable that eternity as an extraneous quality of body which enable necessity infinite regress.53

6. On Mu’tazilite Concept of the reality of the non-existence,54 al-Razi hold that existence is an extraneous quality which is common to all existence entities, but unlike al-Mu’tazilah, he doesn’t believe in the continuity of essence independent of existence. He rather hold that even essence and existence are different things, and might be independent essence. Yet it cannot survive without existence. Avicenna and Asha’arite believe that existence is merely the existence itself, nothing additional quality. Meanwhile al-Mu’tazilite believe in additional.

50 Ibid, 56-58; See also al-Risaalah al-Kamaaliyya fee Haqaa’iq al-Ilaahiyyah, p.82 51 To answer the God’s creation, it’s his benevolence and it cannot be temporal52 Op cit, p. 60-6153 Ibid, p.6554 To answer the Mu’tazilah concept of the reality of the non-existent (pre- eternal of the potentiality of matter). Ar., Theory of latency (kumuun)

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Furthermore the essence can survive independent of existence.55

d) Al-Ghazali’s Doctrine of Cosmology (450-505/1058-1111)

Al-Gahazali described the creation of world through ‘creatio ex nihillo ’, where by it was coming out from non-existence to existence. This procedure needs a measurement, later the existence must be accordingly with the measure and the world must be obtained a right in shape. Al-Ghazali signified the operative function by three of God’s names such ‘al-Khaaliq ’ means measure giver, ‘al-Baari ’ means brought out from nothingness into being and ‘al-Musawwir ’ means the creator thing in accordance with measurement.56 The final part is very much perfect possible arrangement set up.

Further more al-Ghazali added up with his mystic cosmological point of view. He expressed on double faced universe; that the coporael world has no real existence (ghair wujuud haqiqiy )it’s in related to the world of order (‘alam al-amr) like the shadow of God’s compulsory will (idhaa araada shay’an an yaquula lahu kun ...fayakuun).57

So, all kind of being in the world are the effect of God’s Omnipotence and Omniscience.

For al-Ghazali’s causality problem is settle due to the free will of God and the possibility of bring into existence is His absolute field. He rejected that Allah had necessity to the courses and the causality itself isn’t necessity precede result within the chain of events occurred. He then, denied the natural causality and the existence of a necessary connection between the cause and things being

55 Op cit p.66-6756 Masimo Campanini, al-Ghazali in Early Islamic Philosopher in The East; History of Islamic Philosophy (HIP), vol. 1 Part.1, London : Rouledge (1996),p. 268; See also original in Maqsad, p. 75-77; These are the words represented precisely well organized to infer the process of world creation.57 Al-Ghazali, Arba‘een fi Usuul al-Deen, (1970), p.62

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caused is occurred independently of the will of God, the creator. The causes remain hyphotentically until they’ll consequence by God’s will into reality.58Al-Ghazali like Asha’arite stand point of God’s interference on the set of natural laws (Sunnat Allaah fi al-‘Aalam) in every moment or instant that is called ‘occasionalism’ of al-Ghazali.

Al-Ghazali asserted that jawhar is occupying space using the word saghala as ‘Asha‘arite used the same meaning with tahayyaza. When the jawhar occupies space, there couldn’t be filled by other then remained composite body of the jawaahir. This is evidence that al-Ghazali’s basic of natural bodies is material or corporeal which follows basic atoms of the ‘Asha‘arite school. Even he doesn’t speak about matter and form in his own voice because for him jawhar as used by al-Mutakallimun is the particular by the single jawhar which occupies space (mutahayyiz) and indivisible. If it’s a body or jism, then it could be divisible.59

He mentioned in al-Iqtisaad, that the created universe is made up of bodies and jawaahir (pl.) and divided universe into spiritual angelic or intellectual celestial and corporeal terrestrial entity. He used in traditional terminology of Kalam that suggested that body is divisible and jawhar isn’t.60

Al-Ghazali has built the safeguard upon the philosophical activities from infidelity. In tahaafut falaasifah he warned people of three things; the eternity of the world, denial of the resurrection of body and the mortality of individual soul and the impossibility of God knowing the particulars.61 He didn’t deny theology and philosophy as whole spectrum of the disciplines.

58 Massimo Campanini, al-Ghazali, p.262-26359 Richard M. Frank, Al-Ghazaali and the ‘Asha‘arite School, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1994, p. 5460 Ibid., p. 54; Also see original al-Iqtisaad fee al-I‘tiqaad, of al-Ghazali, p. 24,26, 8 61 Opcit, Massimo C. p.262.

