integrating migrant women - an active approach or …...ma in euroculture - europe in the wider...

MA in Euroculture - Europe in the Wider World

Intensive Program 2007 in Strasbourg

Difference or Discrimination? The challenges of a multicultural

Europe

Integrating migrant women -

An active approach or mere rhetoric?

Name: Heinrich, Anne

University 1st semester: Uniwersytet Jagiellonski in Kraków

University 2nd semester: Uppsala Universitet

Chosen sub-theme: Changing attitudes towards gender

differences in European societies

II

Abstract

Gender mainstreaming, gender equality, equal treatment for women and men, combat

against discrimination based on sex, religion, ethnic belonging, age and disability, equal

opportunities, opportunity in diversity - these are key words in current political debates

around Europe, the European Union, the Member States.

The EU launched 2007 the “Year of Equal opportunities for all - towards a just society”.

This paper is going to look at the gender dimension within migration studies, thereby

focusing on active approaches taken prioritising female immigrants; at first, from an EU

policy perspective, and secondly looking at the immigration and integration legislation

in Germany.

EU documents, statistical figures, reports and web articles are resource background of

this work.

III

Table of Contents

Abstract II

1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 5

2 Role and place of immigrant women in the European Union .............................. 7

2.1 Definitions and categorization ............................................................................. 7

2.2 Why regard special attention to the female gender within migration? ................ 7

2.3 Immigrant women in recent EU documents ........................................................ 9

2.4 Selected EU support programs .......................................................................... 10

3 Germany a closer look ........................................................................................... 12

3.1 Female immigrants and the integration policy in Germany .............................. 12

3.2 Providers and supporters.................................................................................... 14

3.3 The view of female immigrants ......................................................................... 15

3.3.1 Migrantas - Visual language of migration ....................................................... 15

3.3.2 Told migration experiences ............................................................................ 16

4 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 18

5 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ V

5.1 Literature............................................................................................................. V

5.2 Internet ................................................................................................................ V

5.3 Others................................................................................................................. VI

Appendix VII

IV

Index of figures

Figure 1 The share of non-EU nationals in working age population, 2000 .............. IX

Figure 2 Educational attainment level of immigrant men (left) and women (right)

aged 25-39.................................................................................................... X

Figure 3 Employment rates men (left) and women (right) aged 25-39 by nationality,

2000............................................................................................................. XI

Figure 4 List of selected EU documents partly including female dimension ..........XII

Figure 5 Budget of financial instruments ............................................................... XIII

Figure 6 Population by sex and citizenship in Germany ........................................ XIV

Figure 7 Geographical allocation of foreigners in Germany and the participation

intensity in language courses ................................................................... XV

Figure 8 Largest groups of immigrants in Germany .............................................. XVI

Figure 9 Language course attendance 2004 ..........................................................XVII

Figure 10 Migrantas urban installation I ............................................................... XVIII

Figure 11 Language barriers.................................................................................. XVIII

Figure 12 Migrantas urban installation II .............................................................. XVIII

Anne Heinrich 2007-05-10 Integrating migrant women - An active approach or mere rhetoric?

5

1 Introduction

Migration is one of the defining issues of the twenty-first century [cf. IOM]. Some

theorists go further and describe the current period as an ‘age of migration’ (Castles and

Miller 1998) with more and more globalizing, accelerating, diversifying and feminizing

tendencies of migration flows. The International Organization on Migration (IOM)

approximates a number of currently 191 million migrants1 world wide.

European countries have been looking on a reality of migratory movements throughout

the past decades. Although figures forecast a slow down and slide decrease of

net migration to the EU after 2004, numbers remain high with a net inflow2 of about

1.69 million people in 2005 (Lanzieri and Corsini, 2006).

Thus, the entry of immigrants into the European Union is projected to be a feature in the

future. The question is no longer whether to have migration, but rather how to manage

migration effectively so as to enhance its positive and reduce its negative impacts. The

EU is thereby facing the challenging task(s) to manage immigration and integration and

with rising political sensitivity. In this perspective some theorists urge to include the

gender dimension into migration studies and to overcome the purport of gender

relations within EU and national integration policy making because of their growing

participation in migratory movements (Kofman et al. 2000).

A trend of feminization in the process of immigration to the enlarged European Union

has become obvious with a continuous growth of female immigrants over the past 20

years. While male immigrants made up the large majority in the period of post World

War II, women represent approximately 54%, about 8 mill., of the total number of

immigrants to the EU today. But also their economical and social contributions to the

receiving countries and the role migrant women play in welfare are regarded

significance (Kofman et al. 2000). Nevertheless the negative image of female

immigrants remains as one representing them as “victims” and “dependants” primarily

because of multiple discrimination and disadvantageous opportunities based on their

origin and gender3.


6

Seeking to extend equal chances for all, irrespective of sex, racial or ethnic origin,

religion or belief, disability, age and sexual orientation, the European Union launched

the “European Year of Equal Opportunities for All” in January 2007.

Main objectives are to better the distribution of information about rights, to move closer

to achieving equal opportunities, especially promoting equality for women immigrants,

and to show the benefits of diversity through mutual understanding and awareness.

Having this in mind the paper is going to look at the gender dimension within

immigration and integration policies on European level at first and secondly on national

level of Germany as to answer the question what are concrete steps taken to benefit the

target group of migrant women. Thereby it is necessary to narrow down the definition

and categorization of immigrant females at first. This shall give reason for the diversity

of approaches and actors influencing policy priorities for migrants as a who le and thus

for immigrant women. Specific histories and patterns of migration flows have shaped

integration policies within each country but which will, as a matter of page limitations,

not be explained in detail.

