DOCUUNT RESUME

ED 347 789 FL 019 250

TITLE The Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learningand Teaching. Volume 15, 1990.

INSTITUTION Society for Accelerative Lmarning and Teaching,Inc.

REPORT NO ISSN-0273-2459PUB DATE 90NOTE 240p.; For the 1991 journal, see ED 345 584.PUB TYPE Collected Works - Serials (022)JOURNAL CIT Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learning and

Teaching; Spr-Win 1990

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Acceleration (Education); Black Education; *Critical

Thinking; Elementary Education; Foreign Countries;Higher Education; Mathematics; Music Reading;*Writing Instruction

IDENTIFIERS *South Africa

ABSTRACTArticles in this volume of the Journal of the Society

for Accelerative Learning and Teaching (SALT) include the following:"Accelerated Learning Components in Elementary Classrooms";"Ball-Stick Bird: Teaching with the Story Engram"; "A SALT PilotStudy in College Developmental Mathematics"; "Black Education inSouth Africa: Issues, Problems and Perepectives"; "Towards theMountain: Characteristics and Implications of the South AfricanUPTTRAIL Pilot Project"; "Training Music Sight-Reading and PerfectPitch in Young Children, as a Way To Enhance Their Intelligence"; "Onthe Inner Relationship between Qigong and SALT"; "The Use of TimeLine in Teaching"; "BreaYing Down the Walls of the Self-ContainedBasic Writing Course"; "An Accelerated Learning Approach To TeachingCritical Analysis"; "8 Stories and Tests"; and "A Positive Look atSALT Techniques in the National Research Council's Enhancing HumanPerformance." (JL)

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* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *

* from the original document. *

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THE JOURNAL OFTHE SOCIETY FOR ACCELERATIVE

LEARNING AND TEACHINGCY)

Volume 15, Number 1 & 2 Swing & Summer, 1990

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C.74

ALAI'BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION,CENTER (ERIC)

in,s document Nes been rebroducell as,ecipvect ?raft. ?he toerSon or orpantzemonor9,36((ng

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Published by the Society for Accelerative Learning andTeaching, Inc.

ISSN 0273-2459

FI

Guidelines for contrbutors to the JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FORACCELERATIVE LEARMNG AND TEACHNO

The &Star welcomes submission of manuscrOls with a locus anaccelending and knproving knialksg and leandng, particularly tvilir ciateroomsuggestion or Sugges 'poodle. TM* journal pubtishes articles OW criticalreviews, theoretical analyses, speculative papers, case studies, quasi-experimental studies, es well as reports of controlled studies of empiricalresearch.

MANUSCRIPTS shotdd be typed on one side of standard 8 112 x t t bondpaper. Do NOT use ;Otto. The original and 3 copies of all materials should besubmitted, but the author should keep a copy for checking proofs. AN materkdshould be DOUEU-SPACED, with wade margkts on afi 4 sides. Typicai length Isabout 20 pages, inciticling tootnotes, tables & figures. Longer papers may besuitabie in some cases.

REFERENCES should foeow APA style according to the latest AmericanPsychologicai Association Style Manuel. See sety issue of this Journal forAxamples. In the body of the text, the work of other authors should be referredto by name and publication date in parenMeses as follows, "Ma and Alexander(1987) reported..." In the references the referred-to articles should be listedkitty in alphabetical order by auther(s), title end publication source informationas follows, Nod-Reed, E. (1987). Teaching addl learners using acceleratedlearning. Journal °ilia Society tor _Accelerative Learniog end Teaching, ig(1&2), 85-94." Footnotes should be used rarefy, if at ail.

TABLES and FIGURES should be kept to a minimum, and should supplementrather than duplicate the text material. Each table should be typed on aseparate sheet of paper and placed at the end of the manuscrkd. Figures shouldbe submitted in a form suitable for photographic reproduction: use Inds ink on agood grade of drawing paper. Photographs (black and white only) should be 5x7glossy prints.

An ABSTRACT between 50 and 200 words should be ptaced at the beginningof ttwr martuscrkn. The tbstract should Include: purpose of the work/study,design, method and description of subjects, and results &/or conclusions.

Authors using a word processor: t Submit 4 copies of the manuscriptusing AXED-WIDTH characters, and NOT typeset/ 2. Submit a floppy clisk of themanuscript, specifying both the computer and word processor in detail.

Journal of the Society forAccelerative Learning and Teaching

Volume 15, Numbers 1&2 Spring & Summer, 1990

Contents

Accelerated Learning Components in Elementary SchoolClassrooms. Sharon Foster 3

Ball-Stick-Bird: Teaching with the Story Engram.Renee Fuller 19

A SALT Pilot Study in College Developmental Mathematics.Allyn Prichard 37

Black Education in South Africa: Issues, Problems andPerspectives. Alex Thembela 45

Towards the Mountain: Characteristics and Implications ofthe South African UPTTRAIL Pilot Project.David van der Vyver & Beatriz Capdevielle 59

Training Music Sight-Reading and Perfect Pitch in YoungChildren, as a Way to Enhance Their Intelligence.Win Wenger & Susan Honey Wenger 77

BOOK REVIEW In Search of the 10 Correlation: AScientific Whodunit, by Renee Fuller. Reviewed byJohn Senatore 91

The Explorative-Creative Way: Implementation of aHumanistic Language Teaching Model, by WilKnibbefer. Reviewed by John Senatore 94

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Don Schuster, Ph.D.Iowa State UniversEditor-in-Chief

tY

Renate Nummela-Caine, Ph.D.Associate Editor

W. Jane Bancroft, Ph.DScarborough CollegeUniv of TorontoWest Hill, Ont MI C 1A4

Pedro R. Portes, Ph.D.University of Louisville

Senior Editor

EDITORIAL BOARD

R. McCrae Cochrane, Ph.D.Center for Cont. Development64 Mountain St.Sharon MA. 02067

Priscilla Donovan, Ph.D.3050 S Zenia StDenver CO 60231

Kurt A Fuerst, Ph,.D.Carleton UniversityColonel By Dr.Ottawa, Ont. K1S 586

Lye lie Palmer, Ph.D.Winona State UniversityWinona MN 55987

Donna Saha leCirculation

Gabriel Racie,Ph.D.1554 Rolland Av

Ottawa, Ont 1<13 0J4

John Senators, Ed.D.Univ of Southern Colorado

Pueblo CO 81001

Jo Lane Somsky3700 Orleans Av

Sioux City IA 51105

Win Wenger, Ph.D.P 0 Box 332

Gaithersburg MD 20677

Wendy Whitacre Stern5381 W Calle Conejo

Tucson AZ 85745

For subscription, send order to; SALT Journal, Box 1549 WelchStation, Ames IA 50010, $30,00 per year, Individual. OutsideU.S., Can. & Mexico, add $18.00 per year for air mail.Copyright 1990 by the Society for Accelerative Learning andTeaching. Printed in the U.S.A.

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J. of the Sxiety For Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990, 15(1 6 2)

Accelerated Learning Componentsin Elementary School Classrooms*

Sharon FosterWesleyan College

Macon, GA

Abstract. This article reports the results of 6 casehistories conducted to evaluate the use Accelerated Learn-ing components in elementary public school settings.Specific focus was upon six public school teachers andtheir implementation of six Accelerated Learningcomponents: Authority, lnfantilization, Double Planeness,intonation, Rhythm and Concert Pseudopassiveness.Qualitative research methods were used for purposes. Thestudy was guided by one central question: What is theteacher experiencing as he/she implements the componentsin the classroom? Data were gathered through theemployment of field study techniques of interviews andobservations. The finding of the data were reported in casestudies of each teacher and analyzed through the lens offour assumptions: 1.) The component was used by theteacher and observed by the researcher; 2.) the teachercould articulate the component's definition and state itsfrequency of use; 3.) The component was appropriate forthe age level in the teacher's classroom; and 4.) Theteacher could give reasons for implementing the componentinto his/her program.

*This paper is a condensation of her Ph.D. dissertation at UnionUniversity, Ohio, 1988, and presented at the 1988 SALTConference, Phoenix, AZ.

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Analysis of the data led to some conclusions, the mostimportant of which was that each teacher had incorporatedand made modifications to the components that best fit theirpersonal as well as professional style of teaching.Suggestions for future research were mEKie.

Introduction

This study investigated the implementation of sixAccelerated Learning components by elementary publicschool teachers. It was designed to determine the dailyexperiences of classroom teachers using AcceleratedLearning.

The methodology of Dr. Georgi Lozanov (1979) createdconsiderable interest in North America during the 1970's.His work with Suggestology first became widely known inthe United States through the publications of Ostrander andSchroeder (1970, 1979). Within the last 15 years,several educators have experimented with Lozanov'smethods, while others have adapted some of his techniquesto classroom practices. Some programs which haveevolved from researching Lozanov's work are referred toin the literature by names such as: Suggestive AccelerativeLearning and Teaching (SALT) (Schuster, Benitez-Bordon& Gritton, 1976); The Lozanov method (Schleicher,1984); Acquisition Through Creative Teaching (ACT)(Dhority, 1984); Super learning (Ostrander & Schroeder,1979); Accelerating Learning (Prichard & Taylor,1980); Accelerated Learning (Rose, 1986); Learning inNew Dimensions (Schmid, 1982); Optima learning(Barzakov, 1982) and Whole-Brain Instruction (Walker,1988). All these approaches to learning were consideredduring the process of defining the six components whichserved as a working definition for Accelerated Learningthroughout the study. While each component was derived

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from fundamental Suggestopedic principles, recognitionwas also given to many philosophical/psychologicalconcepts and methodological contributions fromresearchers and educational professional. each componentis considered by Lozanov (1978) to be a major way ormeans to put principles into practice.

