intangible cultural heritage associated with terracotta ... · the study area i.e. sonepur town...

Intangible Cultural Heritage Associated with Terracotta

Animal Figurine of Sonepur Town, Odisha

Banti Mahapatra1 and Shahida Ansari1

1. Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Deccan College

Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune – 411 006, Maharashtra, India (Email:

[email protected]; [email protected])

Received: 30 October 2017; Revised: 25 November 2017; Accepted: 28 December 2017

Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017): 1030‐1053

Abstract: A large numbers of terracotta animal figurines are found in various archaeological sites in

Indian subcontinent. These archaeological findings provide us with information about their artistic value,

popularity, demand in the society and ancient Indian knowledge system. It also helps us in

understanding the human‐animal relationship. The ongoing traditional practice and belief associated with

terracotta animal figurines are often related to certain symbolic meaning and material worship. In order

to know the ancient relation of human society with animal world along with associated traditional

practices, various forms of worship and symbolism, a detailed ethnographic study was carried out

amongst the inhabitants of Sonepur town in the state of Odisha, where terracotta animal figurines play a

very important part in their culture. The present paper show case the intangible heritage associated in the

form of religious practices and symbolic depiction related to terracotta animal figurines. The most popular

among them is worshiping of terracotta bull and monkey figurines by observing through festival such as

“Purauans” and “Lanka Podi Jatra” respectively in the month of Bhadraba (August‐September). The

associated popular legends and folklores provide us with the symbolic meaning of their worship along

with its contemporary traditional religious faith and belief system related to animals. Such type of

ongoing tradition provides us with ample scope to draw analogy for better understanding of our past.

Keywords: Terracotta Animal Figurines, Bull and Monkey Figurine, Folklore, Lanka

Podi Jatra, Pura Balada Ritual, Paschima Lanka, Intangible Cultural Heritage

Introduction The term “Cultural Heritage” may be defined as the entire corpus of material signs‐

either artistic or symbolic‐handed on by the past to each culture and, therefore, to the

whole of humankind. It should be considered both in time and in space (UNESCO, 25

C/4, 1989: 57; www.google.co.in).

Cultural Heritage is divided into two groups: 1. Tangible Cultural Heritage, includes

both the human and the natural environment, architectural complexes and

archaeological sites, not only the rural heritage and the country side but also the urban,

technical or industrial heritage, industrial design and street furniture; and 2. Intangible

Mahapatra and Ansari 2017: 1030‐1053

1031

Table 1: Terracotta Animal Figurines Reported Sites in Odisha

Sites District/

State

Culture/

Period

Cultural findings

of Terracotta

References

Sisupalgarh

20° 13ʹ 35.9ʹʹ N.;

85° 51ʹ 11.0ʹʹ E.

Khurda

Odisha

Circa 200

BCE to 100

CE

Terracotta bullae,

depicting animal or

human figures

B.B. Lal 1949: 38

Manamunda

20° 27ʹ N.;

85° 84ʹ E.

Phulbani

Odisha

3rd‐4th

centuries

BCE

Terracotta elephant

and bull figurine

IAR 1991‐92: 86

C.R. Mishra and

S. Pradhan,

P.G. Dept. of

History,

Sambalpur

University

Puri

19° 48ʹ N.;

85° 52ʹ E.

Puri

Odisha

Early

historical

period

Terracotta animal

figurines

IAR 1984‐85: 60

Amarendra

Nath, ASI

Lalitagiri

20° 35′ 21.84″ N.;

86° 15′ 2.16″ E.

Cuttack

Odisha

Historical

period

Terracotta animal

figurines

IAR 1988‐89: 66

G.C. Chauley,

ASI

Udayagiri

20° 38′ 29.76″ N.;

86° 16′ 9.12″ E.

Cuttack

Odisha

Historical

period

Figurines of

mother goddess

and animals

IAR 1988‐89: 68

B.K. Sinha, ASI

Barabati Fort

20° 28ʹ N.;

85° 54ʹ E.

Cuttack

Odisha

Period III‐

Circa1560‐

1568 CE

Handmade

terracotta animal

figurines

IAR 1995‐96

A.K. Patel, M.P.

Singh, R.N.

Sahoo and S.K.

Bhoi, ASI

Bamragarh

21° 40ʹ 40ʹʹ N.;

84° 27ʹ 41ʹʹ E.

Sambalpur

Odisha

Medieval

period

Terracotta animal

and human

figurine

IAR 1997‐98:

144

A.K. Bhargava,

S.K. Bhoi and

R.N. Sahoo, ASI

Golbaisasan

20° 1ʹ 21ʹʹ N.;

85° 33ʹ 0ʹʹ E.

Khurda

Odisha

Period IIa

(Circa

2100‐1100

BCE

Terracotta objects

resembling crude

human figurines

P.K. Sinha 2000:

222‐355

Radhanagar

20° 41ʹ N.;

86° 11ʹE.