As to facilitate international coordination in migration issues, the UN introduced a

process of harmonization towards inter European convergence and exchange of good

practice, but Eurostat4 observations claim too less implementation effort by the states.

The reason is the lack of an existing legal and binding document on migration and

integration in the European Union as such. The second chapter will provide an overview

of the forthcomings of the female dimension within EU documents. The following

chapter 3 is to examine the situation in Germany more closely, underlined by selected

statistical indicators and publications. Also some examples of good practise will present

active approaches undertaken that support immigrant women in particular.

The last chapter will comprise an overall conclusion and final suggestions by the author

as well as the author’s reflection on the subject matter.


7

2 Role and place of immigrant women in the European Union

2.1 Definitions and categorization

The existing definitional contest of who is considered a migrant and who not, alter from

state to state and are defined including different aspects and understandings (please

refer to annex 9, page XVII Note 1 for a working definition by the United Nations).

Thus, different definitions on the term ‘migrant’ have particular impacts on the

categorization of women immigrants. They are defined by their reason for migration,

country of origin, ethnicity and minority5 belonging. The in 2000 published book on

gender and international migration furthermore argues that the conceptualization of

migrants has changed in relation to time and space: Migration flows used to be

predominated by the model of labour migration to Europe in the past6, supposing that

labour was represented by males while women where assumed to be economical

inactive. This explains one reason for unlimited and detailed gender disaggregated data

collection, gender-sensitive categorization and analysis. Nowadays a significant amount

of females migrate because of economical reasons which the European Parliament

addresses to be taken into account in the near future.

Many European states do collect gender-sensitive data within migration studies and

according to following broad range qualitative categories: family reunification 7 ,

economic and labour migration, immigration as refugees (political or fleeing from

armed force) and asylum seekers as well as illegal immigrants8. A distinction is also

made in EU-nationals and third-country nationals9 as comparisons reveal considerable

differences within statistical results (Please look at annex 1, page VIII-X for details.)

Another category which some countries regard special observation within statistical

analysis, are the second-borne an third generation of immigrants, meaning women and

girls with a background in migration.

2.2 Why regard special attention to the female gender within migration?

Within the ongoing European wide debate on gender equality which promotes gender

mainstreaming, meaning the implementation of the gender dimension in all policy areas,

activities and connected measures, the European Commission introduced a “Roadmap

to equality between women and men 2006/2010” as to perpetuate the preceding


8

initiative from 2001/200510. Among other priorities it seeks to guide support for and

increase awareness of the group of immigrant women, females with a background in

migration and females belonging to an ethnic minority.

At first their situation within host societies and immigrant communities is described as

critical because of two-fold discrimination to their rights and in civic participation. They

are also deprived of equal rights when accessing education and lifelong learning. A

detailed report11 signifies the role of immigrant women in multiple ways, because of the

increase of female immigrants and in a broader range of categories as mentioned above.

Secondly, female immigrants have general difficulties when accessing the labour market,

receive low employment rates and show high rates of unemployment, more often they

are employed in temporary occupations or low-paid industrial jobs and often without

social and economic protection, or in sectors of the ‘grey’ economy and undeclared

employment.

Thirdly, female immigrants mostly lack in proficient linguistic skills and are under

represented in educational programmes, especially in basic and tertiary education. Their

participation in social, political, trade union and cultural life of the host country is

limited and connected with poverty and social exclusion.

This report also mentions the European countries for their failure to utilise the skilled

female employment potential among immigrants; instead they remain in unskilled jobs

as domestic staff12.

Fourthly suffer immigrant women and girls from human rights violations, such as

crimes of honour, genital mutilation, and human trafficking, which are not acceptable

on any cultural or religious grounds. And at last, women immigrants often encounter

severe discrimination as individuals depending on their spouse’s legal status as well as

negative gender stereotyping brought with them from their country of usual residence.

Some of the indicators (population, employment, education) in relation to gender are

presented in annex 1, page VIII-X. The numbers thereby focus on non-EU nationals

because of their increasing share among immigrants. Numbers encountering violations

against human rights can only be found as estimates as there is no specific monitoring

system in the Member States, which is why those indicators are not present.


9

The above statements reported by the EU Parliament’s Committee are based on

observations and measures taken 13 and revealing gaps of equal conditions and

opportunities between women immigrants and females of the host societies as well as

gaps between them and immigrant males. The larger variety of the above issues also

mirrors the dimension of steps necessary to be executed on EU level following the

ratification and successfully implementation by the European member states into their

national and regional immigration and integration policies. The needs and requirements

of female migrants are observed to receive only limited attention despite the general

consciousness of this group declared endangered by the EU.

2.3 Immigrant women in recent EU documents

The Treaty establishing the European Community in 1957 is the basic legal framework

for later legislations promoting anti-discrimination, fundamental rights, and equal

opportunities in all integration policy areas (Art. 13). It also forwards competences for

migration handling and integration powers to the European Community (Art. 68).