Background

The literature on implementing Accelerated Learningcomponents in school environments was reviewed. Of thestudies found, most published reseuch had been conductedat the secondary or post-secondary level and very fewpresented data gathered on students in grades 1-5.

Of the studies conducted in elementary schools, fewinvolved large sample sizes, employed specially trainedteachers or used curriculum other than foreign language.Two studies were found in the literature which reportedquantitative data involving elemer.tary students and wereconducted over a two-year period. The first was conductedby Schuster and Prichard (1978). This two-year studycompared students with teachers trained with AcceleratedLearning techniques to students with teachers who usedtraditional instruction. Students with AcceleratedLearning teachers scored higher on spelling, science andmath tests. The second two-year research project(Applegate, 1983) indicted higher scores in reading andmath on the California Achievement Test from the group ofschool children! (grades two to six) using AcceleratedLearning methods. Of specific interest were tworesearchers (Prichard & Taylor, 1976, 1987) whoadapted Lozanov's method to fit an elementary schoolsetting/curriculum. Results from their data showedstudents' learning rate doubled and sometimes quadrupledits normal rate when instruction included Accelerated

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Learning techniques. Other short-term studies revealedIncreases In recall of individual words, spelling and self-concept due to instruction which incorporated AcceleratedLearning procedures (Balevski & Ganovski, 1975; Boyle &Render, 1982; Held, 1976; Johnson, 1982; Lozanov &Balevski, 1975; Pones & Foster, 1986).

The purpose of this study was to understand which ofthe six Accelerated Learning components teachersimplemented, the rationale behind their decision to employthe component(s) and whether or not the component waseffective considering the students' age level. Of particularinterest was the question of whether Accelerated Learningcomponents could be incorporated Into the elementaryschool setting. This question is of relevance since there islittle evidence in the literature to support AcceleratedLearning components usage with primary children. Find-ing in this area can benefit classroom teachers as theyconsider the Accelerated Learning components as an effec-tive alternative to traditional instruction.

Method

Erickson (1986) calls for fieldwork which demandsobservations in the field setting, interviewing,notes/recordings of events in the fielo, reflective analysisand descriptive reporting. Observations made to gainan understanding of what teachers were doing and reasonsfor their actions in relationship to ix.celerated Learning.

Twenty teachers were screened to determine theireligibility for the study. Six elementary public schoolteachers , employed by the same administrative system inLouisville, KY, were selected. Four teachers worked at thesame school (first grade, second grade, remedial readingthird grade and a split fourth/fifth grade). Two teachers

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taught at other locations (fourth grade and fifth grade).Each class contained the same number of students, and allclasses were heterogeneously grouped.

Criteria for teacher selection were threefold. First,participants had had 45 hours of training in AcceleratedLearning procedures with a professional trainer. Second,all subjects agreed to continue on-site training for abouttwo years by attending periodic in-services and monthly \meetings associated with the new methodology. Third,every participant verified that Accelerated Learning k

components were being practiced in their respectiveclassrooms.

Teachers were observed and interviewed in theirclassrooms during the 1986-1987 school year. Theresearcher used the non-participant observationalapproach (Spradley, 1980) during all observations. In

this type of inquiry, the researcher plays only one role --that of observer. Detailed field notes were taken duringthese sessions that averaged one hour each. During visits,the researcher recorded the following information:

1. Classroom dialogue between teacher and students.

2. The overall organization of the classroom.

3. Teacher/student interaction.

4, Accelerated Learning component(s) being practiced.

5. How often component(s) was/were used.

Every observation was followed by an in-depthinterview. Structured interviews (Gordon, 1975) wereperformed which gave the inquirer freedom to define

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specific problems and/or questions. Participants wereasked about their perception of the observation as theyanswered the following questions:

1. What Accelerated Learning component(s) were youusing?

2. How often do you use the component(s)?

3. What is you reason for using the AcceleratedLearning component(s)?

4. How relevant is each component for elementary agestudents?

All taped interviews and field notes were materialsfrom which data had to be constructed through some formalmeans of analysis. The process for convertingdocumentary resources into data began by transcribinginterviews and observations onto data analysis "protocols"as recommended by Lofland (1984). After multiplereadings of the entire set of protocols, they were coded andcross-referenced for analysis. Charts were created torecord the findings from a systematic search of the data.Evidence confirming and disconfirming four assumptionswas noted.

1. The teacher could articulate which component(s)he/she employed and how often it was used.

2. The Teacher could state reasons for embodying thecomponent(s) into his/her classroom.

3. The teacher could verify the component(s) wasappropriate for the age level they taught.

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4. The component(s) was used by the teacher asdocumented through the researcher's observations.

As the questions became directed more towardclarification than toward new knowledge, case studies of ateachers were prepared. In the case studies, each of the sixAccelerated Learning components was presented with theabove mentioned assumptions explaining the findings. Thesix components were found to be very much interrelated.Often, knowledge about one component pertained to another.

Resuas

The data collected from six case studies were analyzedand the findings were summarized. Summaries of theteachers' responses to the four questions asked by theresearcher are reported in the following section.

Question 1: What Accelerated Learning component(s)were you using?

Findings indicate that one of the six subjects applied allthe components in the classroom. Each subject reportedmaking use of authority and double planeness. Intonationand rhythm were not exercised by two instructors due totheir personal indifferences to the components. The stateof pseudopassiveness was practiced by three teachers whileonly one used concert presentations.

It is interesting to note that the majority of thesubjects changed or modified many component definitions.According to the teacher, altering the definition made thecomponent adaptable for classroom use. Authority wasdefined as qualities teachers must transmit to students sothat learning will be positive, joyful and rewarding.Infantilization became known as a vehicle for providing a

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playful atmosphere. Double planeness took on the newmeaning of creating a learning environment conductive tolearning. Intonation was not defined clearly by mostteachers. Rhythm was usually seen through the use ofmusic in the classroom. The state of pseudopassivenessencompassed the use of relaxation techniques and guidedvisualization.

Question 2: How often do you use the component(s)?

Each teacher reported the frequency of component usagefluctuated to fit the needs of their students, the elementarycurriculum, and/or time schedules. Components wereintegrated across the curriculum, with exceptions made bytwo individuals. Authority, double planeness and intona-tion were employed daily. Rhythm was used daily by twoteachers and strictly for writing instruction by othersubjects. Concert presentations were used twice weeklywhile the state of pseudopassiveness was applied threetimes per week.

Ques lion 3: What is your reason for using theAccelerated Learning component(s)?

The six teachers in this study gave similar answers forthe reasons they used the components. Each subjectimplemented authority as a means of setting a positive tonein the learning environment. Double planeness allowedlearning to occur through multi-modalities. Intonationassisted with encoding and helped reduce stress. Rhythmwas also credited for creating a soothing classroom climate.Concert presentations were used to present difficultacademic material in an interesting, appealing manner.The state of pseudopassiveness was utilized to ease anxietytoward content and testing.

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Question 4: How relevant is each component forelementary age students?

Authority and double planeness were the onlycomponents reported by all subjects to be relevant for theage of the student being instructed. Subjects that taughtgrades one and three found intonation to be effective intheir classrooms. Every teacher reported rhythm to beappropriate for their age group. Concert presentationswere found to be more appropriate for grades 3, 4, and 5.The primary teachers felt this component was notdevelopmentally geared for young children. The state ofpseudopassiveness was deemed relevant for school childrenby everyone, with the exception of one teacher.

Five out of six teachers in this study did not use all thecomponents. Instead, teachers incorporated componentsthat blended with pre-established teaching strategies andmethods. Some components were not found to be asappropriate for elementary students as others. Teachersapplied the components which best fit their teaching style,the age of their class and the grade-level curriculum.

Summary

The aim of this research was to investigate theimplementation of six Accelerated Learning components:authority, infantilization, double planeness, intonation,rhythm, and concert pseudopassiveness, in elementarypublic school classrooms. The study utilized a qualitativedesign and concluded with five recommendations for futureresearch. These recommendations apply to researchers,educators, administrators, school boards and communitiesat large.

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1. There is a need for a follow-up replication of thisstudy tG verify the components' usage, implementation andappropriateness for elementary age students. Teacherswith a variety of Accelerated Learning trainingexperiences from private as well as public schools wouldprovide comparative data on component implementation andtraining methods.

2. More qualitative research needs to be undertaken inelementary schools throughout the country whereAccelerated Learning components are employed. Suchrest, irch would enable one to generalize results around theeffecis demographics and other school systems would haveon implementation.

3. Separate research studies should be conducted at themiddle and high school levels. Results from such designswould reveal which components would be appropriate aleach level. The data could then be compared with theresults from this study and offer teacher insights towardcomponent adaptability with various age groups.

4. As noted in the results, most teachers had notadopted all the components of Accelerated Learning. Animplication for future research then, is that researchersusing quantitative measures of student achievement shouldfirst determine the extent to which the major componentsof Accelerated Learning are being used in each teacher'sclassroom.

5. Longer training sessirr; must be instituted prior toapplication of Accelerated Learning components. Allsubjects in this study believed their week of training wasexcellent, yet they wanted more. School systems must takeon this responsibility in terms of providing funds andadequate training time.

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References

Applegate, R. (1983). An ESEA Title IV C researchproject: Paradise unified school district. Paradise, CA:California State Educational Authority.