Jaipur

Odisha

Circa 500

BCE to 350

CE

Terracotta cart

wheel

Jitu Mishra

2001: 523

Ratnachira

Valley

20° 17ʹ N.;

85° 52ʹ E.

Bhubaneswar

Odisha

Satavahana

period

Terracotta horse

and elephant

figurine

R.N. Dash 2008:

105

ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5: 2017

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Cultural Heritage, covers the non‐physical cultural heritage, which includes the signs

and symbols passed on by oral transmission, artistic and literary forms of expression,

languages, ways of life, myths, beliefs, and rituals, value systems and traditional

knowledge.

The occurrence of large amount of terracotta objects in archaeological context with

various forms gives us a complete platform to understand our past culture, history and

society. The tangible material i.e. terracotta art, indicates the artistic and technological

evolution of the contemporary society. The word ‘Terracotta’ is derived from an Italian

term, which means ‘baked clay’ and ‘fired clay’ in Latin. Tangible materials are

generally associated with certain intangible cultural heritage which passes from one

generation to another. Terracotta art play an important role in understanding the socio‐

economic and religious aspects of the human culture. The earliest evidence of

terracotta object in archaeological context especially in south west Asia is found from

Mehrgarh (Period III 6500±80 BP, belonging to Chalcolithic occupational level; Singh:

2008).

Previous work done on terracotta objects in Odisha are done by scholars like; B. B. Lal

(1949), P. Kumar (2000), S.C. Pradhan (2000), K.B. Barik (2000), G.C. Chauley (2000),

K.K. Basa and P. Mohanty (2000), P.K. Behera (2001), Jitu Mishra (2001), W.B.

Garnayak (2001), B.K. Thapar (2008) and R.N. Das (2008). Their research works have

given general information and idea about the recorded terracotta style, technique and

symbolism of terracotta objects (Table 1).

These studies have shed very little light on different tangible and intangible aspects

associated with the practice of worshiping animal figurine in Odisha.

This paper documents the surviving traditions related to making of terracotta animal

figurines in western Odisha (especially Sonepur town) along with the associated

traditional and oral belief system during Pura Balada ritual and Lanka Podi Jatra.

Traditional and functional role related to the survival of terracotta tradition has been

studied, observed and recorded. Intangible Cultural Heritage is studied through the

documentation of associated religious and ritualistic practices related to terracotta

object.

The data are collected through participatory field work in villages across the Sonepur

town in western Odisha, documentation of terracotta making tradition and its

associated form of worship, photography, and interviews of the elders and the craft

specialist to understand the religious, rituals and legends related to terracotta tradition.

Study Area The study area i.e. Sonepur town (also district headquarters) is situated on the

confluence of the rivers Mahanadi and Ong in Sonepur district (20.85° N.; 83.9° E.),

Odisha State in eastern India. The district is also known as Subarnapur and was a

subdivision of Bolangir district till 1993, when it became an independent district of


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Odisha. It is bounded by districts of Sambalpur in north‐east, Bargarh in north, Baud in

south, and Bolangir (Balangir) in west (Figure 1), covering a total area of 2284.4 sq. km.

According to historians the Sonepur district was known as Paschima Lanka (Western

Lanka) around 10th‐11th century CE. The evidence comes from a Copper Plate Charter

issued during 10th century CE by a Somavamsi prince named Kumara Someswaradeva

of Sonepur and who identified himself as the King of Paschima Lanka. It was further

found that the Mahada Copper Plate Grant of Kumara Someswaradeva was registered

on the bank of river Chitropala (Mahanadi) and near to the province of Lanka. The

presiding deity of Paschima Lanka was goddesses Lankeswari (http://en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/subarnapur district).

Figure 1: Study Area, Sonepur district, Odisha

Manufacturing Process Involved in the Production of Terracotta

Figurine, Sonepur Town Presently, tradition of terracotta art continues in modern society in Sonepur. Practice of

clay modeling seems to be restricted only to a selected group of people in Sonepur.

Almost every aspect related to ceramic and terracotta productions along with supply

are dealt by local potters i.e. Kumbhars.

The survey in the villages of Sonepur district has resulted in understanding of the

terracotta objects in the regional perspective. The stages involved in making of


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terracotta figurines and associated miniature pots and toys are: preparation of clay,

production of the form, working on minor details and decoration, drying, pre firing

slip and wash (if any), baking and firing, and finally painting or coloring (if any).

There are three kinds of soil available in Sonepur such as:

a. Sticky soil (black soil in which clay amount is more)

b. Silty soil (the amount of sand and clay is same), and

c. Sandy soil (the amount of sand is more)

Sticky soil (chikinamati) is used for the preparation of the terracotta objects due to its

sticky nature. Clayey soil is useful for making pots and ceramics. Sandy soil is used as

mixture and is rare in this area. Soil is mostly obtained from the river banks, lakes or

ponds. And also purchased from the owner of a particular land where the type‐soil is

available.