Constituting on those primary rules later established secondary rules exist that address

migrants. These secondary policy rules differ in their binding force over national

legislations, meaning some are more powerful, e.g. regulations and directives, than

others, e.g. decisions and recommendations. Looking at current documents and actions

the number of policy documents with greater power of applicability and directly

addressing issues of women immigrants is quiet small compared to EU legislations with

less enforcement powers (communications, opinions, resolutions), leaving more

decisional and implementation freedoms to the states. Issues connected with the

integration of immigrant women are at the moment far most presented in

communications, resolutions and recommendations by the EU institutions to be

formulated into binding legislations in the future. Also, a number of reports from the

European Parliament or the Women’s Rights Committee are calling for legislative steps

to successfully integrate female immigrants. Main objectives are the fight against

human rights violations and economical integration. Annex 2 on page XI provides and

overview of recent documents and their focus regarding female immigrants either

directly or within addressing the group of migrants.


10

The role of women migrants is one key principle within the European Commission’s

Directorate General on DG Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities

program for gender equality. This Unit is dealing with “Equal Opportunities for Women

and Men: Strategy and Programme” and directing gender mainstreaming into all

Community policy areas.

Main focus is the integration of the gender dimension into integration policies and to

overcome the gap of female participation in the labour market among migrants.

Other awareness-enhancing initiatives which shall help to achieve the objectives of

mutual understanding, integration and the promotion of equality of women immigrants

are the dedication of the year 2007 on “Equal Opportunities for all” as well as the 2008

theme on “Intercultural Dialogue”.

Also the recent establishment of a European Migration Network (EMN) and its contact

points in 17 Member States and 5 observer states so far, the activities are to improve the

availability of, and access to, information concerning migration and asylum at European

and Member State level in order to support policy- and decision-making in the EU.

2.4 Selected EU support programs

The EU provides opportunities for measures on behalf of integration and solidarity.

Those financial instruments and programs listed below do not specifically reach out to

women immigrants but their problems are tackled through sub themes and project calls.

The European Social Fund (EFS) is main financial tool through which the European

Union supports the development of people’s skills in order to improve their prospects

for work and equal treatment of women and men at workplace. An example will be

given later on when looking at Germany in the second part of this paper (chapter 3.3.1).

EQUAL is one of the programs financed by EFS and designed to test new ways of

tackling discrimination and inequality experienced by those in work and those looking

for a job. Under the theme ‘Employability - Combating racism’ integration problems of

female migrants into the national labour markets were tackled by initiating several

support programs.


11

In the framework program of ‘Solidarity and Management of Migration Flows’ the

European Refugee Fund (ERF) helps Member States to grant reception conditions to

refugees, displaced persons and beneficiaries of subsidiary protection, also to apply fair

and effective asylum procedures and to promote good practices in the field of asylum

(including the protection of rights of persons requiring international protection and

establish efficient working systems).

Within the same framework the European Fund for the Integration of Third-country

nationals supports Member States to enable third country nationals to fulfil the

conditions of residence and to facilitate their integration into European societies,

especially newly arrived immigrants. This fund is to help the Member States develop,

implement, monitor and evaluate all integration strategies, policies and measures for

third country nationals and encourages the exchange of information, best practice and

co-operation in and between Member States.

The INTI-program supports preparatory actions and pilot projects for integration of

third-country nationals beforehand the ir migration (e.g. through language courses,

cultural, political and social conditions of destination country, dialog development with

civil society, etc.) Preliminary integration and acknowledging customs and language of

the destination country is essential for females with the intention to emigrate so as to

become aware of their rights and access migration facilities more easily without being

dependent (e.g. on spouse and family).

Another program, PROGRESS, provides financial support for the implementation of the

European Union's objectives in the field of employment and social affairs. Projects and

activities supported by Progress shall contribute to the objectives of the Lisbon Strategy.

It distinguishes 5 key areas with different budget allocation. Female immigrants

especially fall under ‘Social protection and inclusion’ (30% of the total budget is

allocated for this sub theme).

In annex 3, page XII you can find a list of the budgets amounts allocated for the

programs.


12

3 Germany a closer look

The Federal Republic of Germany has been an immigrant receiving country since the

first guest labour contracts in the early 1950s. In fact, it was the country receiving the

most recruited labour forces in the period post World War II as to fill the gap of

industrial workers. It is therefore a classical example representing a migration regime

biased on the male guest worker and the model of ‘male breadwinner’ in Europe.

Germany also saw mass immigration of ethnic Germans, e.g. being expelled from the

former Soviet Union, as well as immigration waves of family reunion.

Today the foreign population in Germany makes up more than 8% of the total

population of which more than 48% are women. Every sixth inhabitant is either an

immigrant or of migrant background 14 . Annex 4 on page XIII shows a table of the

population by sex and citizenship.

But not until recently did Germany perceive itself to be a country of regulated

immigration. The former working system managed immigration and integration in a

way of ‘pragmatically improvising’ not including all aspects of immigration policy. The

first immigration act to structure immigration and foster integration was introduced in

2005. It also embraces labour market oriented and humanitarian immigration as well as

it defines integration as a mutual process between host and immigrant society. This

policy act is also to restrict and control immigration to Germany and is to adjust to the

EU directives.

Immigrants in Germany form a heterogenic group according their origin, migratory

background as well as status of residence. Annex 6 on page XV shows the five largest

immigrant groups and their share as of the total foreign population. Also Annex 5 on

page XIV further represents the geographical percental allocation of foreigners in

Germany.

The following chapter will now look at priorities of female integration as of the new

policy act.