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4.2 Philosopher Scientist’s ( Mashshaa’iyyuun) Theory of Cosmology.

Peripatetic philosophers like al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Khawaja Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Ibn Bajjah (Evampace) etc are depend on ratio-scientific and philosophical approaches in their academic activities. They emphasized on the continuity of things and the importance of the chain of cause and effect in cosmos (nature). For them nature is consider as the principle of change and physics as the science dealing with the change things. They negated the atomic composition bodies, yet believed they are made of form and matter. Space and time are continuos and a point of space and moment are the aspect of a continuos reality illustrated by mind, having no separate objective existence.62

Nature is a contingent domain of possible being (mumkin) and relies completely upon God the Necessary Being (waajib al-wujuud) in order to gain existence . It has relatively stand on it’s own and also can infer as separate from Divine will. It started ontologically below the intelligible world from which it receives it’s being and manifold form to display in it.63

a) Abu Yusuf ibn Yaaqub ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi’s theory of Cosmology (185-252/801/866)

Abu Yusuf al-Kindi was influenced by Greek intellectualism in classical era as well as Neo-platonic sources. He believed in one God who created the world from ‘ex nihillo’ that was close to reveled truth in Islam.

62 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Meaning of Nature in Various Intellectual Perspectives in Islam, in The Islamic Quarterly, Vol. IX, no. 1-2, (Ramadan 1384 - Safar 1385/ Jan-June 1985), p. 2663 Ibid, p.26-27; See also S.H. Nasr, The Early Peripatetic Philosophers in A Young Muslim’s Guide to Modern world, Petaling Jaya : Mekar Publishers, (1994) p.77-81

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His based view has written in treatises on definition and description of things64 followed Greek Tradition.

God is referred as ‘the first cause’ or the one is ‘the cause of the caused’ (in Plotinos is referred to the first agent). Al-Kindi’s cosmology is divided into two parts; the upper world and the lower world. The former is defined as the definition of intellect, nature and soul which isn’t create spiritual being. The latter is the definition of the lower world starting with body (jirim), creation (ibda’), matter or hyle (hayuula), form (suurah), etc. This part is accepted as created corporeal beings. These two parts are finally returned to the one common and same source of every thing is final cause, later it proceeds subsequently by hypostates. The explanation of ‘creation’ through emanation from the upper most cause, and develops from the reflection of the first intellect and angles action, yet they actually refer all existence to the first intellect and satisfied with the theory in progress towards the Necessary One (the Deity).65

Al-Kindi conceived matter as continuos being and uninter mittrent structure, but not of infinite extension. Thus, the world is finite body, the finites of universe is separated from the immaterial upper world of the spiritual beings. So the world for al-Kindi cannot be eternal because it’s created in time frame (al-Muhdath). In conclusion Felix inferred that al-Kindi has separated between created world and the oneness of God philosophically and achieved full harmony explanation in line with Islam especially about the world has been created out of nothing.66 Factually or obviously al-Kindi hesitated to use religious terminology during his explanation on the creation of world. He prefers philosophy rather than the

64 In Arabic saying that fee huduud al-Ashyaa’ wa rusuumihaa in Abu Ridah, (1950), p.165-180. He mentioned that exist through Emanation System ; See also Felix Klein Franke, Al-Kindi in History of Islamic Philosophy, co-edited by S.H. Nasr and Oliver Leaman, Vol.1, part 1, (1996), London: Rouledge, p. 167.65 Ibid, p. 167-16866 Ibid, 169-172.

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religious doctrines of cosmology, even the meanings are very close or similarity to Islamic approaches to cosmology.

b) Abu Nasr al-Farabi’s Theory of Cosmology (257-339/870-950)

Al-Farabi is labeled with the emanation cosmological follower that has wide claimed by revisionists or oriental studies. The Platonic verse seem to be applied as the center of his metaphysics and cosmological science to fill Aristotelian failure in comprising between divine science and natural being.67 For al-Farabi this is the way of Islamic philosophy dealing with nature and scope of metaphysics in relation to natural philosophy. He admitted that metaphysics is the universal science that study the common properties of being qua being. Theology is a part of this science as certain extend that God is a principle of absolute beings (al-wujuud al-Mutlaq). The emanation system has focal point on Divine being and their causality[?] of the sublunary world.68

The emanation framework provided universe as a series of concentric spheres. The outer most sphere s called the first heaven; the spheres of the fixed stars; and the spheres of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, mercury and finally the Moon. Mechanically, emanation is a theory explaining the generation of the universe from God draws upon variety of sources. Though these basic premises and properties are Aristotelian, for al-Farabi God is one, immaterial, eternal and act of necessity. However God characterized as an intellect whose principle activity is understanding (noesis noeseos). God’s intellectual activity which underlies His roles as the creator of the universe.