After the transportation (by tractor or bullock cart) of the soil from source site to the

potter’s workshop, it is allowed to dry in the sun or shade (Figure 2). The soil is sun

dried till it is devoid of humidity. Then the pebbles, stones, wood pieces, and grass

roots are removed. On the hard ground the milling operation of the soil is done (Figure

3).

Figure 2: Storing of Collected Soil Figure 3: Drying and Removing Rootlets etc

The powdered soil is then soaked in water according to its requirement. When the soil

is soaked in the water properly it’s rubbed and mixture of sand and ash is added to it.

Once the strengthening ingredients are mixed with the clay the entire mixture is

rubbed by feet and thereafter by hands on a wooden plank or on the hard ground for

some time. In order to avoid sticking, sand, cow‐dung ash and water are sprinkled

from time to time over the hard ground. This is followed by kneading operation; here

the clay is kept under shade in the form of small dome which is to be used for

modeling. The pile of earth is entirely covered by a thick jute cloth in order to retain the

humidity. When the terracotta object has got their actual form, they are sun baked in

open area for three to four days (Figure 4). Later on figurines are dipped in to the

solution of red earth (manjanmati) for a day (Figure 5) and sometimes specimens are


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individually colored with the help of cloth. Then these specimens are dried under the

sun or shade for one day.

Figure 4: Sun Baking of Terracotta

Figurines in Sonepur

Figure 5: Pre‐firing slips and washes

done by manjanmatii, Sonepur

When the specimens are properly sun baked and the slip/wash is applied it is ready for

firing. Both special and non‐special arrangements are made for firing the figurines. The

specimens are mostly fired in open kiln which is usually near the workshop (Fig. 6).

For firing they collect fuel from forest which is easily available to them. The main

materials used are dry leaves (mainly Mahul patar), twigs, straw, cow dung cakes

(chena) and wooden logs (mainly kendu kaatha).

The base of the open kiln is generally covered with straw or dried leaves and later by

cow dung cakes. The clay figurines are placed over it and a layer of cow dung cakes

and straw or dried leaves is used to protect the material from breakage. Finally they

cover the entire heap and the firing process is always held in the afternoon and fired

for six to twelve hours (Figure 6). The fired specimens are recovered from the kiln after

3 to 4 days (Figure 7) and are stored in workshop in the settlement area.

Figure 6: Open Kilns for Firing

Terracotta Objects, Sonepur

Figure 7: Post‐firing, Terracotta Objects,

Open Kiln, Sonepur

We didn’t see any painted and colored specimens but they do apply colour during the

time of festivals. During festivals we see terracotta objects are decorated with pattern of

dots and linear lines made by paste of rice and turmeric (Figure 22). Terracotta making

process includes both handmade and wheel‐made techniques:


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Making Procedure of Handmade Terracotta Bull Figurine Associated with

Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual

Bull figurines are known as deheri‐peheri, generally made by handmade technique. A

portion of the prepared clay is shaped it into cylindrical roll and turn into a

semicircular round at the middle part/portion. Then they bend it at the middle portion

which forms of legs of the bull.

Small conical horns and ears are made by clay are then attached on the top part of the

head. Again they take prepared clay for top portion of the face and elongate it to give

the shape. Two circular clay balls with perforation are attached on the face which

serves the purpose of eyes. Appliqué clay ribbons with horizontal line are applied on

the mouth and on the base of horn and neck for decoration purpose (Figure 8a). The

tail is attached on one of the legs due to its durability and not left hanging. The fold of

loose skin hanging from throat of bull i.e. dewlap is then affixed, which is flappy in

appearance (Figure 8b).

Figure 8 (a): Terracotta bull

figurine (Side view)

Figure 8 (b): Terracotta bull figurine (Front view),

Sonepur Associated with Purauans

Four legs of the bull figurine are generally uneven in form or shape but are well

balanced. The body counter of the bull figurine does not match the real bull but is more

akin to that of a stylized bull. These bull figurines are made only for worshiping and so

potters never make any hole on any part of the body (Figures 8a and 8b).

Making Procedure of Handmade Terracotta Figurine of Monkey God

(Hanuman) Associated with Lanka Podi Jatra

Small terracotta figurines of monkey God (Hanuman) are made for entertainment

purpose and have highly ornamented features. Prepared clay is made into thick


1037

cylindrical roll which is turned into semicircular shape and finally separated into two

halves, The middle portion serves as the body part whereas, the two halves serve as leg

portions. The monkey face is added to the body which contains eyebrows, nose,

moustache, two perforated eyes, protruding mouth, and a head gear which appears

like a crown (Figure 9a).