3.1 Female immigrants and the integration policy in Germany

As mentioned before the group of immigrants in Germany is not homogenous. Aside

from divers migratory aspects some immigrants are already integrated and naturalized

and found their place within German society having advanced their social status, e.g.


13

especially repatriates or long-term residences residing in Germany for more than 15

years.

Nevertheless integration deficits are omnipresent which is why integration activities and

measures are to address those immigrants with lower participatory possibilities: These

include teenagers, women, children and unemployed persons. Integration in Germany

has evolved to become a central political task which is now understood as a mutual and

dual process including both, host and immigrant society. Along with the principle

‘assisting and demanding’ the new policy act is aiming at providing equal rights and

economical, sociological, political and cultural participation for migrants to Germany.

„Language is the key to integration. Language skills alleviate the access to and

the participation in societal areas; they are fundamental for successful

education and increase the chances for the integration to the labour market.”15

Thus a prior role for successive integration plays the knowledge of German language

and the familiarity of basic rights, values, lifestyle and legal constraints. In this

perspective the concept foresees, among others, special integration courses for female

immigrants. Seminars and intensive courses are arranged for foreign women, including

young girls born in Germany, young women already residing for a longer period in

Germany, married women following their spouses, women who strive to reintegrate into

the labour market, and single women16.

These intensive courses are preliminary to and are to motivate immigrant women to

attend further language and orientation courses which will then provide proficient

language knowledge necessary when entering education and/ or the labour market.

Those courses are promoted from the first day of new arrived immigrants and obligatory

especially for non-speakers. Attendance and absence are monitored and reported and

have an influence on residence extension decision or naturalization process.

Attendances are present that is why they are only provided in centres with a high

percentage of foreigners (e.g. according to annex 5 on page XIV showing ‘hot spots’ of

foreign population as well as the geographical intensity of integration course attendance)

and only for legal immigrants residing permanently in Germany which excludes asylum

seekers, refugees and undocumented women.


14

In 2005 an amount of 30,1 mill. Euros were allocated for the social, societal and cultural

integration. Only 2 mill. Euros thereof were to finance 2700 of such intensive courses

mentioned before.

Almost equal priority is given to societal and social integration along with cultural

competences of immigrants.

3.2 Providers and supporters

Other than the policy integrative activities, programs are provided by several agencies

from different federal levels - the state (e.g. Federal Office for Migration and Asylum

which is also the EMN national contact point), the ‘Länder’, communes and

municipalities (e.g. Folk Schools, welfare etc.) as well as independent local actors (e.g.

NGO’s, church associations, language schools etc.). A total of 1600 legitimate agencies

are providing integration courses. Important among the supporters are networks

established by immigrants for immigrants as to role model integration for future

immigrants.

The so called ‘Länder’ have legislative and executive powers in certain policy areas

which can lead to different integration procedures of immigrants and individual

implementation methods, e.g. in 2001 some ‘Länder’ considered German the first

language taught to migrant children in schools, where as in others, German was seen as

their second language. Also financial support is allocated from different sources. As an

example, the total funding for social attendance and advisory came to more than a half

from the state, 21% from the ‘Länder’ and 27% from the agencies themselves.

Among the number of language courses available, comparing the share of more women

attendees then to men, alphabetisation courses are most prevalently attended by females,

in German wide perspective (Annex 7 page XVI)

To look even closer, the city of Hamburg as an example for an urban area with the

largest percentage of immigrants (followed by Berlin), provides alphabetisation courses

and especially for women in order to help the group of language inability to gain writing

and reading skills (partly also in the females mother tongue). They are located in the


15

communities with prevailing foreign population as to make access convenient. Other

courses available for female immigrants in Hamburg include:

• German for beginners

• German for Roma women (including those with limited residence permit)

• German for women with children (included child care)

• Confidence training

• Computer courses

• German for Thai women (beginners), etc.

On the other hand interior differentiation and classifications of courses, according to

educative background and practices or countries of origin, are not funded enough (e.g.

teachers’ payment, short funding periods). The current policy does not include a special

separation into different classified beginner groups. Less skilled learners integrated in

higher level courses thus slow down the overall progress and decrease the final outcome

at the end of the course.

Other than integration course specialized for female immigrants the city of Hamburg

and local agencies provide further educational training and vocational trainings for the

group of women immigrants as to foster their integration into the labour market17.

3.3 The view of female immigrants

Following a selection of different experiences from female immigrants and their

perception of life as an immigrant in Germany shall finalize this chapter. The

experiences include women with diverse migration backgrounds and intentions, such as

permanent residences, girls and young women with a family background in migration

and immigrant women in the cultural melting pot Berlin. From different angles

approached the expressions comprise a project initiative, ‘Migrantas’, established from

immigrant women for immigrant women and based on horizontal and hierarchical

dialog and told immigration stories recorded.

3.3.1 Migrantas - Visual language of migration

Migrantas - An awareness raising initiative by immigrant women in Berlin, working in

the area of sociology and graphic design, to make visible the often over shadowed


16

experiences and perceptions of immigrant women within society. Through simultaneous

workshops (Sep. - Oct. 2005) among immigrant women from 19 countries living in

Berlin their voices on topics of migration, identity and intercultural dialogue were

collected, graphically expressed and finally displayed (2006) as simple pictograms in

urban installations around the city of Berlin including various print media (banners,

posters, brochures), digital projections/ animations and merchandise products (t-shirts,

bags, postcards etc.). Women felt recognized, the ir stories shared with other participants

in the workshop and taken serious. This project was financed by the federal state of

Berlin and co-financed by the European Structural Fund mentioned in part one.