Balevski, P., & Ganovski, L. (1975). The effect of someof the means of suggestion on the short-term and long-term memory of students from 11 to 17 years of age.Journal of Suggestive-Accelerative Learning andTeaching, 1(3), 47-52.

Barzakov, I. (1982). The singing school: Means ofsuggestion in Suggestology and Optima learning.Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learning andTeaching, 173), 173-185.

Boyle, C., & Render, G. F. (1982). The relationshipbetween the use of fantasy journeys and creativity.Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learning andTeaching, 7(3), 267-271.

Mority, L. (1984). Acquisition through creativeteaching. Sharon, MA: Center for ContinuingDevelopment.

Erickson, F. (1986). Handbook of research on teaching(2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Gordon, R. (1975). Interviewing: Strategy, techniquesand tactics. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.

He!d, D. F. (1976). The effects of the Lozanov method forteaching word meaning to fifth and sixth graders.(Doctoral Dissertation, Iowa State University, 1975).Dissertation Abstracts International, 37, 7A.

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Johnson, P. L. (1982). The effect of group relaxationexercises on second- and sixth-grade childrens'spelling scores. Journal of the Society for AccelerativeLearning and Teaching, 7(3), 239-250.

Lofland, J. (1984). Analyzing social settings: A guide toqualitative observation and analysis. Belmont, CA:Wadsworth.

Lozanov, G. (1978). Suggestology and Outlines ofSuggestopedy. New York: Gordon and BreEch Science.

Lozanov, G. & Balevski, P. (1975). The effect of theSuggestopedic system on instruction on the physicaldevelopment, state of health and working capacity offirst and second grade pupils. Suggestology andSuggestopedia Journal, 1(3), 24-43. (From Journalof Suggestive-Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1977, 2(3), 85-95.)

Ostrander, S. & Schroeder, L. (1970). Psychicdiscoveries behind the Iron Curtain, Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Ostrander, S. Schroeder, L. & Ostrander, N. (1979).Super learning. New York: Delacorte Press.

Portes, P. & Foster, C. (1986). Accelerated learning andself-concept in elementary and secondary school.Journal of Suggestive-Accelerative Learning andTeaching, 11(1), 33-38.

Prichard, A. & Taylor, J. (1976). Adapting the Lozanovmethod for remedial reading instruction. Journal ofSuggestive-Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 1(2),1 0 7 11 5 .

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Prichard, A. & Taylor, J. (1978). Suggestopedia appliedto elementary reading instruction. Journal ofSuggestive-Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 3(4),243-247.

Prichard, A. & Taylor, J. (1980). Accelerating Learning:The use of suggestion in the classroom. Novato, CA:Academic Therapy Publications.

Rose, C. (1986). Accelerated Learning. AylesburyBucks, Great Britain: Topaz Publishing.

Schlaicher, C. (1984). Application of the Lozanov methodwithin the public/private school sector Journal of theSociety for Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 9(3),195-200.

Schmid, C. (1982). Learning in new dimensions. Sharon,MA: Center for Continuing Development.

Schuster, D. H., Benitez-Bordon, R., & Gritton, C.(1976). Suggestive accelerative learning andteaching: A manual of classroom procedures based onthe Lozanov method. Ames, IA: Society for AccelerativeLearning and Teaching.

Spradley, J. (1980). Participant observation. New York:Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Walker, A. A. (1988). Implementing Whole-Brainmethods for reading instruction. Journal of the Societyfor Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 13(3), 291-3 0 5 .

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Dieser Artikel berichtet die Ergebnisse der Studie,durchgefuehrt urn die Benuetzung von Bestandiellen desbeschleunigten Lernens in die aligemeinenGrundstueflichen Verlegungen zu bewerten. BesondereRichtung war auf sechs Lehren der allgerneinen schuelem,und Rue Durchfuehrung von sech Bestandteile desbeschleunigten Lernens: Autoritaet, Infantilizierung,Betonung, Doppelflachheit, Rhythms, und vereinigtePseudopassivmus. Qualitative Forschungtsmethodenwurden benuetzt. Die Studie wurde geleitet von einerHauptfrage: Was erlebt der Leher, als er/sie durchfuehrtdie Bestandteile in der Klassenzimmer? Oaten wurdengesammelt dutch die Benuetzung von denFeldstudiertechniken von Besprechungen und Beobachtung.Die Folgen der Daten wurden berichte in Fall-Analysenjedes Lehers, und analysierten durch vier Annahme: (1)Der Bestandteil wurde benetzt beim Lehrer und beobachtenbeim Forscher; (2) Der Lehrer konnte die Bestimmung desBestandteils aussagen und sein Benuetzthaeufigkeiterklaeren; (3) Der Bestandteil war angebracht fuer dieAlterstufe in jener Klassenzimmer; und (4) Der Leherkonnte Grunden geben fuer die Einbringung des Besandleilsin seinemlihrem Programm.

Analyse der Daten fuehrt an einigen Herbeifuehrungen,die wichtigste von denen war, dass jeder Leher dieBestandleile die am besten angemessen waren mitseinernfihrem persoenlichen und doch berufsrnaessigenStH der Lenrung eingebracht und modifiziert hatte.Vorschlaege fuer zukuenftige Forschung wurden auchgegeben.

Este articuio presenta los resultados de un estudio lievadoa cabo pare evaluar el uso de componentes de AprendizajeAcelerado en escuelas primaries pUblicas. El enfoque sepuso en seis maestros de escuela pOblica y su uso de seis

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componentes de Aprendizaje Acelerado: Autoridad,lnfantilización Doble Pianos, Entonación, Ritmo yPseudopasivismo en concierto. Se usaron mOtodosqualitativos de investigackin. El estudio fue gull/do por unapregunta central: LOue es lo que el maestro experienciamientras implementa los componentes en la clue? Datosse obtuvieron usando los métodos de entrevista yobservacion. Los resultados del estudio se presentaron enestudio de casos de cada maestro y se analizaron a través decuatro premisas: 1) el componente fue usado por elmaestro y fue observado por el investigador; 2) el maestropodia articular la definición del componente y indicar lafrecuencia de su uso; 3) el componente era apropriado parala edad de los alumnos el la clase: y 4) el maestro podia darrazones pars implementar el componente en su programa.Ansi lisis de los datos resultO en algunas conclusiones, lamits importante del las cuales fue que cada maestro hablaincorporado y hecho modificaciones a los componentes quecorrespondian a su estilo personal y profesional deenseflanza. Se ofrecen sugerencias para investigaciOnfutura.

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For further information, contact the author: Dr. SharonFoster, 4938 Old Brownsboro Rd., Louisville, KY 40222.

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J. of the Society fel. Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990, 15 (1&2)

Ball-Stick-Bird: Teaching with the Story Engram

Renee Fuller

Abstract. For almost two decades, the Ball-Stick-Bird reading system, an innovative approach to learning,has produced results which have raised profound questionsabout the nature of intelligence and IQ. What follows is adescription of the system, a summary of the findings, andfinally an attempt to understand the implications of thesesurprising findings within a neurological-behavioral-evolutionary framework. This new theory of cognitiveorganization, the story-as-the-engram theory, offers (1)an explanation for our species' sudden and meteoricintellectual development, and (2) the possibilities foreven greater achievement.

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The Ball-Stick-Bird reading system derives its namefrom the way it highlights alphabet configurations. Thestudent is shown how all the letters of the alphabet can bebuilt with three basic forms: a circle, a line and an angle.These three shapes, which are playfully called a ball, astick and a bird, are so basic to the human nervous systemthat a newborn recognizes them. Even an octopus can be

trained to respond to them.

By building the letters with the three forms whilegiving their most usual sounds, four sense modalities are

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tapped instead of the usual two. Further, the three basicforms highlight those parts of a letter that differentiate Itfrom other letters,

Story reading, however, does not wait for alphabetmastery. The strategy Is to get to genuine reading asrapidly as possible. Beginning reading is taught withcapitals which have the additional advantage of avoidingletter reversals since in B-S-B letter building, the bigstick is always first (to the left). Also letters are knownby their most usual sound, rather than by their alphabetnames, again reducing the initial memory load.

Already with the presentation of the second letter wordbuilding begins. With the presentation of the fourth letterthe first science fiction story starts. To achieve such rapidimmersion into story reading, the order of alphabetpresentation is altered. The simplest and high frequencyletters are presented first. Letters that make the samesound appear contiguously, while those with a similar lookor sound are presented far apart to avoid interference.

Modified phonics are used which do not require finesound discriminations. Since in English thecorrespondence between between letter and sound tends tobe sloppy, the inaccuracies of a student's speech areharnessed to the advantage of the reading process.Approximate soundings come surprisingly easily. ButBall-Stick-Bird takes the process a step further byteaching "code approximation". The student is told that heis a detective, and that the letters are the clues thatIndicate what the word might be. But like all clues, theyhave to make sense in the context of the story. Becausewith code approximation reading is dependent oncomprehension, word calling is all but impossible.

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To help reading comprehension, developmentallinguistics is utilized for the beginning stories which arebuilt primarily with nouns and verbs; gradually adjectivesand adverbs are introduced. Only in later books are themore difficult parts of speech (the articles, connectives,and prepositions) used.

Story comprehension is further enhanced andfacilitated in the beginning books by the layout. Each ideaunit, comprising mainly of a noun and its action verb, hasits own line. These idea units, representing sub-stories,are used to construct the bigger story, line by line. In thisway the layout highlights story building, producing agraphic image of how ideas are put together, how aparagraph is developed. Comprehension can now becomenot only the purpose of reading, but via developmentallinguistics, layout in idea units, and code approximation, isused to help the student learn to read (Fuller, 1974,1975, 1977).