67 Deborah L. Black, al-Faraabi in Early Islamic Philosophers, Edited by S.H. Nasr and Oliver Leaman in HIP, p. 187-188; See also Druart (1987), al-Faraabi and Emanation which edited by John Wippel, entitle Studies in Medieval Philosophy, Washington D.C., p.23-4368 Ibid, p.188; His main works in the field are al-Madeenah al-Faadhilah and al-Siyaasah al-Madaniyyah also known as Mabaadi’ al-Mawjuudaat ( The Principles of Beings).

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As a result of God’s contemplation, this is the overflow or emanation (faydh) from God of a second intellect, latter followed by generation of third intellect and generates the celestial spheres that corresponds to it, the first heaven. For each sphere generates69 by corresponding 10 intellects other than God. Finally it generates eleventh intellects70 in which provided the existence of the concrete universe and all creatures including human being and the conceived nature (‘alam al-shahaadat) as contingent beings. Neo-platonic metaphysics of emanation provided the systematic framework to complete the gap between the theological and ontological element. Furthermore it’s paving up the concrete link between the theoretical science of metaphysics and physics that is not clearly articulated by Aristotle himself.71

b) Abu Ali Hussain ibn Abdullah ibn Sina’ s theory of Cosmology (370-428/980-1037)

Avicenna’s cosmological studies started from the philosophy of Being and the relationship to the universe and its hierarchy. Being and the knowledge of Being itself is the cause of all particular existence that becomes the knowledge of mathematics and physical world are being subordinated. Being is the cause of the world of multiplicity casting its light upon the different and different quantities (hayuula) of all things. So it is the reality of everything.72

Two major distinction which underlies Avicenna’s philosophy are an ontological distinction between quidity or essence (maahiyah) and existence (wujuud) and tripartite divisions are the necessary (waajib), contingent (mumkin) and impossible (mumtani‘) beings. Only the Necessary Being (waajib al-wujuud) or God are essence and the existence inseparable united, while others unite and exist only when accidents added to their essence or quidity. The

69 Ibid, 18970 Aristotle used as agent intellect in his work of De Anima71 Ibid, p.189. 72 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Anatomy of Being in ISCD, p197-198

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Necessary Being is pure truth and as pure goodness that is the source and origin at all level of existence.73

Systematically, Avicenna designed his own ontological hierarchy and basic distinction has been well done as follows;74

1. The substance whose Being is one, which posses contingency (mumkin) and is completely separated (mujarrad) from all matter and potentially is called intellect (‘aql).

2. The substance whose being is one but accepts the form of other being is divided into two categories;

a) that which doesn’t accept divisibility and although separate

from matter, has needed of a body in its action is called soul (nafs).

b) that which accepts divisibility and has the three

divisions of length, width and depth is called body (jism).

Like al-Farabian emanation, Avicenna also used the same description on the ontological process and universal existence. He explained on the existence of heavenly bodies and the world firstly through the first intellect (‘aql al-awwal)75 is contingent in essence and necessary by virtue of Necessary Being, the cause of causes (‘ilat al-‘ilaal). Later the first intellect generates multiplicity and by the intellection of Divine Essence, it generates second intellect that proceeds two beings which are soul of the 73 Ibid, 198-9974 Ibid, p. 200; Adopted by S.H. Nasr from Ibn Sina’s Ilaahiyat - Prs. Danisnamah, p. 36 75 One might be inferred that the first intellect was three form of knowledge. They are knowledge of the Essence of the Necessary Being (‘ilm ‘an waajib al-wujuud) , knowledge of its own essence as a being necessary by virtue of another being (waajib bi ‘l-ghair) and knowledge of its own essence as a contingent. (‘Ilm ‘an mumkin)