Secondary aims connected are to support female immigrant artists, the establishment of

an interconnected network of immigrant associations, and participation in art

exhibitions (e.g. „City of Women“, Nov.-Dec. 2006).

Examples of urban installation pictogram images can be found in annex 8 on page XVII.

3.3.2 Told migration experiences

An initial collection of 100 audio clips is made up of men and women of different ages

and different origins who tell their stories; how and why they came to Germany; how

they were received and accepted; how they coped in their adopted country. In doing this,

the migrants recount a piece of Germany's own history for all to hear as it should be:

subjective, personal and authentic [www.migration-audio-archive.de].

German language capabilities of the interviewees are perfectly comprehensible, even if

they are not grammatically perfect. The different accents, voices, linguistic peculiarities

and lexical creations show how immigrants adjusted and coped with German language.

The archive is accessible and also addressing those migrants who don’t speak German

in original languages (Turkish, Italian, Arabic, Serbian, Croatian, Russian, etc.) but who

are also part of German reality today. In partnership with the German broadcast station

WDR the project came into being in 2005 and will be used in various audio shows over

the radio, in public audio lounges and exhibitions, throughout topic related conferences,

workshops and university lectures, etc., in order to create awareness and understanding

in multiple ways.


17

Following some statements from female immigrants are highlighting some impressions

throughout their migration history and live in Germany:

“Migration both, loss and gain at once.”

- Ana Maria Jurisch, sociologist in Aachen (volunteering migrant from Buenos Aires)

“I often felt like a child.” Difficult access as nursing assistant in a hospital.

- Dragana Koric, physician (refugee from Sarajevo)

“Cologne is a small place on earth which is for me as important as Teheran.”

- “Mehtab”, graduated teacher (refugee from Teheran)


18

4 Conclusion

Integration is not an ideal and smooth process satisfying all aspects and people involved.

But it is necessary that all aspects related, such as gender mainstreaming and equality

treatment, will be approached, included and developed through researches, monitoring,

evaluations, and adjustments of all policy areas. Migration itself is ever changing and

present all over the world and with growing numbers of people. Given a wide variety of

influences on migration, thus on immigration and integration, and the immense diversity

of migrants, explain different approaches of these matters across the world, across the

EU, and among policy makers.

Nevertheless, awareness is growing that there are not only differences, but also

similarities. Such awareness is a fruitful basis for exchange of information, policy

initiatives and best practices. The significance of migrant women plays a role in the

decision processes of the European Union and within national policy making today. Due

to European wide awareness rising initiatives, they will do so in the future. They can not

be ignored anymore. Fortunately, the female gender and feminizing migration

movements are increasingly recognized and not only by scholars and feminists. They

are forming a vital aspect within political debates in the EU today. ‘Integrating

Immigrant Women’ is not just a mere rhetoric any more as this paper stresses. Some

first active steps are taken, as of the new integration policy act in Germany regulating

integration through discrete language courses adjustable to audience, educational level

and in problematic environments.

Globalisation and diminishing boarders influence migration movements of women.

They migrate more independently and for economical reasons. They take part in welfare

as well as they support their countries of origin initializing social changes and thereby

increasing the acceptance of female mobility and contribution. Cross boarder co-

operation and a working support networks are necessary to welcome and provide

helpful guidance and accessibility towards the host societies for all female immigrants.

Researching in this subject matter and selecting pieces from various resources took up

most of the time to write and complete this work.


19

The first draft of this paper was to observe both, the situation in Sweden and Germany.

In order to look closer and in more detail on one of the countries and their legislations I

decided on Germany only. Otherwise, both countries would have only be explained in

rudimentary approaches.

The author, who is not considering herself a true feminist, does conclude with

remaining criticism on the subject matter. In her opinion more active steps need to be

approached that contribute effectively to change the disadvantageous image of female

immigrants dominating in Europe.

V

5 Bibliography

5.1 Literature

Kofman, Eleonore; Phizacklea, Annie; Raghuram, Parvati:

Gender and international migration in Europe, Routledge, 2000

Bosewell, Christina: European Migration Policies in Flux, Blackwell Publishing, 2003

International Centre for Migration Policy Development: The Key to Europe - a

comparative analysis of entry and asylum policies in Western countries, Nordstedts

Tryckeri AB, 1994

Mc Cormick, John: Understanding the European Union - a concise introduction,

Palgrave Macmillan, 3rd edition, 2005, p. 78 - 107

5.2 Internet

http://migration.uni-konstanz.de/german/internetpublikationen/Tampere%2099.htm 08 April 2007 http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cdb/cdb_dict_xrxx.asp?def_code=336 10 April 2007 http://www.iom.int/jahia/page241.html 12 April 2007 http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home April 2007 http://ec.europa.eu/prelex April 2007 http://www.einbürgerung.de 12 April 2007 http://www.bundesregierung.de 12.April 2007 http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/gender_equality/index_en.html 22 April 2007 http://www.bpb.de 28 April 2007 https://equal.cec.eu.int 02 May 2007 http://www.migration-audio-archiv.de 07 May 2007 http://www.migrantas-de.blogspot.com 08 May 2007 http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/de/cha/c10404.htm 02 May 2007 http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l33155.htm 27 April 2007

