Instrument Orals/IPC

Pitot Static System

Airspeed Indicator

• Ram Air enters the Pitot Tube• Static Pressure enters the Casing of the Airspeed Indicator• Higher pressure from the Pitot Tube expands the wafer,

drives the gears, and indicates higher airspeed• Lower pressure from the Pitot Tube contracts the wafer,

drives the gears, and indicates lower airspeed.• When the pressure on the Pitot Tube equals the Static

pressure, the Airspeed Indicator reads zero

Altimeter

• 29.92” HG inside the wafer• Static Pressure enters the case of the Altimeter• High Static Pressure compresses the wafer and

drives the gears and indicates low altitude• Low Static pressure allows the wafer to expand,

drives the gears to indicate high altitude

VSI

• Vertical Speed Indicator• Trend Instrument due to the leak• Measures instantaneous static pressure chg compared

to the average static pressure change over last 6-9 seconds.

• As Static Pressure is lower, then wafer contracts, driving the gears, and indicates positive rate of climb

• As Static Pressure is higher, then wafer expands, driving the gears to indicate rate of descent

Blocked Pitot Tube/Static Port Effects

Blocked Static Port Blocked Pitot and Drain Hole

Blocked Pitot, open Drain Hole

Airspeed Indicator Acts as a reverse Altimeter

Acts as an Altimeter

Airspeed = Zero

Altimeter Frozen at altitude when Static Port was Blocked

N/A N/A

VSI Reads Zero N/A N/A

Mode C Same as Altimeter N/A N/A

Alternate Static Air• Many airplanes have an alternate static air vent in the event the

static port becomes plugged• Alternate static air is taken from inside the cabin• Since air is moving rapidly across the fuselage, bernouli’s indicates

that the cabin air pressure will be slightly lower than the outside air pressure

• Due to bernoulli’s, Altimeter, Mode C and Altimeter will read slightly high

• When first using alternate static air, the VSI will initially show a climb (due to lower pressure), but will then indicate properly

• If Alternate Static Air does not work, or if not installed, break the glass on the VSI– Direct access to the Static Line– Not required for IFR flight

Turn Indicator Vs Coordinator

Powered by Electrical SystemTurn Indicator Turn Coordinator

Rate Of Turn Rate of Turn

Rate of Roll Rate of Roll

Vacuum System/Gyro Systems

Turn Coordinator

Gyro Characteristics

• Pneumatic (air) powered– Usually vacuum pump

• Spin at about 20,000 RPM• Want to stay in the same

place• A force applied results in a

reaction 90 degrees in the direction of the rotation

Gyro Errors

• Attitude Indicator (A/I)– Indicates climb during acceleration– Indicates descent during deceleration

• Directional Guidance (D/G)– Precesses due to friction– Max 3 degrees per 15 minutes– In a 180 degree turn, shows climb and roll in opposite

direction– Can tumble at

• >60 degree pitch• >100 degree bank

Magnetic Compass Errors• Turns greater than 18 degree bank may cause compass to hang up on edge of card• UNOS Turning Errors

– Undershoot North, Overshoot South– 30 deg error at North and South– Zero deg error at East and West

• ANDS Acceleration/Deceleration Errors– Accelerate North, Decelerate South– Due to Counter Weight being heavier than magnet

• Body at rest stays at rest• Body in motion stays in motion

• Turbulence causes Compass to oscillate• Deviation

– Errors due to systems in the airplane– Compass Card correction

• Variation– Difference between True North and Magnetic North– Isogonic lines on charts minus for East, add for West

• Timed Turns– 3 degs/second

DME/GPS• DME

– Measures slant range from Navaid– At 6k feet above Navaid, reads 1NM– Hear identification ~ every 30 seconds

• GPS– Measures horizontal distance from Navaid– Number of satellites

• 3 satellites pinpoints location• 4 satellites pinpoints and follows• 5 satellites satisfies RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)

– Max 110ft error– WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System)

• Max 10ft error• Provides glide slope also but still non-precision approach

– VFR or handheld GPS’s (even if panel mounted) are not approved for IFR or principle instruments.

Limitations of EFB’s (Electronic Flight Bags)

• Battery life• If they get hot, they

shut down• Databases must be kept

current• Does it interfere with

the communication or nav equipment?