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first heaven and its body. Aftermath it generates third intellect, the soul of the second heaven and its body. This process continues until the ninth heaven lunar regions are generated. This will represent the correspondence scheme of the planetary spheres.76

Here I enclose the scheme of corespondent generating intellect with the heavenly bodies of Avicenna as asserted by Nasr; No. of Heaven Name of Heaven No. of generating intellect

9 Heaven of Heaven 1 8 Heaven of Sign of Zodiac

2 7 Saturn

3 6 Jupiter

4 5 Mars

5 4 Sun

6 3 Venus

7 2 Mercury

8 1 Moon

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Brief explanation:

The first intellect has One power (qudrat) that of the knowledge (‘ilmiyyah) which is received from command (al-amr) of Divine power added with power of desireth and loveth (shawqiyyah) and turns the universal nature (al-

76 Passim, S.H.Nasr, The Anatomy of Being, ISCD p.203-204.

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tabee’at al-kulliyyaat) and the universal element (al-‘unsur al-kulleey) into being.77 From here Avicenna designed four words or terminology on the creation of universe like ihdath, ibda’, khalq and takween.78

In short, Avicenna has built a systematic construction of creationism model of universe. How cute it was when he started his explanation from gnosis entity, later he rationalized into transcendental being using the chain of intellection and finally departed from soul of heavenly bodies to expose the generation at perceived order to merge between both doctrine of metaphysics and physical cosmology of nature, due to achieve the conformity of Islamic perspective and integrated part of cosmological world view.5. Muslim Methodological Study in Cosmos

Unlike the approaches of western scientist on nature to derive scientific knowledge through assumption, Muslim has exposed to the existence of absolute truth in nature called either God the creator or Being the first cause to universe etc. That is why the concept of nature or cosmos must be precisely clear to consider it as the subject of attaining knowledge after understanding the nature of man himself as the knower or truth seeker and the Almighty God as systematically law giver unto the nature and the utmost Omniscience of truth provider to human comprehended scientist among who believes in Him.

In relation to this above subject matter, scientific method should be based on the prior knowledge, clear framework of ontology and cosmology 79that provided absolute

77 Ibid, ISCD, p.204 78 Ibid, ISCD, p.212-213; ihdaath means production of contingent being, weather they be eternal or temporal; ibda’ means production without intermediary of incorruptible and eternal beings, weather they be corporeal or not; khalq means production with or without intermediaries of corporeal beings, weather they be corruptible or incorruptible; takween means production with intermediaries of corruptible beings.79M.Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method: Reflection on Redefinition and reconceptualize Realization, in Islamic Quarterly

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certainty (haqq al-yaqeen) or the ultimate truth. From the concrete fact of observation and empirical knowledge must be derived to find out genuine truth. To have an authentic or reliable method, Muslims have to;80

1. Cease out of the fallacy that our intellect cannot penetrate into noumena. It’s must be acceptable both phenomena and noumena to recognized the reality of nature existence.

2. Give up all our false assumption and build our method on absolute certainly basis.

3. Be reasonable and scientific and should avoid prejudice and bias in our approach. Thus our method must be developed on the basis of absolute certainty.

Here is the rationale of discussing the Muslim cosmological science to proof that Islam has profound concept of creation which has involved metaphysics of creator and His activities (noumena) and cosmological ground of physical world (phenomena). But how our previous philosophers scientist or theologians selected their appropriate method to explain absolute and concrete nature in Islam?;

5.1 Method of Mutakallimun on ‘a Priori ayaatiyyah ’

This method has been used by Muslim theologians and jurists to require facts to be faith (imaan) and known (‘ilm). Al-Quran itself is repository of truth because of God who transmits knowledge (‘ilm) and wisdom (hikmah). The skills, are required to have ‘a priori ayatiyyah be used such as Arabic syntax, grammar and exegesis from tradition. Some jurist also used analogy (qiyaas) to reach

Journal, p. 227; See also Caw Peter, On Scientific Method, in Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.7-8, New York : Macmillan, 1967, p. 329.80 Ibid, M.Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method, p.230.

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science of jurisprudence. Ibn Khaldun said: “This is the knowledge through transmission (‘uluum al-Naqliyyah)”81 As the holy ayat is a priori, even it so happens to the nature that ever considered also as the God significant on the Horizon aayaatinaa fi al-aafaaq where by people will attained the ultimate truth of God. Hence rational is used when it’s in line to a priori and if dealing with metaphors they have to used allegorical (ta’weel) method to suite with the a priori knowledge.