VI

5.3 Others

European Council Directive (2000/43/EC) Implementation of the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin; retrieved 15 April, from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000L0043:EN:HTML European Council Directive (2000/78/EC) Establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation; retrieved 09 April 2007, from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2000/l_303/l_30320001202en00160022.pdf European Council Directive (2003/86/EC) On the right to family reunification; retrieved 09 April 2007 from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2003/l_251/l_25120031003en00120018.pdf European Council Directive (2003/109/EC) concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents; retrieved 10 April 2007, from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32003L0109:EN:HTML European Council Directive (2004/81/EC) On the residence permit issued to third-country nationals who are victims of trafficking in human beings or who have been the subject of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the competent authorities; retrieved 10 April 2007, from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32004L0081:EN:HTML European Council Directive (2004/83/EC) On minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted; retrieved 10 April , from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32004L0083:EN:HTML European Commission Green Paper (COM/2004/811) Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the Green paper on an EU approach to managing economic migration; retrieved 10 April 2007, from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/c_286/c_28620051117en00200027.pdf European Commission Communicaiton (COM/2003/0336) On immigration, integration and employment; retrieved on 03 April 2007, from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2003/com2003_0336en01.pdf European Parliament Motion for Resolution (2006/2010(INI)) On role of immigrant women and objectives for development and social cohesion related to managing migration flows;

VII

European Parliament Resolution (2003/2109(INI)) on the situation of women from minority groups in the European Union; retrieved 14 April 2007, from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/Result.do?direct=yes&lang=en&where=EUROVOC:000977&whereihm= EUROVOC:female%20migrant European Parliament Report (A6-0307/2006) On women’s immigration: the role and place of immigrant women in the European Union; retrieved 28 March 200, from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A6-2006-0307+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN Minister for Migration, Refugees and Integration Germany (23.03.2007) Potenziale von Migrantinnen besser ausschöpfen – Schutz vor Gewalt; retrieved 02 April 2007, from http://www.bundesregierung.de/nn_56602/Content/DE/Artikel/2007/03/2007-03-23-ib-arbeitsgruppe-4.html Resolution on the need to establish a European Union wide campaign for zero tolerance of violence against women http://eur-lex.europa.eu/Result.do?direct=yes&lang=en&where=EUROVOC:000977&whereihm= EUROVOC:female%20migrant Resolution on trafficking in human beings http://eur-lex.europa.eu/Result.do?direct=yes&lang=en&where=EUROVOC:000977&whereihm= EUROVOC:female%20migrant Commission Communication (COM/2005/44) On equality between women and men. Lanzieri, Giampaolo; Corsini, Veronica; Statistics in Focus - Population and social conditions, 1/2006; retrieved 29 April, from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu European Communities; Statistics in Focus - Population and social conditions, 3 2/2006; retrieved 28 April, from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu European Commission; Europe in figures - Eurostat Year book 2006-2007; retrieved 30 March 2007, from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu

European Commission, Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG; Community Programme for employment and social solidarity (Progress), 2006

European Commission, INTI-report, Integration of Third Country Nationals, 2006

Federal Office for Migration, Refugees and Integration: Migration Report 2005

VIII

Report of the independent commission: Zuwanderung gestalten/ Integration fördern, 2001, www.bmi.bund.de Verikom Hamburg: Alphabetisierungskurse für Migranten und MigrantinnenKonzept für Hamburg, retrieved 05 May 2007, from http://www.verikom.de/download/KonzeptAlphabetisierung.pdf

IX

Appendix

Annex 1/ page 1 EU Statistical figures representing the role of female immigrants

non-EU nationals

Figure 1 The share of non-EU nationals in working age population, 2000

(source: Eurostat, statistics in focus, theme 3 2/2003)

X

Annex 1/ page 2

Figure 2 Educational attainment level of immigrant men (left) and women (right) aged 25-39


Non-EU nationals living in the Union have, on average, lower levels of educational

attainment than nationals ; specifically compared to EU nationals living in another EU

country. In particularly this is shown for the age group 25 to 39. In 2000, 46% of men of

non-EU nationality and this age group had no educational qualifications beyond

compulsory schooling as compared with only 29% of nationals. Only 17% of non-EU

nationals had tertiary, or university, level education as against 24,5% of nationals (left

figure).

For women, the differences were even more marked. Whereas 30% of nationals had not

progressed beyond compulsory schooling, the proportion in the case of non-EU

nationals was over half. Similarly, only around 17% of non-EU nationals had tertiary

level education as opposed to 25% of nationals (right figure).

XI

Annex 1/ page 3

Figure 3 Employment rates men (left) and women (right) aged 25-39 by nationality, 2000


The differences between EU nationals and non-EU nationals of immigrant women in

the age of 25-39 according their employment rates are again more pronounced than the

right figure representing males. Whereas 68% of nationals in the Union aged 25 to 39

were employed, the figure for non-EU nationals was only around 44%. At the same

time, the unemployment rate for the latter averaged 19% as opposed to 10% for

nationals. Although a larger proportion of women of non-EU nationality in this age

group with tertiary (e.g. university or equivalent) education were employed than those

with lower qualifications, only around half of these were in work as against 83% of

nationals with a similar level of education. Equally, only around a third of women of

non-EU nationality with low levels of education were employed as opposed to just over

half of nationals. Eurostat addresses an explaining possibility of cultural differences

(non-EU national females and EU national females) and a lack of affordable childcare

facilities in situations where many non-nationals could well have less possibility of

support from social and family networks than nationals.