Figure 9(a): Small handmade terracotta

figurine of Monkey God (Hanuman) on

toy cart (Front View)

(Figure 9(b): Small handmade terracotta

figurine Monkey God (Hanuman) on toy

cart (Side View)

The ears have thick round kundala or ear rings (Figure 9a). The tail is raised up and

touching the head of the monkey (Fig. 9b). A number of circular perforations are there

in the figurines i.e. below the tail, on both the sides of the body and back of the ears.

The lower part of the legs contains hole so that they can be used for inserting stick to

wheel when used as toy (Figures 9a and 9b).

Making Procedure of Wheel for Toy Cart (Geddie) Associated with Lanka

Podi Jatra Wheel making is one of the most important features of the terracotta figurine. Wheels

are made by wheel and handmade technique. Two side of wheel are joined at the

center by attaching prepared clay (Figure 10a). The wheel making technique is visible

from the circular perforation of the wheels and its cup like appearance (Fig. 10b).

The inner side of the cup of the wheel is circular in form and perforation of the wheel is

small and area around is scraped but outer cup of the wheel is elongated in form and

perforation is larger which is made while making the bowl. This is specifically made so

when it is put in the toy cart can move easily (Figures 9‐10).

The exterior one is little concave in shape having axel for locking purpose and the

interior cup is convex in shape for smooth running (Figure 10b). The middle part of

wheel joint has plain ridge.


1038

Figure 10 (a): Terracotta wheel for toy cart

(Top View)

Figure 10 (b): Terracotta wheel for toy

cart (Side View), Sonepur

Making Procedure of Wheel made and Handmade Terracotta Figurine of

Monkey God (Hanuman) Associated with Lanka Podi Jatra

Wheel and handmade technique is used to make the figurine of big monkey god

(Hanuman). Four cylindrical clay roll made by wheel are used for legs and the body is

also made on a wheel made cylindrical clay roll. Both side of the cylindrical body roll

are fixed to cylindrical leg roll (Figure 11a).

Two wheel made cups are attached in the middle and fixed on either side of the body

(Figures 11a and 11b). The outer part of the cup is shaped into a face of monkey. The

face contains eyebrow which is made of thin cylindrical clay ribbon and is fixed in

semicircular form. The shape of the nose is just like humans. Two circular clay pellets

with perforation features are fixed just below the eyebrow. Below the nose they attach

moustache (having line incision). It has pouted lips having five to six teeth. The head is

decorated with crown which comprise of cowry shaped beads and the ears are

ornamented with thick double ring (kundala) (Figure 11a).

Figure 11(a): Terracotta Figurine of

Monkey God (Hanuman) (Front View),

Sonepur

Figure 11(b): Terracotta Figurine of

Monkey God (Side View) associated with

Lanka Podi Jatra, Sonepur


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The tail is raised upward and fixed to the back the head. It has a hole below the tail and

on all four legs and the body. The size of the body of the figurine is elongated. This is

absent in the smaller ones. The bottom part of the four legs contains holes so to be fixed

to the wooden toy cart (Figure 11b).

Miniature Pots (Kudhi and Kanchi)‐Associated with Purauans or Purā Balada

Ritual Tambi (Measuring Pot): Tambi is used for measurement rice grain (Figure 12).

According to the people one tambi is equal to a kilo of rice. The pots are well fired,

wheel made, red ware, medium sized globular pot with slopping shoulder slightly

elongated convex neck and a slightly undercut rim with flat base. It is associated with

terracotta bull figurine rituals at Sonepur.

Figure 12: Minature Pots; Maan, Tambi and Kudhi, Sonepur

Maan (Measuring Pot): Maan is another pot used for measuring pulses like dal (Figure

12). One maan is equal to 250 gm of dal. Maan is a small miniature pot, well fired, red

ware and is wheel made. It has sloping shoulder slightly convex neck, slightly beaded

undercut rim with flat base.

Kudhi (Miniature Storage Pot): Kudhi is generally used for the of salt storage purpose

(Figure 12). The mouth of the kudhi is wide so that one can take out the salt from the

pot easily. It is well fired, wheel made, red ware, flat base globular pot with, round

undercut rim.


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Miniature Toy Pots‐Associated with Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual Ghada‐1: Ghada‐1 is a miniature water storage pot used for playing (Figure 13). It a

well fired, wheel made, red ware having flat base with short vertical neck, which is

slightly straight at the tip portion.

Ghada‐2: Ghada‐2 is a miniature pot made for playing purpose (Figure 13). It a

miniature pot well fired, wheel made red ware and having flat base without rim and

neck.

Figure 13: Miniature toy pots; Ghada‐1 and Ghada‐ 2, Sonepur

Kadhai (Frying Pan): It is a wheel made well fired, red ware having flat base (Figure

14). The mouth portion rim has two handles affixed. The handles have perforation at

the center.