The reading systero. which had been intended for oldernon-readers with normal or superior 10, was successfulfar beyond this group. Normal four-year-olds becameadvanced readers with astonishing ease, and there was not asingle case of dyslexia (Fulier, 1987). The severelyretarded did as well. lit a detailed study, a group of 26institutionalized retardates with 10's as low as 28, who hadpreviously been exposed to extensive educationalintervention, and in spite of this had not mastered most ofthe alphabet, easily learned to read; 24 of them withcomprehension (Fuller, 1974, 1977). Adult illiteratesbecame proficient readers in weeks instead ofyears.(Fuller, 1988). Non-English speakers, the ESLgroup, found the books on open sesame into English.

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But much mote than reading had been learned. Therewere profound cognitive changes which had little relationto IQ or to mental age (Fuller, 1988; Fuller, Shuman,Schmell, Lutkus & Noyes, 1975). Unexpected as theseresults with the very young and the severely retardedwere, even more unexpected was that they had beenachieved with a technology requiring extensive intellectualfeedback and contextual understandings. The use of codeapproximation, developmental linguistics, and layout inidea units, demand a knowledge of language that the veryyoung, the severely retarded, the ESL group, are presumedto lack.

What had the reading system tapped that was not beingmeasured by the IQ or language tests? What aspect ofneural organization, of cognition, had been reached by theteaching system? in spite of the extensive and detailedtesting and background data we had, it took my years tounravel this mystery (Fuller, 1979, 1982, 1985).What follows describes this unraveling process and some ofits implications.

The Discovery of the Memory Engram With WhichWe Think

For the past 50 years psychology has been looking forthe basic unit of memory called the engram. This searchfor the fundamental unit of how we think and rememberhad always struck me as a quest for a mythical constructwhich had little likelihood of becoming a reality. Thehistory of psychology is replete with mythical constructsthat after a generation of popularity peacefully disappear.It was difficult to Imagine a neurologicalibehavioral unitlike the engram that would explain how we see ourselvesand our world. Much as I admired the work of Karl Lashley(1963), his inability to find the engram after years of

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;esearch seemed to prove the point: the engram is amythical construct that would, before long, quietly glideinto oblivion. Which is why when we stumbled on whatnow looks very much like the engram, I didn't recognizewhat we had found.

There is safety in the old paradigm

Even after we had presented our results at an AmericanPsychological Association symposium devoted solely toBall-Stick-Bird, what now seems obvious was notapparent. In detail we described what had happened to ourseverely retarded subjects; the effects on vocabulary,passage reading and understanding, on word list reading, onfollowing written directions. But the why question, whyour low IQ subjects had been able to learn to read advancedmaterial with comprehension, and write such sophisticatedletters and even stories - that question was not reallyanswered. My partial explanation was superficial sandtherefore safely correct. To wit, apparently some abstractcognitive operations are simpler for the human brain thanthe memorization of bits of unstructured material.Further, these bits of information are similar to the itemssampled by IQ tests; which would explain why the successof our population was not correlated with their IQ scores.The question of what exactly in cognitive/neurologicalorganization the Ball-Stick-Bird system had tappedremained unanswered.

Our audience repeatedly suggested the motivationalaspect as the answer. Perhaps because the stories and thedrawings were so entertaining...and yet, how could thatexplain success so far down the IQ scale? Gauging from theletters and notes our students had written to me, the authorof the books they enjoyed, motivation was an important

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factor; but did the system tap into some specific aspect ofcognitive organization?

The paradigm begins to shift

The first realization of some specific aspect beinginvolved came with Ned who had been giving us puzzlingresults. He had learned the alphabet and word buildingquite rapidly. But then, more than a year later he stillcould not combine the words into sentences. All the otherstudents, except one, had been reading sentences longbefore they had mastered all the alphabet.

Joyce, one of our "reading* psychologists pointed outthat "Ned's got survival reading -- that's something. It'smore than ten years of schooling did for him?

I had to agree. But why, when we had succeeded inteaching advanced reading to IQ's in the 30's were wefailing with someone who had an IQ in the 60's? It wasn'tlogical. Although there was Gordy, the other exception whohad not mastered the reading of sentences even though hetoo had no trouble learning the alphabet and word buildingwhen taught with the reduced memory-load techniques ofB-S-B. Did Ned and Gordy have a common denominator?

It's an old adage in science that sometimes our failurestell us more than our successes. Would the understandingof Ned and Gordy's failure explain why the others, not onlylearned to read advanced material with comprehension, butwhy they turned into thinking human beings. At this stage,however, I understood neither the reason for our failuresnor the reason for our successes.

The initial search for the common denominator betweenNed and Gordy produced nothing. Both had come from

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destitute families with a history of trouble with the law.But that was true of most of our students. Both Ned andGordy had set fire to their schools. That too was notunusual. Since we had chosen subjects who despite years ofthe best remedial schooling of every type had not masteredeven the alphabet, our students represented the failuresamong the failwes at the institution for the retarded. Withtheir extensNe neurological and sociological damage theywere the dregs of society, physically, emotionally andsocially. However, in spite of so much of nature andnurture being against them, we had succeeded in teachingthem advanced reading, and to our amazement had seenthem turn into responsive human beings. But not Ned andGordy. Why?

Perhaps their IQ tests would show something. But eventhe most careful scrutiny of all the subtests showednothing unusual. We tried to make the lessons moreexciting by fictually reading son.) of the stories to Ned,hoping that in this way he would get the point of reading,that he would begin to follow the story. He didn't.

I watched the teaching through the one-way mirror,trying to determine what was wrong. However, all I sawwas Judy, one of our psychologists, doing an excitingteaching job. What was it that I wasn't seeing? Finally,taking the course of last resort, I broke into the teachingsession. Judy obviously agreed with my decision, for onopening the door her

it's about time" greeted me.

But my teaching was just as frustrating as hers hadbeen. However, with Ned in front of me I did see one thingthat had not been evident through the one-way mirror. Nedwas trying so hard to learn, his body tense with effort. But

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something seemed to be interfering. Despite his efforts toconcentrate, he just couldn't do it. Impulsively I reachedacross the table and put my hand over his.

And then I felt it!

Ned was losing the muscle tone of his hands severaltimes a minute in synchronization with his loss ofconcentration. How could I have missed something soobvious? Yet it had not been apparent through the one-waymirror. Ned was having petit-mal seizures several timesa minute. Repetitive electrical discharges of this type arestrangely disruptive phenomena.

The next day's examination of Gordy revealed the samekind of petit-mal seizures - fast repetitive electricaldischarges which, gauging from the loss of muscle tone andloss of concentration, probably were accompanied by lossof consciousness. Most important, these discharges,occurring several times a minute, meant that memorytraces for anything more than isolated facts, were notbeing established. Hence Ned and Gordy could team some ofthe segmental bits of information that appear on IQ tests,but they had trouble with coherent wholes.

Realizing what was wrong, it was now so obvious howdifferent the two were from the other students. Tony, oneof our psychologists, who had followed both of them forseveral years described the characteristic difference. Nedand Gordy don't gossip like the rest of the patients. Theydon't know the political intrigue of the hospital which theother patients find so entertaining. They don't even knowthe details of their own lives." Of course these defects hadnot shown up on the IQ tests.

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As long as nothing more was required of Ned and Gordythan learning bits of information which had beensimplified to the toddler level, they could succeed. This iswhat B-S-B does for alphabet recognition and wordbuilding. However, the story part of the teaching system,which was so important to the other students, wasmeaningless to them. And because they could not rememberand therefore follow a story, Ned and Gordy could not usethe contextuai cues to help them learn.

The development of the new paradigm

By being unusual, by showing what someone whosebrain is unable to follow a story can and cannot do, Ned andGordy demonstrated how all-encompassing the effects ofstory (=prehension are not only to learning, but also forhuman Interaction. The other severely retarded studentscontrasted sharply in that despite their retardation theywere story engrossed. They showed us that storycomprehension Is so fundamental and overrepresented inthe human brain that even a severely damaged brain canalmost always call on this capacity. Hal was our mostextraordinary demonstration of this fact.

Diagnosed as having central cortical blindness whichmanifested Itself in graphic aphasia, Hal was brought intoour study to determine if the reduced memory-loadtechniques of B-S-B could overcome his defect. Also bythat time we were curious whether the contextual cuesfrom the stories could compensate for the reducedinformation input resulting from his graphic aphasia. Halshowed himself a total reverse of Ned and Gordy. Helearned to read the stories in almost no time, expertlyanticipating what would happen next. And yet even after hebecame a fluent reader there were occasions when he failedto recognize identical letters side by side as being the same.

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For Hal, B-S-B's developmental linguistics, layout inidea units, and probably code approximation made acognitive breakthrough possible. By using contextual cueshe was able to compensate for what his brain could not see,for his graphic aphasia.

For Hal, as for most of us, the whole was moreimportant in the learning process than the memorization ofthe parts. And the whole that B-S-B had used was thestory. As it turned out, it was a crucial choice.

But what exactly is a story, and how does it come intobeing? When does story comprehension begin indevelopment, and what is it composed of? How didevolution build the story capacity and the need for storytelling that is so characteristic of our species? And whatis the relation of story cohesion to thinking, and thereforeconsciousness?