VOR• VOR

– Measures difference between reference wave and variable wave (phase shift measurement)

– Terminal• 25NM reception from 1k to 12kft

– Low• 40NM reception from 1k to 18kft

– High• 40NM reception from 1k to 14.5kft• 100NM reception from 14.5k to 18kft• 130NM reception from 18k to 45kft

• CDI– 2 degrees per dot– 10 degrees full scale

• VOR Checkpoints– Cessna 182 4 degree max error– Dual VOR 4 degree max error– Airborne 6 degree max error– DEPS (Date, Error, Pilot, Signature)

ILS• Components of an ILS

– Localizer– Glideslope– Marker Beacon– Approach Lights

• Localizer 4X more sensitive than VOR– 35degrees at 10NM– 10degrees >10NM to 18NM– 700ft wide at runway start

• Glideslope 4X more sensitive than Localizer• Most glideslopes at 3 degrees

– False glideslope at 12 degrees and 0.5 degrees.

Other Approaches

• LDA– Localizer Directional Aid– Alpha approach, > 30deg from runway heading

• SDF– Simplified Directional Facility– 40 degree instead of 35deg on ILS

• MLS– Microwave Landing System

Regulations• Currency 61.57 (SHIT)

– Six Approaches– Hold– Intercept– Tracking

• Preflight 91.103– Any and all info regarding flight

• Weather, Fuel reqts, alternates available and any delays– Destination >25NM

• IFR Fuel 91.167– 45 minutes: Included alternate if required– Alternate required: 123 Rule

• 1 hour before or after, need 2ft ceiling, 3mi visibility• Alternate must have 800/600ft (NonPrec/Prec) ceiling and 2mi visibility

Approach Minimums• Non-Precision: Descend to MDA +100/-0ft• Precision: Descend to DH +100/-0ft• Alphas will have Circle to Land Minimums• Descend below if:

– Min Visibility and– Normal descend to land and– Runway environment in sight

• Threshold, Threshold Lights or Threshold Markings• REIL (Runway End Identifier Lights)• VASI (Visual Approach Slope Indicator)• Touchdown zone, Touchdown Zone Markings, or Touchdown Zone Lights• Runway, Runway Markings, or Runway Lights

• ALS in sight– Then 100ft above TDZE

Possible Reasons for Loss of Communication

• Switch Radios• Switch to previous frequency• Look for local center frequency– Possibly didn’t hear hand off

• Try Guard 121.5• Try FSS

Lost Radio Communications• VFR Conditions

– Squawk 7600– Stay in VMC (Visual Meteorlogical Conditions)– Land and Call ATC/FSS

• IFR– Squawk 7600– Route: Follow AVE F

• A: Last Assigned• V: Vectored• E: Expected• F: Filed• Whichever was received last

– Altitude: Follow MEA• MEA• Expected• Assigned• Whichever is highest

– Leave clearance limit for an approach at• Expected Further Clearance limit• Or Arrival time on flight plan

7600AVE FMEA

Minimum Equipment

• GRABCARD– G: Generator/Alternator– R: Radios/Comm– A: Altimeter– B: Ball/Inclinometer– C: Compass– A: A/I (Attitude Indicator)– R: Rate of Turn– D: DG (Directional Guidance)– Above FL24 (24,000ft): Also need DME

Others• Mode C Required

– Class B– Mode C Veil– In and Above Class C– ADIZ– > 10,000ft

• Cancel IFR– VFR and outside of Class A

• Need Clearance– Enter Class B– IFR in controlled airspace

• 3 Exceptions to 3-152 rule – Class G < 1,200ft AGL: 1mile visibility and clear of clouds– Class G Night within 1/2mile of runway: 1mile visibility and clear of clouds– Class G 1,200ft AGL-10,000ft MSL: 1mile visibility, 1000ft above, 500ft below, 2000ft

horizontal from clouds– Class B: 3 mile visibility and clear of clouds– >10,000 ft MSL: 5mile visibility, 1000ft below, 1000ft above, 1mile horizontal from clouds

Others Continued• Holds

– 1 min inbound legs < 14,000ft– 1.5min inbound legs > 14,000ft– Wind Correct outbound 3x inbound– EFC (Expect Further Clearance) then start– Speeds

• MHA to 6,000ft 200kts• 6,000-14,000ft 230kts• 14,000ft+ 265kts

• DP’s (Departure Procedures)– Separate Departures and Arrivals– Less Communication Required– Provides for Minimum Altitudes