Figure 14: Miniature Toy Pots: Kadhai, Sonepur


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Miniature Toy Pot Cover, Bowl and Hearth‐Associated with Purauans or Purā

Balada Ritual Dhanken (Miniature pot cover: Lid‐1): Miniature lid is used to cover the handi (pot). It

is wheel made, red ware, well fired, disc shaped having irregular base (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Miniature pot covers: Dhanken Lid‐1 and Dhanken Lid‐2, Sonepur

Figure 16: Miniature Toy Bowl: Handi Figure 17: Miniature Toy Hearth: Chulha

Dhanken (Miniature pot cover: Lid‐2): It is wheel made, red ware, well fired, and

bowl‐shaped. It appears like a lamp. It has incurved sided featureless rim with flat base

(Figure 15).

Handi (Miniature Toy Bowl): It is a wheel made, red ware, well fired miniature bowl

having flat or disc base, with turned neck and short inverted rim (Figure 16).

Chulha (Miniature Toy Hearth): It is a wheel made, red ware, well fired miniature

globular hearth. It has short slightly out turn collar like rim. On the front portion of the

body it has perforation and on the tip portion of rim there are three conical knobs at a

regular distance with a flat base (Figure 17).


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Belief systems are those most deeply embedded ideas that underlie and motivate

culture. They frequently arise from a particular religion and originate in philosophical

postulates, and ethical proclamation; or in all of them.

Formative belief system have had an essential role in the historical beginnings of a

settlement that became a society; they have entered an ongoing culture as an

adaptation strategy at a moment of crisis; or have replaced forcibly other system for the

most part to reside at the level of assumptions and presupposition. They are

extraordinary powerful and those that persist over generations and centuries are rich

in opinion on a variety of subject. Fundamental beliefs generate everyday practices,

custom, expectations and laws. They contain views of time and history (Iyer 2006: 2).

Religious beliefs in the tribal societies stress upon short term pragmatic functions of the

religion. The clans have their own totems, which serve as their guardians. They are not

meant to be ritualistic but are magical and sacrificial in nature. They are meant for the

fertility of man and for the success in hunting. Desires expressed through paintings are

naturalistic and utilitarian in character.

But the religion of the peasantry is both pragmatic and transcendental. The pragmatic

aspect implies the fertility of the soil and seasonal rain. This leads to the creation of the

rain god such as Indra, Varuna and the goddess such as Prihtibi (Sharma 1972‐73: 62).

Intangible Cultural Heritage Associated with Bull Figurines and Miniature

Pots (Kudhi and Kanchi) during Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual and Lanka

Podi Jatra The most important ritual associated with terracotta bull figurine, is Pura Amavaysa or

Purauans observed mainly by the farming community of Sonepur, Odisha. In this

ceremony not only the terracotta figurines but also the wooden and metal figures of

monkey, horses and elephants are included. Although the clay product is much

cheaper than the other figurines, hence terracotta figurines are largely used during the

Purauans ceremony.

This ceremony is also observed by the Brahmin, Kshatriya (like Khandayata, Karana,

and Mohanty), Vaishya (represent by Kulta, Gauda, Agria, Meher, Kewat (Fisherman),

Dhoba (washer man), Mali (Gardener), Teli (oil man) and Badhai (Carpenter) society.

But the tribal people such as Binjhal, Mirdha, Sahara, Savara, Turei, and Gond are not

involved in this festival which clearly indicates that it is performed by the Hindu

society.

Purauans Ritual

Bhadraba Amavasya is known as Saptapuree Amavasya which falls generally in the month

of September (according English calendar). In western Odisha it is generally known as

Purauans. The word purauans is derived from the word pudha i.e. burning. The bull

figurines worshiped by people are baked in fire.


1043

Cow and bull are an integral part in rural life. They are considered as wealth because

they play an important role in agriculture. The bulls are made to work for long and

help the farmer in agricultural works. As a result, in order to give relief to hard work

done by bull after the kharif crop farmers thank the bull by worshipping them.

The ceremony initiates with women taking bath early in the morning and getting

involved in the decorations. They decorate the wall, floor of the house and also

terracotta bull figurines along with associated miniature pots. The decoration includes

application of linear, circular and doted designs (Figures 18a and 18b).

Figure 18a: Women applying rice paste

(jhoti) in courtyard (www.google.in)

Figure 18b: Woman applying rice paste

(jhoti) on house wall (www.google.in)

On the other hand the bulls are adorned with Puraa flower (a kind of local flower).

Then, in front of the Sathi (grinding stone‐ the Goddess of longevity) the terracotta bull

and miniature pots are worshipped (Figures 19a and 19b). In the miniature pot

different type of local foods like puffed rice (Leea), Jugar (a sweet made of by puffed

rice and jaggery), hudum, Ukhuda (puffed rice with jaggery), sesame sweet balls (Rasi

Laddu), groundnut sweet balls (Chinabadam laddu) and rice cakes are then offered to the

goddess (presiding deity).