It was the asking of these questions and my search fortheir answers that made me realize that B-S-B must havetapped something basic in human cognitive develorment.The stories and letters written by our beginning readersfurnished the clue. Une by careful line, these writtencommunications were built with idea units a la B-S-B. Atfirst the idea units were composed of just a noun and itsaction verb. But even after becoming advanced readers, theletters and stories had traces of the original B-S-B idea-unit layout. And when our retarded students talked withus, they didn't use the haphazard techniques of the past.instead they carefully put together what they had to say byfirst searching for the right noun, then the verb, graduallyadding the adjectives and adverbs. They were puttingtogether idea units which they used to build the biggerstory. Sometimes our severely retarded students wrote outwhat they wanted to tell us. Again they mimicked the

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layout of the beginning books, and with idea units theyconstructed the bigger story line by line. One of ourstudents with a Binet IC in the 30's explained his reasonfor writing things out in this way with "It help you think".

Once I realized that the fundamental unit of cognitiveorganization that B-S-B had tapped was the idea unit,which is actually a miniature story, the next question waswhere on the evolutionary scale does the idea unit orminiature story begin? At what stage does it appear inchild development?

The evolution of the idea unit is a fascinating story ofits own. Some of the higher mammals, as experimentswith seals, dolphins, monkeys, chimpanzees, and gorillashave shown, can recognize and sometimes even expressnouns and action verbs. Seyfarth's (1980) vervetmonkeys had a different series of sounds for panther, snakeor eagle; and each of these nouns produced a differentresponse - or action verb. Here we see the beginning ofthe idea unit, which is also the beginning of the miniaturestory. On a personal level, many of us have known dogsthat recognize the names (nouns) of certain objects likeball, stick, slipper; and verbs like sit, fetch and bark. Anoccasional dog - I had one - re.ponds to selected nouns andverbs, differentiating the idea units quite skillfully. RogerFouts (personal communication) restrained one eagerchimpanzee from going into the next room by signing to herthat there was a dangerous monster on the other side of thedoor. The chimpanzee's reaction was reminiscent of that ofour own children: she requested that he sign "the story"again and again, shrieking with delight at every repetition.

As for our human children, already by the time he/shecan express two words (at about one year of age) there isan implicit understanding of some of the idea units that

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appear in the beginning B-S-B books. A two to three-yearold uses "telegraphic" speech which is composed mainly ofa noun dnd its action verb (an idea unit) to tell hisminiature stories. He/she also demonstrates anunderstanding of how idea units are used to build biggerstories when requesting "read me story". B-S-B mimicsthis developmental process, and by presenting in graphicform what the human mind does naturally, the teachingsystem not only facilitated the learning of reading, butactually taught (albeit unintentionally) how language andtherefore thinking are put together.

The idea unit, or miniature story, as a unit ofinformation processing is not the only way thatinformation storage and processing could or has evolved.An example of an alternative way is that of the bees.Theirs is a highly efficient form requiring the investmentof only a tiny nervous system. In contrast, the mammalianbrain is an expensive energy investment. However, it hasa building block that has evolved to allow for theorganization and storage of an astonishing volume ofinformation which can be recombined in numerousdifferent ways. It also led to the uniquely human way ofstructuring reality which, as the B-S-B results haveshown, can be developed beyond our wildest hopes.

Describing the idea unit and its implications for humanle:Ealing, retention, thinking and awareness, it graduallydawned on me that I was describing that mythicalconstruct, the engram. Except that it wasn't mythical, butsomething astonishingly concrete whose development couldbe traced through the evolution of the higher mammals; adevelopment that is recapitulated in the ontogeny of everychild. This idea unit, this engram, functions as ourcognitive organizer and therefore structures our consciousreality. As our memory engram, and because of Its nature,

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it involves the whole brain (including our emotionallimbic system), which explains why it was present inalmost ail of our severely retarded (damaged) subjects(Fuller, 1982).

The story engram has given us a powerful cognitivetool. With it we can organize, summarize, and reintegratean enormous amount of information. But the story engramdoes more than help us remember facts, happenings andbits of knowledge. By imposing a structure on reality itdetermines how we humans perceive our world. The causalrelationship, the either/or phenomena, the dichotomies,are imposed by an engram that derives its structure from anoun-action-verb ontogeny. It therefore determines anddefines what is human logic. Here is the "neuralinterpreter" that Gazzaniga (1988) describes in hissplit-brain experiments, and the evolutionary "tricks toenlarge memory and speed computation" (p. 60) of EdwardO. Wilson (1984). All the sophistication of artificialintelligence (Al) has not been able to simulate the power ofour cognitive organizer, the story engram, in navigatingthe real world. But then, according to Feigenbaum (1983)"getting around in the real world is not a highly structuredtask...? (p. 57).

As the cognitive building block, the story engram is sofundamental to our thinking process that it is difficult forus to imagine an alternative way of perceiving our world.So completely do we take this way of structuring realityfor granted, that that even the aliens of our science fictioninvariably communicate in story form. This despite thefact that numerous life forms on our own planet haveevolved alternative ways of communicating and informationprocessing. My own slowness in recognizing what aspect ofcognitive organization B-S-B had tapped is an example ofboth, how much we take the story engram for granted, and

how little we are cognizant of its existence. Yet this lack ofawareness goes hand in hand with a deep emotionalattachment to our cognitive organizer to whosemanifestations and elaborations we devote much of ourwaking life.

There are several reasons for this attachment. As wesaw with our B-S-B students, the story engram, byfunctioning as our cognitive organizer, has made us astory-telling-thinking species. And because the engramhas a feed:lack loop into the limbic system, our stories canmake us cry, or laugh, or produce any other emotion thatbelongs to us. Rico (1983), using her clusteringtechnique which elicits the story engram, has demonstratedthe clinical and cognitive power of this feedback loop.

But there is another very important aspect of the storyengram that we saw in our students. After they had learnedto use the story engram to build the bigger stories withwhich they described themselves and their world, theymatured far beyond 10 expectations (Fuller et al., 1975).Having learned to impose a structure on the world aroundthem, they saw themselves as having acquired a structure,an identity. What had once been suffering, voicelessmasses of protoplasm, now became thinking humansbeings. Descriptive of this is the moving account by LindaMacRae Campbell (1988, 1986) of the metamorphosis ofher institutionalized retarded student into a would-beautobiographer. He succeeded in his dream, and in hisheartfelt thank you letter to B-S-B. Bill Knacke's InsideWorld (1988)* is a vibrant demonstration that for ushumans the telling of the human story creates awarenessor consciousness. Descartes should have proclaimedfabulor ergo sum, instead of cogito erc o sum; because withstory creation we define our very being. Story

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organization allows us to look at ourselves, talk and think&lout ourselves, and maybe someday know ourselves.

The Intellectual history of mankind, a meager sixthousand or so years old, is deeply entwined with thedevelopment of the story engram as our cognitiveorganizer. With it we transmitted from generation togeneration the successes and failures of the past as well asthe explanations and hopes for the future. The advent ofliteracy formalized this transmission. But somethingmore happened.

The linkage between literacy and the intellectualexplosion of the last six thousand years is no accident. Forliteracy facilitated the isolation of the engram, allowingthe writer to headline or highlight an idea unit as a conceptor construct, As with our B-S-B students, this helpedhighly educated people to think. These literateintellectuals had learned (albeit implicitly) how to isolateengrams and determine how well they imposed a structureon the chaos of life. In this way they also found out thatengrams which cannot be validated may give the wrongstructure with which to think, and that accurate engramscan be tools for further understandings. It is the validationof engrams that brought about our age of science an agewhich is just a few hundred years old. In these last fewhundred years we have learned that accurate engrams canindeed be used as scaffoldings for marvelous edifices of thehuman mind. How very ironic that it was severelyretarded students, not an intellectual elite, whorecapitulated this historical process and showed thatknowing how to build engrams, and using them for furtherbuilding of stories and ideas, brings with it an emotionaland intellectual metamorphosis.

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But in addition, the B-S-B results establishedsomething quite unexpected. They demonstrated thatengram building can be taught, with astonishing results foreven the least endowed. Results with normal four-year-olds have been just as spectacular, creating demands forfurther research. The findings to date give us a glimpse ofthe potential achievements that could be within the reach ofthe human species as we seek metacognitive understandingswith our neurological - behavioral building block, thestory engram.

References

Campbell, L. M. (1986). Emerging from illiteracy. Onthe beam, 7, 9.

Campbell, L.M.16, 13.

Feigenbaum, E.Generation.MA.

(1988). The inside world. In Context,

A., & McCorduck, P. (1983). The FifthAddison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,

Fuller, R (1972). Reading need not be IQ-bound. TheBulletin, NY State District Branches AmericanPsychiatric Association, June, 12.

Fuller, R. (1974). Breaking down the IQ walls.Psychology Today, 8, 96-102.

Fuller, R. (1975). Reading as therapy for the severelyretarded. The Bulletin, NY State District Branches,American Psychiatric Association, June, 1.

Fuller, R. (1977). In Search of the JO Correlation. Ball-Stick-Bird Publications, Stony Brook, NY.

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Fuller, R. (1979). Teaching reading with stories vs.cognitive hierarchy. Journal of SuggestiveAccelerative Learning & Teaching, 4, 220-227.

Fuller, R. (1982). The story as the engram, is itfundamental to thinking? The Journal of Mind andBehavior, 3, 127-142.

Fuller, R. (1985). Reading without dyslexia. On theBeam, 6, 13-14.