5.2 Method of Mutakallimun on Dialectical Skills.

As al-Quran has been a frame of reference, theologians exercise their intellect within the transmitted science as major characteristic. Dialectical skills require logical relation, for example to express causality relation it should be put certain terminology of universal cause like meaning (ma‘naa), disposition (haal), subject matter (mawdhuu‘) etc. This logic or method of reasoning is used to abstract and position from the specific doctrine which needs to be defended. It is widely practiced by majority scientist of the Mu’tazilite and Asha’arite kalam.82 This skill was used by al-Ghazali to describe God interfered a burning ability within fire as explanation of causality isn’t necessary proceeds burning act. Philosopher al-Kindi and Avicenna also used this to explain a bifurcation between essence and existence such as knowledge of God, is it identical to human knowledge?.83 The main method has used by theologians is reasoning and intellectual speculation (al-ra’y wa al-nadzar) which related to their general positive understanding the articles of faith.84 Al-Ghazali defended the rationalization in kalam as scientific method because it isn’t seem to be intuitive knowledge (kashf). He argued on for faith implies in particular level of knowledge and

81 Sari Nuseibeh, Epistemology, in HIP, Vol.1 Part II, p. 826-82782 Ibid, p. 827-82883 Ibid, p.829.84 Osman Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam [CKI], Kuala Lumpur : The Institute For Policy Research, (1992) p. 182-183

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certainty that rooted from appodietic Demonstration (mantiq al-burhaaniy) and mystical experiences (dhawq).85

5.3 Method of Philosophers on Knowledge by Intellection

Philosophers used reason that unbound by any frame of reference to be claimed. But in practice, they strongly influenced by philosophical or scientific frame work from Greek and Syriac. Moslem philosopher scientist were worked hard to reconcile the body of knowledge or their truth with that of traditionalist.86 What amazing is at least, philosopher scientists knew precisely the different type or hierarchy of truth beyond the human knowledge.

5.4 Method of Philosopher on Appodietic Demonstration.

According to al-Ghazali, philosophers claimed themselves an a man of logic and appodietic demonstration (ahl al-mantiq wa ‘l-Burhaan) were followed Aristotle and other Greek figures relies on reason alone to know all kind of things. Consequently they have to identify the rational truth (human wisdom) from reveled wisdom (theosophy).87Philosophical method is so called Apppodietic Demonstration was inconsistencies and invited errors has been postulated. It’s far from reaching at certainty of metaphysical truth.88 Unlike al-Farabi who asserted that the power of rational faculty (reason) became sharpened through the soul purification and directed will and desire towards the truth instead of the sensual pleasure.89

Al-Farabi constructed two type of philosophies which are external philosophy such as Kalam and esoteric philosophy such as method of demonstration (al-Burhaan al-Yaqeeniy) which composite of intellectual intuition and logical conclusion (istinbaat). The former is superior kind

85 Ibid, p. 18586 Passim, M. Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method, p. 23087 Op cit, CKI p. 186 88 Ibid, CKI p.18789 Ibid, CKI p.188

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of knowledge to religion (millat) and the latter is on method of persuasion (al-Iqnaa’) and leading to certain.90Whenever he is dealing with science (‘ilm),91 the main theme to be touched is on the degree of profundity of proof. That is why sciences here relatively excellence more than the other based on an employment of more perfect method of arriving truth claims and proving. Al-Farabi method of proof found in logical theory which deals primarily with Syllogism. He used and described three types of proofs; which are consisting of Syllogism (Qiyaas),92 Induction (tasaffut aw Istiqraa’) and rhetoric (al-Khitaabiyah).

6. Cosmology As The Fundamental Sources of Islamic Science.

Cosmological knowledge or natural sciences is close connected chains of natural thought in Kalam or Muslim theology and philosophy to the specific field of Islamic science. Yet as Prof. S. H.Nasr asserted that it’s a theoretical background true of the Islamic, which derived from the application and traditional Islamic Cosmological expression through metaphysic principle unto cosmic stages.93 Islamic Cosmology is rooted from the principle of revelation and metaphysic basis within al-Quran and the teaching of the prophet (pbuh). It is the original principle at universe in respect to at once Being, consciousness and bliss (beatitude). The cosmology it self means gaining knowledge out of this positive aspect of cosmos which manifested from the Islamic principle94 of creation and existence.