After worshiping, the prasada is distributed not only to the family members (Figures

20a and 20b) but also to the bull because they are considered as an important member

of the family. After providing prasada to bull (Balada), animal is touched softly with a

stick (Dheu). This releases tiredness and pain which is incurred due to Kharif labour.

At the completion of rituals figurines and miniature pots (Figures 12‐17) are given to

the children to play. The boys are generally seen playing with wooden toy cart (Geddie),

whereas girls are engaged in playing with miniature pots.

In the evening girls celebrate the Khudurkunie Osaa in a temple or in veranda. The girls

also visit their neighbouring houses along with the Prasada of this Puja. After visiting

they go for the collection of Rugudi (soil) in a bamboo basket. After collection they

return to home and throw half basket of Rugudi in the cattle pen and half is kept in the

worshiping area.


1044

Figure 19a: Worshiping of Deity Figure 19b: Offering of food to Gods

Figure 20a: Child Receiving the

Prasad

Figure 20b: Child Taking Blessing from the

Elder

After the completion of all the rituals, they go to a nearby stream, pond, or a river at

night and immerse the terracotta bull figurine in the water and cry loudly by singing

the folk song:

“Kahi Gala Mor Deheri Peheri, Kahi Gala, Dhubenbudhi Neigala”

Translation: Where did you go my Deheri‐Peheri where did you go? That

washerwoman has taken them away….

Later celebration continues with singing and dancing. People gather with their

terracotta figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) on toy cart and there is a toy cart race at

night.

Sonepur town is locally known as Paschima Lanka and its regional deity is Devi

Lankeswari. Therefore, to commemorate the Lanka Podi (i.e. Lanka Dahan episode of

Ramayana) the people of Sonepur celebrate Lanka Podi Jatra. Young boys play and race

till mid night with the terracotta figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) with toy cart by

tying oil dipped cloth around the tail which is lit during the race (Figure 21a). Besides,

mud figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) is also made during Lanka Podi Jatra

procession (Figure 21b).


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Figure 21a: Children playing with

terracotta figurine of Monkey God

(Hanuman) on toy cart

(www.google.in)

Figure 21b: Teenagers move around in the

village with mud figurine of Monkey God

(Hanuman) in Lanka Podi Jatra

(www.google.in)

Popular Legend and Folklore Associated with Terracotta Bull Figurine and

Monkey God (Hanuman)

We observed the development and continuation of terracotta tradition of this region.

The custom, tradition and beliefs of the people are incredible sometimes. The rituals

and practices performed by the people are for their own profit or in some cases people

believe that it will help in their prosperity. The local traditional festival of Pura Balada is

celebrated for the better agricultural production.

Custom and tradition are eternal and they are practiced in the society to adjust in any

way. The society associates them with a number of legends and stories which are easily

acceptable by the people. The legends associated with Purauans ceremony are;

Legend 1: Radha Charan Panda (resident of Sonepur): once Indra the Lord of rain

robbed the cows and bulls of Gopabalakas from the field. As a result the economic life of

Gauda community had fallen into severe crisis. But Lord Krishna created thousands of

cows and bulls, to save them from the economic crisis on this very day (Purauans).

Hence in order to commemorate this episode, Pura Balada, ceremony is performed.

On the auspicious day of Bhadraba Amavasya Lord Krishna played with Gopabalaka and

Gopibalika along with terracotta bull, miniature pots and dishes. Sand and soil are

offered in these miniature pots and dishes by the Gopibalika to Lord Krishna. Lord

Krishna happily ate the offerings and granted them their wishes. In order to get Lord

Krishna’s blessing, girls play with miniature pots, whereas boys play with terracotta

figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) on toy carts. Every year in order to remember that

auspicious occasion both boys and girls play with their friends in groups. This festival

reflects the social relationship amongst the people.

Legend 2: Kartika Rana (Potter of Sonepur town): this festival is celebrated to glorify

Lord Ram and Lord Hanuman. In this month of Bhadraba (August‐September) Lord


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Hanuman met Lord Ram. And the former also went to Lanka in order to locate and

meet Mata Sita. Moreover, to break Ravan’s ego Lanka Nagari was burnt by Lord

Hanuman.

Legend 3: Amuly Panda and Giridhare Mahapatra (Residents of Sonepur): The king

and queen of Sonepur were childless, they used to pray to Lord Ram for a child. One

day a great saint came to the king’s palace and said to the king that the god is satisfied

with their worship and if they wished for anything it will be fulfilled. Therefore king

promised to build a temple and start a festival of Lord Hanuman (Lanka Podi Jatra) if

his wish gets fulfilled. Finally in order to thank god for his blessing he constructed a

temple and started the festival which is still going on in Sonepur town.