Fuller, R. (1987). Dyslexia vanishes when brain-basedreading method is used. Cutting Edge, 17, 1.

Fuller, R. (1988). Beyond IQ. In Context, 18, 10-13.

Fuller, R. (1989). Understanding good and evil. HomeSchool Digest, Summer, 14-16.

Fuller, R., Shumal, J. B., Schmell, J. A., Lutkus, A. E., eNoyes, E. J. i1 975). Reading as therapy in patientswith severe I deficits. Journal of Clinical chilePsychology, 4, 17-19.

Gazzaniga, M. S. (1988). Mind Matters. HoughtonMifflin, Boston, MA.

Lashley, K. (1950). In search of the engram. InPhysiological Mechanisms in Animal Behavior(Society of Experimental Biology Symposium, No. 4)454-48 2.

Rico, G. L. (1983). Writing the natural way: Using rightbrain techniques to release your expressive pullers.Tarcher, Los Angeles, CA.

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Seyarth, R. M., Cheney, D. L., & Mar ler, P. (1980).Monkey responses to three different alarm calls:Evidence of predator classification and semanticcommunication. Science, 210, 801-803.

Wilson, E. 0. (1984). Biophilia. Harvard UniversityPress, Cambridge MA.

Fuer fast zwel Jahrzehnten, das "Ba II-Stift-Voger LesenSystem, ein erneuerungender einfuehrender Zugang anLernen, hat Resultaten gegeben, die tiefgruendige Fragenueber die Art der Intelligenz und des lOs aufgehoben haben.Folgend ist eine Beschreibung des Systems, eine kurzeAngabe der Resultaten, und zum letzen ein Veresuch nachVerstandung der Elnbeziehung dieser ueberraschendenErgebnissen drinnen des neurologischen-Benehmungs-Evolutions-Gefueges. Diese neue Theorie Erkennungs-organiations, die "Geschichte-als-das-Engram" Theoriebietet (1) eine Erklaerung fuer die ploetzliche undmeterorische Intellektuelle Entwicklung unserer Gattung,und (2) die Moeglichkeiten fuer noch hoehere Errichung.

Durante casi dos dOcados, & sistema de leer "Ball-Stick-Bird", un sistema innovativo de aprender, ha producldoresultados que han provocado importantes preguntas sabrela naturaleza de la inteligencia. Lo que sigue es unadescripcion del sistema, un resumen de los resultados, ypor fin un Intento de entender las implicaciones de estosresultados sorprendentes dentro de un sistemaneurolOgico-behaviorista-evolucionario. Este teorfanueva de organización cognoscitiva, la teoria "story-as-an-engram", ofrece (1) una explicación pars el desarrollointelectual abrupto y meteOrico de nuestra especie y (2)las posibilidades de aim mayores logros.

Dr.Renee Fuller, Box 592, Stony Brook, NY 11790.

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990. 15(1&2).

A SALT Pilot Study in College Developmental Mathematics

by

Allyn Prichard

Abstract. A SALT developmental mathematics pilotstudy was conducted during Winter quarter, 1986 atKennesaw College (Cobb County, GA). The experimental(SALT) class significantly outscored the controls on thedepartmental final exam. Retention and per cent passingdata also favored the SALT class.

INTRODUCTION

Mathematics 098 is the first of two sequentialdevelopmental mathematics courses offered at KennesawCollege. Together with its successor, Math 099, it isdesigned to piepare students whose math skills are rusty(adults returning to college in mid-life) or undeveloped(recent high school graduates who did not pursue a college-prep curriculum) for the regular, entry-level freshmanmath courses.

Students with low SAT math scores combined with lowscorers on a locally developed placement test are enrolledin Math 098 or Math 099 according to the amount ofremediation deemed necessary. Thus Math 098 constitutesthe lowest level of training in mathematics at Kennesaw: itincludes operations involving fractions, operations withsigned numbers, the laws of exponents, operations onpolynomials, factoring, radicals, solving first degree

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equations, and applications. This material is roughlyequivalent to high school Algebra I.

Math 098 students may be characterized as possessingat least one of the characteristics that typically correlatewith low scores on the SAT-math subtest. Low aptitude,inadequate training, poor time management and studyskills, below average motivation, and math-phobia have allaffected this student population to some degree.

METHOD

An acceptable definition of a SALT teacher is as follows:one who orchestrates all aspects of the classroomatmosphere in order to create maximum suggestive impactfor the purpose of freeing the mind's learning reserves.There are seven sources of suggestion available for theteacher to use to that end: teacher verbals, teachernonverbals, classroom decor, nature and sequencing ofactivities, nature and sequencing of materials, among-pupil suggestion and pupil auto-suggestion. This pilotstudy did not attempt to include all of the available sourcesof suggestion; indeed, it should be considered a chy run forthe instructor (the author) who had never beforeattempted to teach Algebra with SALT-type methodologyunder controlled experimental conditions.

The experimental variables selected for manipulationin this study were: a pre-instructional guided imageryactivity (mind calming) carried out without music, a two-part relaxation review covering major lesson topics, astrong positive-suggestive atmosphere characterized byteacher verbal assurances that not only did the class havethe ability to excell but was actually doing so, and specialextra-credit assignments (challenge problems called brain

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teasers) described as being appropriate only for classeswith special potential in mathematics.

The sequence of activities in a typical experimental(SALT) class (meeting for three 85 minute sessions perweek) was as follows:

MINUTES1. Class business (roll call,announcements, etc.) 5

2. Mind calming 5

3. Review of previous lesson, includingteacher demonstration of difficult problems 15-20

4. Presentation of new material 2 5 3 0

5. Small group work 2 0

6. Relaxation review 1 0

The co .trol group also met on a M/W/F 85-minuteperiod schedule. The activities carried on there weresimilar to those listed above, except #2 and #6 wereeliminated, no special suggestion were given concerningthe abilities of the class, and no extra "brain teaserassignments* were given.

Mind Calming

This activity is an integral part of SALT. Studentsclosed their eyes, focused their attention on theirbreathing, and relaxed as they listened to the instructorread from one of seven specially prepared scripts, eachdesigned to both promote relaxat:on and evoke mental

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imagery. The seven scripts were alternated in order toavoid boredom. Six of the scripts described fantasy tripsto familiar places, including a waterfall, a springtime tripthrough a field of flowers, and a birds eye view of an oceanbeach, complete with suggestions related to the sounds(seagulls and surf), sights, and smells (fresh air, saltywater) of the seashore. The remaining mind calmingscript consisted only of relaxation suggestions. Itencouraged each student to create his own favorite relaxingplace where he could enjoy whatever spontaneous imageryarose without hearing a voice guiding that flow. As thequarter progressed, this proved to be the most popularmind calming exercise. Once students began to realize thebenefits of relaxation/visualization, they became eager totake control of the activity in order to make best use oftheir personal relaxing time.

Relaxation Review

This activity was also carried out only in the SALTclass: a two part review of the material presented that day,the first part without music, the second with a classicalmusic background. In part 1, students closed their eyesand relaxed for 1-2 minutes (many of them indicated thatthey traveled to their favorite relaxing place). Then theyopened their eyes and listened to the instructor while theyread along with him in their notes as he summarized theday's lesson. Care was taken to review definitions,theorems, and major points which had ben written on theboard and thus were to have been copied in class notes. Inpart two of the review, students closed their eyes andrelaxed again while the instructor reviewed the samematerial. The same definitions, theorems, and majorpoints were repeated; care was taken to pause between eachto allow for the formation of appropriate images instudents' minds.

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Part two of the review was conducted over a tapedmusic background featuring the Baroque works ofcomposers such as Corelli, Bach, Vivaldi, and Telemann.Students were instructed not to try to remember. Insteadthey were simply to let go, immersing themselves in themusic as if they were at a concert, allowing the music tocarry the information borne by the instructor's voice intotheir memory with no special effort on their part. Anyaccompanying visual images related to the math lessonwere to be experienced, then allowed to fade away intotheir unconscious minds as the instructor moved on to thenext item in the review. The review ended with a halfminute of lust music" and with silence: time for studentsto return to their normal waking state (another thirtyseconds or so).

RESULTS

The final examination for both experimental andcontrol classes was a department-wide, locally developed,50 item multiple choice test. Results were as follows.

Mean

Experimental Control(SALT) Class Class

39.68 (n.28) 34.38 (n=21)

A Hest of the significance of the difference (5.3points) between thc two means yielded a t value of 2.27,significant at the .05 level.

In addition to higher final exam scores, retention andper cent passing were higher in the SALT class. Twenty-eight of thirty students completed the SALT class; 23 ofthem (77%) passed. Only 21 of 30 control group studentscompleted the course; 15 of them pased (50%).

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DISCUSSION

The fact that the experimental (SALT) classsignificantly outscored the controls was a hoped-foroutcome, though it was by no means considered inevitable.The reader may realize that suggestive tools such asintonation, role playing, and positive-suggestiveclassroom decor were not used at all, while use of othertools such as teacher nonverbals and metaphor wasspontaneous and only occasional, rather than constituting aplanned, integral part of the classroom routine.

It may be accurately said that the author chose to beginSALT applications in developmental mathematics at amanageable pace, choosing to carefully control use of somesuggestive tools while hoping to move on to others in laterclasses.

The logical extension of SALT methodology for laterMath 098 classes should include more extensive use ofmusic: specifically during the introduction of newmaterial, during group work, and during the first part ofthe relaxation review. Intonation and greater attention toteacher nonverbals are important areas for further work.