XII

Annex 2 Selected EU documents and content

Document Type Date 2000/43/EC Council Directive 29th June 2000 equal treatment between persons disregarding of racial or ethnic origin; definition of discrimination, defending rights, national law implementation and enforcement bodies; although this law does not specify the rights of migrants, thus immigrant females, this directive transfers the principles to the target group; 2000/78/EC Council Directive 27th November 2000 Anti-discrimination act - to establish a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation; combating discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation as regards employment and occupation; no direct female dimension included; 2003/86/EC Council Directive 22nd September 2003 right to family reunification for third-country nationals and refugees, with the obligation to protect and respect the family and family life; a right which the spouse of the applicant for reunification can now request; residence permit of equal duration to that of the applicant, family members have access to education, employment and vocational training; five years of residence at the latest, the spouse or the unmarried partner, and any child which has become of age in the meantime, are entitled to a personal residence permit; direct regulation of immigrant women’s rights falling under the category of third-country nationals/ refugees migrating as of family reunification; 2003/109/EC Council Directive 25th November 2003 Identification and guaranty of status with equal rights for third-country nationals who are long-term residents; Long-term residents shall enjoy equal treatment with nationals as regards; 2004/81/EC Council Directive 29th April 2004 Issue of residence permit to third-country nationals who are victims of trafficking in human beings or who have been the subject of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the competent authorities; 2004/83/EC Council Directive 29th April 2004 Guaranty of minimum standards provided for the qualification and status of third-country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted; COM/2004/811 Commission Green Paper 11th January 2005 approach to managing economic migration (e.g. conditions of entry and residence of specially skilled migrants, seasonal workers, intra-corporate transferees, paid trainees); this would provide better opportunity to integrate skilled female migrants in occupations according their abilities and provide equal rights and conditions against ‘deskilling’; COM/2003/0336 Commission Communication 03rd June 2003 Communication on immigration, integration and employment for common actions on EU level to manage immigration and integration ( also in relation to the Lisbon strategy); et al. to communicate the right of immigrants to maintain own identity; 2006/2010(INI) Parliaments Motion for Resolution 27th September 2006 Report on role of immigrant women and objectives for development and social cohesion related to managing migration flows; use of immigrants and their integration into societies; awareness enhancement of social disorder apparent in many European cities related to failings of research, study and policy; observation of situation and problems of women immigrants remaining on the margins and overshadowed; highlighting various aspects of and opportunities afforded by women’s immigration; suggestion of EU policy instruments to protect the rights of women immigrants and help them make better use of their opportunities and rights; 2003/2109(INI) Parliament Resolution 28th April 2004 European Parliament resolution on the situation of women from minority groups in the European Union; - Parliament Resolution 16th September 1997 Resolution on the need to establish a European Union wide campaign for zero tolerance of violence against women - Parliament Resolution 05th February 1996 Resolution on trafficking in human beings

Figure 4 List of selected EU documents partly including female dimension

(source: eur-lex.europa.eu/ ec.europa.eu)

XIII

Annex 3 Budget allocation of selected EU support programs

Program/ instrument Budget period

Budget in mill. EURO

EQUAL (from ESF) 2001 - 2006 3.274.61 EQUAL Germany 523.59 EQUAL Sweden 87.72 European Refugee Fund 2007 - 2010 699.372 Progress (total) 2007 - 2013 743.253 Progress ‘Social protection and inclusion’ 222.98 Progress ‘Employment’ 170.95 Progress ‘Working conditions’ 74.325 Progress Diversity and combating discrimination 171,41 Progress ‘Gender Equality’ 89.19 European Fund for the Integration of Third-country nationals 2007 - 2013 825.04 INTI 2003 - 2006 15.05

Figure 5 Budget of financial instruments

1 cf. EUQUAL budget (http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/equal/about/budget_en.cfm) 2 cf. http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/funding/intro/funding_solidarity_en.htm 3 cf. Progress guidelines (http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/progress/docs/guidelines_en.pdf), 2006 4 cf. http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/funding/intro/funding_solidarity_en.htm 5 INTI REPORT ‘Integration of Third-Country Nationals’, 2006, p.5

XIV

Annex 4 Table showing population by sex and citizenship in Germany

Population on 31 December by sex and citizenship

Specification Unit 2003 2004 2005

Total 1 000 82 531.7 82 500.8 82 438.0

Male 1 000 40 356.0 40 353.6 40 340.0 Female 1 000 42 175.6 42 147.2 42 098.0

Germans 1 000 75 189.9 75 212.9 75 148.8 Male 1 000 36 515.9 36 567.1 36 573.5 Female 1 000 38 673.8 38 645.7 38 575.4

Foreigners 1 000 7 341.8 7 288.0 7 289.1 Male 1 000 3 840.1 3 786.5 3 766.5

Female 1 000 3 501.8 3 501.5 3 522.6

Figure 6 Population by sex and citizenship in Germany

(source: Federal Statistical Office Germany, 2006, Population based only on data from current population statistics )

In total approximately 12 mill. immigrants and persons of migrant background live in

German, including foreign nationals, resettlers and naturalised persons. As a result of

the new legislation on naturalisation law immigrants now are becoming naturalised

more easily and thus they will disappear from the records much sooner than before.