90 Ibid, CKI p. 8191 Al-Faraabian notion of science as ‘an organized body of knowledge as a discipline having distinctive goals, basic premises and objects and method of study.’ It is considered as the comprised of cognition (ma‘aarif) with encompass both conception and assent (reality of truth).92 Ibid, CKI p.83-84; Syllogism is divided into three sections; they are General Syllogism, Dialectical Syllogism and Demonstrative Syllogism. 93 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Science; An Illustrated Study, Istanbul : Insan Yayinlari, 1989, p. 2794 Ibid, p. 28

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Again Prof. S.H. Nasr affirmed that Muslim cosmology as the principle of scientific study as :

“The meaning of all the cosmological schemes in Islam has remained the same, namely the relating of multiplicity to unity of existence of Being, of each creature on a particular level of existence to the higher levels and finally to the Divine names and qualities in which are to be found the principle and the ‘end’ of all cosmic manifestation”.95

Through the Islamic tradition of cosmology, Muslim scientists developed many series esoteric form and description of cosmographies for instance the magnificent work of the wonder creations (‘Ajaa’ib al-Makhluuqaat) of Abu Yahya Zakariyya al-Qazwini and astronomical and mathematical work of Abu Rayhan al-Biruni and Qutb al-Din Shirazi 96 of much more exposed on scientific natural being which close related to astronomy and physics. As a fundamental of Islamic science, the diversified cosmology has been derived from Islamic Cosmology and served as the background, matrix and principle for various Muslim Natural Sciences from geography to alchemy. The ability of the linkage in particular science to the principle of Islamic revelation, internal creation (metaphysics) and various cultivated sciences was shown an amazement 97 in the history of Islamic science.

The way of Muslims study on nature harmoniously between man and cosmic environment is the promising method for the future scientific development. Moreover,

95 Ibid, p.3196 Ibid, p.36; The exploring on cosmology was starting from angelic world and ended with plants and minerals. This example of contribution works on mythology, scientific and hierarchy of universe. Later they transferred in literature, miniatures and paintings as the symbols of the civilization.97 Ibid, p.36

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Islam never separates intimate link between man and nature or between science of nature and religion because both of them mentioned clearly in al-Quran. That is why al-Quran reveled both on recorded al-Quran (al-Quraan al-Tadweeniy) and al-Quran of creations (al-Quraan al-Takweeniy) which contains ideas or archetypes of all things. Consequently al-Quran contains the principles knowledge of cosmos which is called cosmology through the name of the Book of Signs (ayaatulLaah).98

If an argument on Islamic Cosmology will be put forward, it depends on the interpretation of scared text (ta’weel), penetrating from outward (dzaahir) and to the inward (baatin) meaning and exegeses from the authentic intepret scholars. Man can study nature as something to be manipulated and inward dimension of nature as a symbol and transparent reality to understand them in real sense. From this stage Islam reveled Metaphysical Doctrine and the hierarchy of knowledge to develop various disciplines of sciences. Natural studies manifest the purpose and the wisdom of God that their existence are related to the creator of all creatures and given knowledge as the essential relation to Him. True science is relating cosmological phenomena with the inner aspect of reality, called noumena which is the central relation of pure Being.99 This is universal relationship in respect to the epistemology qua ontological existence.

Knowledge acquisition occurred through essential metaphysics and intellectual intuition. Thus cosmology is in the fact an application of metaphysical principle to the cosmic domain. Since the principles has been established, both reason and observation serve as aids to complete of 98 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Metaphysics Principle Pertaining to Nature in Man and Nature; The Spiritual Crisis of Modern Man, Kuala Lumpur : Foundation for Traditional Studies, 1976, p.94-95; For Prof. Nasr ayat means event occurring within the soul of men and pheunomena in the world of nature based on the translated al-Quran : “We show them our portents upon the horizons and within themselves, until it be manifest unto them that it is the truth.” (61:53).99 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrine, 1978, p.233-34.

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the particular aspect of things. The legitimacy of reason and instrument of methods, subsequently contributing to the legitimate sciences which are found their meaning and reality under the light of wisdom100 or sapientia ratio supported by guidance or inspiration of God almighty.