The author believes these data are supportive of resultsalready obtained in the general lines of inquiry SALTresearchers have pursued over the years and that furtherinvestigation of the variables involved in the suggestion/de-suggestion process will yield valuable insight intomethods necessary for the activation of the mind'sreserves.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bancroft, W.J. (1976). The Lozanov language class.Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learning andTeaching, 1(1), 48-74.

Bancroft, W. J. (1983). Yoga factors in accelerativelearning. Journal of the Society for AccelerativeLearning and Teaching, 8(3&4), 115-127.

Caskey, 0. (1980). Suggestive Accelerative Learning andTeaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational TechnologyPublishers.

Haynes, J. R. (1973). On the function of visual imageryin elementary mathematics. In W.G. Chase (ed.), VisualInformation Processing. New York: Academic Press.

Prichard, A. & Taylor, J. (1980). Accelerating Learning:The Use of Suggestion in the Classroom. Novato, CA:Academic Therapy Publications.

Richardson, A. (1969). Memory Imagery. New York:Springer.

Samuels, M. & Samuels, N. (1975). Seeing with theMind's Eye: The History, Technique:. and Use ofVisualization. New York: Random House/Bookworks.

Schuster, D. H. & Gritton, C. (1986). SuggestiveAccelerative Learning Techniques: Theory andApplications. New York: Gordon and Breach.

Staiger, E. (1984). The mechanics of script preparationfor accelerative learning and teaching. Journal of the

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Society for Accelerative Learning and Tearhing, 9(121-31.

Taylor, B. (1984). Low budget introduction of elementaryaccelerative mathematics. Journal of the Society forAccelerative Learning and Teaching, 9(3), 183-194.

Wenger, W. (1984). Demonstration in spontaneous visualimagery. Journal of the Society for AccelerativeLearning and Teaching, 9(4), 307-313.

* * *

Eine SALT entwicklungsversuchstudie der Mathematik wurdedurchgefuehrt waehrend des Winterquartals, in 1986, bel der KennesawHochschule (Cobb County, GA). Die (SALT) Versuchsklassebemerkenswert uebererzielt die Kontrolklasse auf das Abteil-ungsschlussexamen, Daten ueber Behalten und Prozent schaffend auch dieSALT Klasse bevorzugt.

Se acabO un estudio pHoto de ciesarrollo maternáticoutillzando SALT durante el invierno de 1986 en KennesawCollege (Cobb County, Georgia). Los alumnos de la claseexperimental (SALT) obtuvieron marcas signifi-cativamente mAs altas que los controles en el examen finaldel departarnento. Datos de retención y por ciento aprobadotambien favorecian a la clase SALT.

ft * * *

For further information, contact the author: Dr. AllynPrichard, Rt. 8, Univeter Rd., Canton, GA 30114

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1 5( 1 4 2)

Education for Blacks in South Africa: Issues, Problems andPerspectives

Alex Thembela

Vice-Chairman of the Board of Trustees UPTTRAIL Trust,Republic of South Africa

Abstract. in this article some of the issues whichconstitute major problems in the education of Black SouthAfricans are sketched. In the first place the discontinuitybetween the pupils' traditional home background and aWesternized system of education creates severe obstacles.They are aggravated by the fact that Black culture is itselfin transition, by the contempt with which Black culturewas regarded by the colonialists and by the discriminatorypolitical practices which denied Black education adequateprovision. Other issues that further complicate educationfor Blacks are discussed. To remedy such a situation,Intervention of an exceptional nature is needed. TheUPTTRAIL project promises to provide such intervention.

* * * * * * *

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introduction

In this article I am going to discuss some issues whichconstitute major problems in the education of Black SouthAfricans. In order to fit these issues into their context, itwill be necessary to start with a brief historical sketchand also to mention some socio-political issues. It is inthis context that particular issues relating to education canbe properly understood and appreciated. My thesis in thisarticle is that the problems in the education for BlackSouth Africans emanate from a complex set of influencesand anyone who desires to contribute something towardsthe amelioration or elimination of these problems mustenter the arena at certain strategic points.

Brief Historical Background

School education for Black South Africans was graftedon the social and cultural life of the various tribalsocieties by the missionaries towards the end of the 18thcentury, but particularly in the middle of the 19thcentury. The intention in this discussion is not to sketchthe history of the introduction of formal school educationamongst the South African Blacks. The issue that is beinghighlighted here is that the introduction of school educationdivided Blacks not only into educated and non-educatedclasses, but also into christianised and non-christianisedgroups. When industrialisation and urbanisation later tookplace, both groups were affected, for these social processesset in motion a dynamic movement away from the stablenorm of traditionalism to the highly unstable conditions ofmodernism.

Those groups or individuals who have been favoured bycircumstances, and who have also possessed the ability toadapt quickly to new conditions, have moved faster through

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the process of social transformation. Those left behind atvarious stages of development have been resident mainly inthe rural areas. This process has been complicated by theSouth African political system that has discriminatedagainst Blacks in the matter of providing facilities.

It is necessary to understand that during themissionary era (up to 1953). Christian norms werecleady and deliberately persued. School education wasmainly In aid of evangelising the Blacks. Schools in themission stations drew pupils from families that acceptedChristianity. When mass education was promoted for aquarter of a century during the Bantu Education era(1954-1979), pupils emerged from families which wereat various stages of transition from traditionalism tomodernism. The heterogeneous social background of thepupils made it difficult for teachers to uphold a consistentvalue system. The teachers themselves did not understandthe educational implications of these social dynamicsbecause of their own background and low qualifications. Asa consequence, school education became concerned merelywith the imparting of the bare facts of the subject matter,which were hardly related to the daily lives of the pupils.

This phenomenon of cultural discontinuity between thepupils' home background and school education has beenfound in many countries in Africa. Shehu (1984, p. 31)reports that the agents of colonialism, whether civilservants, members of the armed forces, missionaries,explorers or traders, ridiculed, criticised and oftenhumiliated Africans regarding their cultural heritage.African religions were labeled primitive, works of artwere described as crude or immoral, dances were seen asritualistic and sensual. None of these age-old heritageswas considered worthy of any respect or preservation.Western European standards were applied to Africa and

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pursued vigorously with the effect that the Africanincreasingly admired Western culture. What we aresaying here is that whereas school education was part ofthe culture of Europe, there was cultural discontinuity inAfrica which created an obstacle to African advancement.African education must find a way of introducing modemtechnology quickly and effectively so that indigenouspopulations can assimilate this technology in such a way asto have full command of it.

Wider Issues

One issue that we need to highlight at a socio-politicallevel is the one of social norms. School education usuallypromotes middle class norms. Pupils from the lowerclasses or disadvantaged groups have always found itdifficult to compete with pupils who come from the middleclass homes. In South Africa, Black people not only comefrom a culture in transition, but they are also at thebottom of the South African social structure which happensto be determined by race as well. Nevertheless, a sizablenumber have been able to surmount the social and culturalbarriers and are able to compete favourably with the otherrace groups (but there are exceptions). The core of theproblem is that there is a great majority of Black peoplewho are, educationally, seriously handicapped and cannotget out of this dilemma. Something quite drastic must bedone to address this problem.

This problem is complicated by the political issueswhich have created an environment of discriminationagainst Blacks and made it difficult for them to overcometheir educational problems. If Blacks merely had to handlethe problem of coping with a situation of adapting a foreignsystem of education to their social and culturalcircumstances (without having to be bothered by the

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political struggle), they would have sufficient homeworkto do.

The discriminatory practices in the provision ofeducation for Blacks have created a perception in themwhich has filtered down to to the pupils that they are beingeducated for slavery. Black students and pupils have beenboycotting classes and even burning down their ownschools. This may seem to be a futile, stupid and self-defeating exercise, but it is a rejection of a system that haslost its credibiiity.

This is the dilemma in which education for Blacks findsitself today. The Department of Education and Training (ofthe White government) has increased its budgetdramatically since 1976 and much more improvement andmany innovations have been effected, but perceptions of"education for slavery* still persist in some quarters. Inthis case the social arrangements in the country, born outof the prevailing political system, are a main cause ofdissatisfaction and constitute an obstacle to educationaladvancement for Black South Africans.

These cultural and socio-political issues constitute thewider context within which the following specific issuescan be viewed.

Specific Issues

The Language Issue

Several threads complicate this issue. Viewed fromhistorical perspectives, there is first a colonial hangoverand indoctrination that make some Black people believethat a really educated person is the one who speaks Englishvery well. Then there is the apparent contradiction

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between the desire for the development of national andcultural pride on the one hand and the desire forwesternisation on the other. This policy is manifested inthe languEge policy of the schools. A very strong argumentfor the use of Englisb as the medium of instruction in Blackschools in South Africa is that English in an internationallanguage, a language of commerce and industry, of scienceand literature. On the other hand, it is argued that whilethe use of the African languages as media of Instructionwould be pedagogically sound, the use of these languages, itis asserted, would lock the Blacks into their small tribalcultural kraals from which they would not emerge. Blackchildren, therefore, learn through their various mothertongues for the first four years and thereafter switch overto English as a medium of instruction. Black pupils,particularly from rural areas, seldom hear or use Englishoutside the classroom. Obviously, the use of a foreignmedium presents the child with the double problem ofhaving to struggle with the language as well as with theconcepts of a particular subject. It must also be pointedout that the subject matter is itself western-oriented,selected and ordered from Western culture. Black pupilslearn more about the French and American revolutions, andvery little about the African struggles for inder endence.Many Blacks learn about electricity when there is none intheir environment.