XV

Annex 5 Geographical allocation of foreigners (population wise) and the

integration course participation in Germany

Figure 7 Geographical allocation of foreigners in Germany and the participation intensity in language courses

(source: isoplan, aid-grafik, 2002/ Bundesamt Deutschland)

About 95 percent of the foreign population lives in the territory of former West

Germany and primarily in big cities. In some cases foreigners make up more than 30

percent of the population. (The percentage of immigrants is much higher than the

national average in industrialised conurbations than, in contrast, in economically weak

or rural areas. That is why immigrants tend to make up an urban population that is

concentrated in certain parts of a town and in the suburbs of conurbations. The areas

where immigrants settle depends mainly on local economic structures and employment

opportunities.)

The second, smaller map on the upper right represents the geographical intensity of

attendances of immigrants in integration courses showing similar patterns to the map on

the left.

XVI

Annex 6 The largest groups of immigrants in Germany by origin

23%

13%

7%5%4%

18%

30%

Turkey

Territory of formerYugoslavia*Italy

Poland

Greece

others

EU-25

Figure 8 Largest groups of immigrants in Germany

(source: Central Register for Foreigners (CRF) Germany, 2006)

* Starting from August 2006 , the CRF also includes persons with the separate citizenships of ‘Serbia’ and ‘Montenegro;’the citizenship of the predecessor state ‘Serbia and Monten; however in those numbers are included in ‘Territory of former Yugoslavia' There are also about 4.5 mill. repatriates living in Germany which are not included in

the register of foreign population because of their ethnic German origin. Thus they form

the annual largest group of immigrants in Germany.

The biggest share of women within the groups of migrants in Germany have Brazilians

(75%), Philippines (80%) and Thais (86%). [CRF Germany, 2005]

XVII

Annex 7 Participation of immigrants by gender and type of course

In 2004, approximately 780 000 people immigrated into Germany, of whom 42 % were

women (325 000).

The following figure shows the participation of immigrant women and men as well as

the particular language course attended in 2004. Almost 3 quarters (72,8%) of the

attendees were women with the biggest participation in the alphabetisation courses

(85,5%). Of all courses both men and women attended more often the intensive

language course.

Figure 9 Language course attendance 2004

(source: report“Migration, Asyl und Integration”, Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, 2005, p. 89)

XVIII

Annex 8 Results of ‘Migrantas’ (source: www.migrantas-de.blogspot.com, Berlin 2006)

Figure 10 Migrantas urban installation I

Figure 11 Language barriers

Figure 12 Migrantas urban installation II

XIX

Annex 9 Notes

1 There is no universal definition for the group of migrants, as the term “migrant” is contested in a way that migrant categories differ in every state by time and space, context, also involving self definition and exclusion, and denial of access to rights. As an example, the UN defines a migrant as “any person who changes his or her country of usual residence. A person's country of usual residence is that in which the person lives, that is to say, the country in which the person has a place to live where he or she normally spends the daily period of rest. Temporary travel abroad for purposes or recreation, holiday, business, medical treatment or religious pilgrimage does not entail a change in the country of usual residence.” [code 336] 2 The number of immigrants to the EU-25 minus the number of emigrants including corrections due to population censuses, register counts, etc. which cannot be classified as births, deaths or migrations. 3 cf. the debate of the EU-Parliament on equal opportunities for men and women, published article on 12-03-2007, www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public, REF: 20070308STO03932 4 EUROSTAT is the statistical office of the European Communities.

5 Defining the term minority has been a debated issue for long and so far no universal definition has evolved. The paper therefore does not aim in further determining female immigrants belonging to a minority in general if not referring to the definitions by the states Sweden and Germany if necessary. 6 Labour migration phase in the period post-World War II till mid-1970s (cf. Kofman et al. 2000) 7 Family reunification is the process by which family members of a third-country national who is a legal resident in a Member State of the EU can receive residency permits and obtain the right to work in that same Member State. 8 Illegal immigration is a reality in most of European states and has to be mentioned as a category of female immigrants. In most of the country migration statistics illegal immigration and undocumented migrants are not represented and/ or included as there are no reliable measures to state exact numbers. 9 A third-country national is any person who is not a national of an EU Member State. Migrants entering from outside the EU are obliged different immigration procedures as EU nationals (e.g. VISA obligations, residence permits conditions, etc.), [Glossary Justice and Home affairs of the European Commission]. The category of third-country nationals was introduced with the reduction of intra-Western European migration and the parallel diversifying and increasing migration from developing countries. (Kofman et al. 2000)

XX

11 Report by the Committee of Women’s Rights and Gender Equality from the European Parliament on women’s immigration, 27.9.2006 12 A successful economical and educational integration of skilled female immigrants into the labour market, and to decrease conditions referred to as ‘brain waste’ and ‘deskilling’ play an important role for the EU while striving to reach the aims of the Lisbon Convention aiming at Europe to become a more, or the most competitive economical entity based on knowledge until 2010. 13 cf. Eurostat, Statistics in focus: Theme 3 (Population and Social Conditions) - 2/2003

14 This number arises because of the constellation of about 1.5 mill. immigrants who have taken up German citizenship and a number of about 4.5 mill. repatriates. [Facts about Germany, http://www.tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de] 15 cf. report “Migration, Asyl und Integration”, Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, 2005, p. 86 16 In 20 hours they provide some language competences and introduce career oriented perspectives and advise, as well they address individual topics connected with all day life faced by the female course attendees. Offering special and gender oriented intensive courses shall support the integration of female immigrants, and strengthen their self-confidences and personal resources. 17 cf. http://www.wisy-hamburg.de

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