• Cleared for the Visual or Contact

Cleared for the Visual Contact Approach

VFR Minimums 1mile visibility, Clear of Clouds

Airport or Aircraft in Sight Airport in Sight

Controller or Pilot Request Pilot only Request

Still Need to cancel Clearance Still Need to Cancel Clearance

Mandatory Reporting Points• Radar Contact

1. Vacating an Assigned Altitude2. Altitude Change when VFR on Top3. Missed Approach4. True Airspeed +/-5% or 10kts, whichever is greatest5. Enter a Hold6. Leave a Hold7. Loss of Required Equipment8. Special Request

• Non-Radar Contact1. Compulsory (Black Triangles)

• ID• Position• Time • Altitude• Next ETA and Pt• Next Pt

2. ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival) > +/-3 Minutes3. Final Approach Fix Inbound

Situations that affect physiology and degrade instrument cross-check

• The human eye provides visual and spatial orientation, which is responsible for providing about 80% of the sensory inputs needed to maintain orientation. The vestibular system within the inner ear contributes 15%. Proprioceptive sensory inputs from receptors located in the skin, muscle, tendons, and joints account for 5% of the sensory information used to establish orientation. Complex coordination between these sensory inputs is then translated and interpreted by the brain.Misinterpretation or inaccuracy of these three sources of information can lead to “sensory mismatch,” resulting in a variety of visual or vestibular illusions.

• Minimize head movements• Be aware of acceleration/deceleration effects• Believe the instruments

Mnemonics• During Approach on Turns– Turn– Time– Twist– Throttle– Talk

• At Final Approach Fix– Time– Gear– Power– Tower– Lights (Runway), Lights (Airplane), Lights (Landing Gear)

Airplane Settings

• Approach– Either at Initial Approach Fix or prior to– Approach flaps if req’d– 90-100kts– 14”MP, 2200RPM (Centurion)– 2100-2200RPM (Warrior, Archer, Skyhawk)

• At Final Approach Fix – Want to start descending– Gear goes down

GPS Approaches

• LP– Localizer Performance ( LP ) approaches are non-

precision approaches with Wide Area Augmentation System ( WAAS ) lateral guidance. End with an MDA

• LNAV– This minima is for lateral navigation only, and the approach minimum

altitude will be published as a min descent altitude (MDA)

• LPV– “LPV” is the acronym for localizer performance with vertical guidance.

Utilizes DA since it is similar to an ILS.

GPS Annunciations

• 30 NM from Airport ‘ARM’ – Change from +/-5NM to +/-1NM sensitivity

• When on the approach, Annunciation is Approach

• 2NM from IAP, Changes from Approach to Active

Radio Work• On the ground asking for clearance– At a towered airport, use the clearance delivery frequency.

If a clearance delivery frequency isn’t available, use ground frequency to ask for the info.

– Example: Flying cloud ground, airplane 3333x, at elliot, with zulu, ready for taxi to the active. Instruments to Mason City Kilo Mike Xray Oscar

– Example 2 at a non towered airport. Minneapolis clearance (center if on center), airplane 3333x, at airlakerunway 30, ready to copy, instruments to Mason City Iowa, Kilo Mike Xray Oscar

– Example 3 in the air. Minneapolis center, airplane 3333x, just off airlake at 2000ft for 5000ft, instruments to Mason City Iowa.

Radio Work

• Center or Clearance or Ground will rattle off a bunch of items to you quickly. Use the below to make it simple– CRAFT– Clearance ___________– Route (or initial heading) __________– Altitude _______ft, expect ______ft in _____min– Frequency ________ (probably 134.7 here)– Transponder squawk code _________

Approach Radio• ATC will try to give you vectors at a 30 degree entry point to the

approach line• After they vector you the last time, they will rattle off a bunch of

items. It will be something like– Airplane 3333x, cleared for the ILS30 Approach into Airlake, maintain

3000ft until established on a published portion of the approach.– You will need to readback the above. So try to memorize the above,

and then also write it down on a piece of paper when you are say 30 miles out and don’t have a lot going on.

– About the time you hit the FAF (where you start to descend), ATC will tell you to talk to Tower or CTAF until you land.

– If not a towered airport, you will need to cancel once you are on the ground, or have the airport in sight while in the air.

– If at a towered airport, tower will close the flight plan for you