The fact of cosmological sciences are remain meaningless until by means of intelligence, it must be sent to find their meaning as manifestation in showing dependence, existence and intellectual requirement and amazing order upon the Divine Sources of all existence. 101 For instance ibn Sina after had precise established principle of medicine upon cosmic analogies and other based cosmological doctrine in metaphysics, he ventured observations and induction to find the fact of Symptoms and the way how to heal them. From experiments also he could derive necessary meteria medica and treatment methods of various ailments. Within the same way, he ventured other fields of sciences like physics, meteorology, geology, pharmaceutics etc.

Muslim studies in cosmology was started from symbolic and sacred geographical images of the spiritual world with coordinates with exact mathematical measurement in geographical coordination and quantitative studies. For instance, Muslim has started with seven circular region is reflection of seven fold in spiritual hierarchy in Islam. Even the central of cosmic mountain Qaf 102in ancient Persian is transformed from al-Quran. Since Abbasid period, Muslim developed a descriptive and quantitative geography until now it considers as the scientific geography. In 3rd/9th century Muslim has written the world map entitled ‘Ma’munic Map’ (al-ßuurat al-Ma’muuniyyah) which was attained by Abu Hassan al-Mas‘udi as more accurate than that Ptolemy has. Also al-Mas‘udi has combined cosmology, History and Geography in single encyclopedia which entitled as Muruuj al-Dhahab - the Prairies of Gold in 4th and 5th century. The 100 Ibid., p.234.101 Ibid., p. 235102 S.H. Nasr, Islamic Science, p.36-37

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geographer Abu Rayhan al-Biruni who at once mastered of mathematical, descriptive and actual geography authored the famous ‘Tahdeed Nihaayaat al-Amaakin’- the Determination of the coordinates of cities. In Mathematical Geography his book on India, the Chronology of Ancient Nation and the al-Mas‘udi Cannon - Qaanuun al-Mas‘uudiy. 103

Until 6th/12th century Muslim Cosmological Encyclopedia has been elaborated in the west during the beginning European expansion like ‘Nawkhbaat al-Dakr’ (the selection of the age) of Shams al-Din al-Dimashqi and ‘Ajaa’ib al-Buldaan’ (the wonders of the land) of Zakariya al-Qazwini. In the same period, Western Muslim geographer Abu ‘Abdillah al-Idrisi, the Moroccan who served at the court of Roger II in Sicily authored the World Map based upon the Hellenistic and earlier Islamic sources entitled ‘Kitaab al-Ruujariy- the book of Roger.104

In chemistry Muslim has the cosmological principle, such as ‘al-Tadaakhul ’ - “every thing is penetrating everything”105which the substance of thing can be transmuted, so that their nature can be change. Islamic alchemy contains the basis of natural philosophy as the doctrine of Hylomorphism or qualities and four elements. This four combine in various formulation to rise the two basic substances or so called ‘the principle of sulphur and Mercury’. From this principle, which corresponds the feminine and masculine principle of the cosmic plane. From the wedding of them, all creatures come into being. Muslim chemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan said that the key of the metal structure is that all substances are in balance (al-meezaan). The balance is being used for physical 103 Ibid., p.40-42104 Ibid., p. 42. 105 Ibid., p.194; See footnote no. 4 states that : “According to traditional metaphysics, the first determination of the absolute (the level of Ahadiyyat according to the follower of the school of ibn ‘Araabiy) is on in which all the divine names and qualities are determined but yet indistinct in such way that every quality is in every other quality. It might be said the chemical point of view reflects this principal reality on the level of cosmic existence.”

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meteorology instrument and psychological soul measurement.106 From this crucial principle, Jabir ventures the chemistry field and supported by Muhammad Abu Zakariya al-Razi who was responsible to change alchemy into Muslim chemistry by negation the allegorical method ‘ta’weel ’ of the symbols but redirected it towards rational scientific development.107

7. Conclusion and Remarks

Muslim cosmological studies in this context, exposes two approaches towards nature as the subject or sources of Islamic Natural Sciences. The first group is representing by Philosopher Scientist called Peripatetic. They are inclinated to Greek antiquity and showing their creativity on reshaping the Neo-platonic and Aristotelian frame works for reconciliation with Islamic religion pertaining rational and scientific requirement. Subsequently the scientific activities flourished via empirical and observational studies.