The terracotta animal figurines were seen fixed on the roof tile in some of the houses in

Sonepur. It is done due to belief that it provides safety to the family from evil spirits

(Figure 22a and 22b).

Figure 22a: Terracotta Animal Figurines

Fixed on Roof Tile

Figure 22b: Decorated terracotta figurines

of Hanuman and wheel toy cart

Socio, Economic and Religious Aspect of the Indian Society with the Animal

World and its Associated Material Culture

The socio‐economic and religious aspect of the ancient terracotta animal figurines as

well as the ongoing traditional practices associated with them is very important. It

enables us in understanding the long as well as continuous traditional belief system

and relationship between human society and the animal world. Besides, it also

explains how oral beliefs developed in to a cultic form of worship.

The approach that has been carried out in this study uses literary data, ethnographic

survey and interview. These approaches have given an ample source to draw analogy.

Moreover has helped in getting an idea about the socio‐economic and religious aspect

of human society with animal world as well as individual animal both directly and

indirectly.

Following are the socio‐economic and religious aspect of the human society associated

with animal world:


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Domestication: The relation between man and animals transcended the purely

utilitarian level even during the hunting stage. Man felt close emotional affinity to the

animals which formed the source of his food and shared his environment.

Domestication of animal is highly developed man and animal relationship which has

forced man to settle down and have a sedentary way of life.

If one looks at the diversity of wild animal spices exploited during the hunting‐

gathering and later period, the number of domestication animal are few. Not all the

wild animals were domesticated, only animals with certain characteristics like docile

nature and sociability were found domesticated. This particularly shows the

knowledge of early human populations about the animal behavior (Pawankar 1995: 3).

Animal are mostly domesticated for the purpose of agriculture as well as other

purpose mainly related to human subsistence. Animal are considered as dhan which

means wealth in Indian context. The close context/ involvement of the Indian society

with the animal world led to the development of various cultic beliefs associated with

animal, for example;

Cow/Cattle: Among the cults of domesticated animals the most important is that of

cattle. The question of the origin of the cult is complicated by the problem of the origin

of domestic animals; for if the pastoral people who in historical times have revered or

worshipped their cattle obtained them from a single center, where they were originally

domesticated, possible, in part at least, through practices connected with religion, we

cannot base any argument on the attitude of the cattle‐keeping tribes of the present

day. If, on the other hand, no sanctity is attached to cattle when they came to them, the

respect and even love which these peoples feel for their herds is important as a factor

in the evolution of the more definitely religious attitude ( 1908, Vol. I: 506‐507).

The origin of the Hindu respect for the cow is an unsolved problem. Unlike Egypt, it is

clear that Indian developed a respect for the animal in historical times. Of actual

worship there is little to record; but the Pancha‐gavya, or five products of cow, are

important factors in exorcism and magic; as a means of annulling an unlucky

horoscope, re‐birth from a cow is stimulated; the pious Hindu touches the tail of a cow

at the moment of dissolution, and believes that it will carry him across the river of

death; just as, in the last reincarnation before the assumption of the human form, the

cow receives the spirit and brings it across the river Vaitarani, which bounds the lower

world. Cattle festivals are celebrated in Nepal and Central India, but their object seems

to be mainly magical the nomadic Banjaras, however, devote a bullock to their god

Balaji, and call upon it to cure them in sickness (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 507).

In the Hindu society the wealth of a person was judged on the basis of the number of

cattle he/she owned. The beliefs and attitude of the Hindu society with regard to their

socio‐economic and religious life is mostly connected with cow/cattle. People worship

the cow/cattle and consider it as mother (Gomata). Killing cow/cattle is considered a


1048

highly unforgivable offence. Godan (gift of cow, bull or ox) is considered very sacred as

it helps to relate a person from the bondage of sin.

Monkey: Even if it was not a common savage trait to believe in the descent of man

from one of the lower animals, the resemblance between human beings and monkeys

would be sufficiently strong to suggest such a tale. Consequently we find not only that

man is regarded as an involved monkey, but also that the monkey is explained as a

degraded man (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 522).

The chief home of the cult monkey is India, with its monkey‐god, Hanuman. In

orthodox villages the life of monkey is safe from harm, and its magic influence is

implored against the whirlwind, while it is also invoked to avert sterility. The bones of

a monkey are held to pollute the ground. Mentioning a monkey brings starvation for

the rest of the day, but it is regarded as lucky to keep one of the stable. As at the

famous monkey‐temple at Benares, monkeys are said to be worshipped in Togo,

Africa, where the inhabitants of a village daily put meals for their benefit (Hastings

1908: Vol. I: 522).

Food Purpose: Use of animal for the purpose of food is a universal phenomenon. The

subsistence pattern of ancient man was based on hunting and gathering. Even after

settled life, the human society continued activity. Certain animals were domesticated

mainly for the fulfillment of the food requirement of humans. However, the use of

various animals for the purpose of food is prohibited due to certain reasons. For

example, there is a prohibition in some place with regard to the consumption

cow/cattle.

Genetic Classification: We find a gradual change in custom, but the causes behind

these is mostly based on the convenience of the people, which are generally offered by

religious, social, political and other such factors. It may also be due to foreign influence

or the development of new faiths.

Secondly, in order to trace the origin of this cultic form of worship associated with the

animals, we have material evidence in the form of terracotta animal figurines as well as

legendary accounts. However, they do not help us to prove anything. As far as the

pastoral community is concerned, they are cultic beliefs and worship with regard to

specific species based purely on their economic subsistence pattern (Hastings 1908:

Vol. I: 487).

Cult: The evidence for ‘cultic form of worship’ is associated with animal and also the

figurine of some animals is found even today. The terms ‘worship’ and ‘cult’ are also in

the case of animal worship. These terms appear in two different way of practice

(Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 486);

o Animal regarded as the ‘god body’ which is known as the direct but temporal

incarnation of god.


1049

o The second one included the respect of the name and bone of animal excluding the

‘cult practice’.

Further, the term ‘cult’ can also be divided in to two ways:

o According to their outward form (in the first form of cult animal is worshiped

by anthropomorphically cult).

o According to their genesis (in the second form it is associated with the

beginning or earlier stage of belief).

‘Cult’ can be divided yet in to a formal classification. In the formal classification animal

may be divided in to two classes, the whole species without exception is sacred and

fixed named of species is sacred.

The transition of ‘worship’ form of practice and its evolution can be divided into four

parts. They are;

o A simple progress from ‘theomorphic to anthropomorphic ideas’: in this transition

certain number of animal and species is regarded as having an important or

sacred role in society.

o Custom of sacrificing the ‘sacred animal’ annually: Some of the animals are

scarified during annual event example‐ animals (especially hen and goat) are

sacrificed annually to the village deity and similarly the same animals are also

scarified during Durga puja annually.

o ‘Folklore’: In folklore local animals are associated with god and sometime also

human form.

o The custom of selecting an ‘animal for special honor’: In this type of transition of

belief, we get two type of practice; firstly the pastoral people who regard certain

animal like bull and cattle as sacred or special one. Secondly, animals which are

annually scarified after a certain period of time.

Messenger and Representative of God: According to legend animal play two

important roles i.e. Messenger and Representative of God. For example, cow is

regarded as the form of goddess Lakshmi and Arnapurna (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 487).

Iconography: Iconographic depictions of various animals and birds associated with

different deities have also been found. For example‐ cow is the representation

Kamdhenu cow who was the representative of goddess Arnapurna. Similarly Hindu

believes monkey is representative of lord Hanuman.

Medicine: Cow dung is used for cleaning the house floor, clarified butter is used as a

form of medicine for cold and some other casual diseases.


1050

Entertainment: Monkeys dance is widely popular in India. For entertainment monkey

are captured and trained to entertain the audience.

Conclusion The agricultural and pastoral communities largely depended upon their surrounding

environment for the development of their settlement and subsistence pattern. In this

process they were bonded with the animal world. As a result, the ancient man

considered the animal as part of their lifestyle and hence developed a religious form of

tradition and practice of animal worship. The ethnographic observation indicates that

there is a long and continuous process involved in the worship of terracotta animal

figurine. Archaeologically also animal worship is observed as a universal phenomenon

from country to country and region to region.

The process of the illustration of thought, belief and surrounding culture of human art

belongs to ancient time and it is still practiced by the human society. In case of rural

area, particularly in Sonepur town the terracotta animal figurine making tradition is

practiced even today. In this tradition the terracotta animal figurines is worshipped by

the people along with presiding Hindu deities such as Lord Krishna, Devi Durga (in

the form of Sathi and Khudurkunie) and domesticated animals.

The legend associated with terracotta animal figurines indicates that any tradition or

oral belief in course of time survives and merges with its contemporary religion. The

legends can be factual episodes and can also be moderately based on imagination

factors. While this tradition may vary during fairs, festivals, and it’s making process

from one region to another, but it does reflect that tangible culture when collected or

documented needs wider attention than previously thought. Hence, collection of the

associated intangible cultural data along with tangible data can provide us with ample

data not only in regional perspective but also with variation in their representation.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Mr. Balaji Gajul for elaborating the technique and

procedure involved in making of terracotta animal figurine. To Dr. Alok Kumar

Kanungo, for going through the text. To Dr. Mohan Pardhi, Neha Datta and Shikha

Sharma for their academic support and comments. To Charak Choudhuri and Murli

for help during field work in Sonepur town.

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