Meanwhile the theologians or Mutakallimuun, did very excellent task at metaphysics and Ontological ground. They recorrect the Greek influences. Apparently al-Ghazali appropriated the demarcated heresy on ontological and metaphysical aspect in Muslim Cosmology. This contributions pretended Muslim scientist and philosopher from apologetically following the ancient antiquity. Hence systematic studies has to be allocated for these ancient transmission into Muslim properties. Synthesis has been applied thoroughly avoiding Islamic science from the polluted antiquities on the originality of Muslim cosmological world view. Then the highest Islamic theological skills has been used for the systematic treatments.

Finally, cosmological studies must be based on the light of truth from the Islamic Epistemology like an allegorical and 106 Ibid., p.195; In al-Ghazali discussion, he ever touched about the Chemistry of Happiness (al-Kimyaa’ al-Sa’adat)107 Ibid., p.200

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authentic interpretation on empirical nature within al-Quran and al-Hadith. It would lead scientists towards finding the true signs of God that reveled the proper meaning of the hierarchy of being, Divine regularity and ultimate truth in the world. Therefore, Islamic Natural Science will reached it’s maturity by achieving what so called the arrival of the meaning of things into human soul systematically.108 This process as whole, produces knowledge in Muslim Scientific scheme. In Islam the unveiled process of discoveries and investigations upon specific field, contributes to science in particular sense under Islamic epistemological frame work. This is what so called Islamic Science.

8. References

Caw Peter, On Scientific Method, in Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.7-8, New York : Macmillan, 1967

Deborah L. Black, al-Farabi in Early Islamic Philosophers, Edited by S.H. Nasr and Oliver Leaman in HIP, Vol.1, part 1, (1996), London: Rouledgep. 187-188

Fathalla Kholief, Munazarat Fakhruddin al-Razi fi Bilad Ma wara’ al-Nahr, Beirut: Dar al-Mashruq, 1966

Felix Klein Franke, Al-Kindi in History of Islamic Philosophy, co-edited by S.H.Nasr and Oliver Leaman, Vol.1, part 1, London: Rouledge, 1996

108 An adaptation from S.M.N. Al-‘Attas on the discussion of the natural study pertaining to knowledge acquisition in ‘The Positive Aspect of Tasawwuuf; Preliminary Thought on Islamic Philosophy of Science’, K. Lumpur: Akademi Sains Islam, (1981), p.3-9.

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Ismail Raja’ie al-Faruqi, Islam and the Theory of Nature, Islamic Quarterly Vol.XXVI, No.1, First Quarterly, London: The Islamic Culture Center, 1982.

Masimo Campanini, al-Ghazali in Early Islamic Philosopher in The East; History of Islamic Philosophy (HIP), co-edited by S.H. Nasr and Oliver Leaman, vol. 1 Part.1, London : Rouledge, 1996

M. Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method: Reflection on Redefinition and Reconcept Realization, in Islamic Quarterly Journal, p. 227

Mustafa Ceric, Al-Maturidite Theological Ideas In Root of Synthetic Theology in Islam, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1995

Osman Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam [CKI], Kuala Lumpur : The Institute For Policy Research, 1992

___________, Cosmology,: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, New York: Oxford Press, Vol. I,(1995)

___________, Tawhid and Science, Kuala Lumpur : Nurin Enterprise, 1991

Richard M. Frank, Al-Ghazali and the ‘Asha‘arite School, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1994

Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi, Hujjatul al-Balighah, Trans. By Marlia K. Hermansen , The Condusive Proof from God, nd

S.M.N. Al-Attas, on the discussion of the natural study pertaining to knowledge aquisition in ‘The Positive Aspect of Tasawwuf; Priliminary Thought on Islamic Philosophy of Science’, K.Lumpur: Akademi Sains Islam (ASASI), 1981

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrine, Boulder, 1978

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________________, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, (IICD) Great Britain : Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1978

________________, The Meaning of Nature in Various Intellectual Perspectives in Islam, in The Islamic Quarterly, Vol. IX, no. 1-2, (Ramadan 1384 - Safar 1385/ Jan-june 1985)

________________, The Early Peripatetic Philosophers in A Young Muslim’s Guide to Modern world, Petaling Jaya : Mekar Publishers, 1994

________________, Islamic Science; An Illustrated Study, Istanbul : Insan Yayinlari, 1989

________________, Man and Nature; The Spiritual Crisis of Modern Man, Kuala Lumpur : Foundation for Traditional Studies, 1976

Yassin Ceylan, Theology and Tafsir in Major Work of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1996

*Centre for Islamic Thought and Understanding (CITU)MARA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, TERENGGANU Branch Campus, MALAYSIA

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