The extent to which the use of a foreign language asmedium of instruction affects the cognitive development ofBlack pupils has not been properly investigated. It seemsthat the great majority of pupils struggle along and give upsooner or later. This may be one reason amongst others forthe great drop-out rate among Black pupils. Add to thisdifficult situation the fact that many Black teachersthemselves have not properly mastered either the language

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of instruction or the concepts they themselves aretransmitting.

The present norm for an acceptably qualified teacher inSouth Africa is Grade 12 (Standard 10) plus a three years'professional qualification. In 1983, only 23.1% ofteachers in Black schools were properly qualified. In thisregard, a Report of the Human Sciences Research Council(1981) said 'Without a corps of well-trained and talentedteachers, any endeavor aimed at a system of education bymeans of which the potential of the country's inhabitants isto be realised, economic growth promoted, the quality oflife of the inhabitants improved and education of qualityprovided to everyone, cannot be successful.*

Table 1. The pupil-teacher ratio for 1983 was as followsfor the different racial groups:

Whites Asians Coloureds Blacks

18.2:1 23.6:1 26.7:1 42.7:1

Source: Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1983,Johannesburg, for 198' 7... 421.

Financing of Education

Despite the fact that a considerable amount of moneyhas been made available by the government for Blackeducation since 1976, the gap that still exists between theamounts spent on the Black child and children of other race

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groups remains unacceptably wide as the following tableIndicates:

Table 2. Per Capita Expenditure on Education 1982/1983

including Excluding

Capital Expenditure

Wh ite R 1,385.00 R 1,211.00

Coloureds 871.87 711.16

Indian 591.37 497.59

Black 191.34 146.44

Source: Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1983, p.420.

* * *

The situation is changing now as the government beginsto put more money into education for Blacks..

The consequences of the socio-political environmentdescribed above, the poor qualifications of teachers,inadequate financing and a low teacher-pupil ratio showthemselves in the following symptoms:

Many Black children are leaving school withoutobtaining sustainable literacy. if this situation does not

52

change, there will continue to be an increasing number ofuneducated and undereducated people in South Africa.

There are indications of improvement In the pass ratesince 1987.

Conclusion

The perspective I wish to emphasize is that sinceeducational disability is usually found among socially andeconomically disadvantaged groups in all societies, we canconclude that there is a systematic relationship betweensocial conditions and educational competence. Theculturally deprived child may also be retarded in cognitiveskills by the time he enters school. Many Black childrencome from squalid slums on the periphery of large cities,which, with their overcrowded apartments, offer a limitedrange of stimulation to a child. Little money is availablefor newspapers, books, magazines, and few Blackcommunities or schools possess libraries. Any attempt toimprove the quality and qualifications of teachers isfrustrated by these many handicaps. The net effect is that

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Table 3. Drop out rate

Standardor Grade

Original Still at School in 1975Enrollment Number Percentage

2 (Gr. 4) 687,990 419,212 60.95 (Gr. 7) 624,942 221,019 35.48 (Gr. 10) 515,449 50,772 9.910 (Gr. 12) 443,030 9,009 2.0

Source: Energos, 1983, p. 56

* * *

schools are not producing properly educated individualswho can hold their own anywhere in the world of scienceand art, religion, literature and religion, commerce andindustry (in sufficient numbers). Instead, schools areproviding a powder keg of resistance as more and morepupils perceive the conditi,ns at school to be an inevitableconsequence of the general socio-political situation.

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Table 4. Failure Rate

Black Matriculants 1979-1983

Year No. of No. No.Candidates Passed Obtaining

MatricExemption

%

1979 14,574 10,706 73.5 4,136 28.5

1980 29,973 15,935 53.2 4,714 15.7

1981 48,571 25,963 53.5 6,069 12.5

1982 60,108 30,541 50.8 6,336 10.5

1983 72,168 34,876 48.3 7,108 9.8

Source: Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1983, p.439.

* * *

In summary, in this paper I have tried to show that thehistorical development of school education for Blacks inSouth Africa created a situation of cultural and socialconflict that made it difficult for education to proceedsmoothly. The South African socio-political arrangementsplace Blacks at the bottom of the social structure, thuscreating tremendous obstacles for Blacks and making itdifficult for them to do well at school. The conditionswhich exist in Black schools make it difficult to attaineffective transmission of knowledge, proper developmentof skills and the acquisition of understanding and insight by

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pupils. The absence of a supportive environment in homesand schools within which wholesome attitudes andappreciation may develop, and the at,sence of means and thelack of capacity by teachers to develop in their pupilsqualities of creativity, reasoning powers, and originality,all add up to a situation posing serious obstacles toadvancement in Black education. It ,.as always been asource of amazement that many Etacks still achieveeducational eminence in spite of these problems.

The purpose of this article was not to provide answersto the many problems that beset the education for Blacks inSouth Africa. This situation calls for wider and deeperattention to the transformation of South African society andat the same time special and deliberate attention to allthose specific issues that constitute obstacles to therealisation of educational goals. It seems to me thedevelopment of language and thinking skills that theUPTTRAIL Trust tries to attend to goes to the heart of thematter in an attempt to solve the problem.

I have great pleasure in recommending the pilotproject on the upgrading of language, thinking and teachingskills for your very careful consideration.

References

Annual Report. (1983). Department of Education andTraining, Pretoria.

Energos. (1983). Published for Mobil Oil S. A. (Pty) Ltd.by Aviation Publications, Johannesburg.

Human Sciences Research Council. (1981). Provision ofEducation in the R.S.A. Pretoria.

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Kallaway, P. (Ed.). (1984). Apartheid and Education: TheEducation of Black South Africans. Johannesburg:Ravan Press.

Survey of Race Relations in South Africa. (1983).Johannesburg: South African Institute of RaceRelations.

Shehu, U. (1984). The African Predicament, Culture,Identity, Science and Technology in the 20th Century.Africa: Review of German-African Relations, 25(1).

Thembela, A. J. (1986). Educational obstacles in Blackadvancement. In Smollen, R. (Ed.), Black Advancementin the South African Economy. Mac Milan South Lfrica(Publishers) Ply Ltd, Braamfontein, Johannesburg.

**

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In diesem Artikel, einige der Streitfragen die Haupt-probiemen in die Erziehung der Schwartzen in Sued Afrikaelnrichten warden erlaeutert. Zuerst, die Unstetigkeitzwischen der traditionellen Heim-Umgebung der Schuelernund einem verwestlichenden Erziehungssystem verursachtstrenge Hindernisse. Diese Hindernisse werden ver-schlirnmert durch die Tatsache, dass die Kultur derSchwarzen selbst in einer Uebergangzeit ist, bei derVerachtung Ueberweisend an die Kultur der Schwartzen beiden Sled lern, und bei den unterschiedlichen politischenGewoehnlichkeiten, die die Erziehung der Schwartzengenuegende Vorsorge verneint. Anderen Streitfragen, dieErziehung der Schwartzen welter komplizieren, wardendiskutiert. Urn solche Lege zu heilen Dazwischentreten derausserordentlichen Art wird gebraucht. Das UPTTRAILProjekt verspricht solches Dazwischentreten zubeschaffen.

En este articulo se indican temas que representangrandes problemas en la educación de negros sudafricanos.En primer lugar, descontinuidad entre el ambientetradicional casero de los alumnos y el sistema occidental deeducaciOn crea obstaculos serios. Estos se agravan por elhecho de qua la niisma culture negra esta en transicion, porel desdén con que los colonialistas miraben a la culturanegra y por las practices politicas descriminatorias quenegaban provision adecuada para la enserianza negra. Otrostemas que complican la ensellanza negra se discuten. Pararemediar tal situaciOn se necesita una intervenciOn de unanaturaleza excepcional. El proyecto UPTTRA1L promoteofrecer tat intervenciOn.

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching1990. 15(162)

Towards the Mountain: Characteristics andImplications of the South African UPTTRAIL Pilot Project

W. Dawid van der VyverUPTTRAIL Trust, Republic of South Africa

Beatriz CapdevielleProject Intelligence, Venezuela

Abstract. In this article van der Vyver in the firstplace states the goal of the UPTTRAIL pilot project, whichis to prove conclusively that it can effectively address theneeds outlined by Thembela in the previous article. In thesecond place he describes the endeavors that preceded andcontributed to the inception of the pilot project and of theeducational Trust which administers it, viz:

* the research into the language needs in education forBlacks, and

* the research for innovative approaches by means ofwhich training and learning outcomes could beaccelerated.

In the third place he describes the pilot project, inwhich a representative sample of KwaZulu teachers weretaught English, teaching and thinking skills by means ofSALT. The sample was further trained to teach their pupilsEnglish and thinking skills by means of the same method.The effects of the course are being monitored and evaluatedscientifically by means of pre- and post-testing ofexperimental and school controls.

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Several important guidelines are indicated, viz:

collaboration with the community involved will bemaintained at all times

wider Implementation of the programme will bestriven for

unleashing the human potential of not only all SouthAfricans, but also of pupils outside the boundariesof the RSA will be the ultimate goal. The Projecthas already become an international endeavor.

In the second part of the article Capdevieile drawsattention to the social, economic, and political implicationsof the pilot project.

It is maintained that true democracy, i.e. governmentby the people, does not exist as there is no "democraticman" i.e. one who not only desires democracy but has thecapacity to live democratically. Throughout history theworld has been governed by a few.

Capdevielle argues that throughout history only a fewpeople have benefited from the growing corpus of scientificknowledge which permits the development of humanintelligence and potential. Inequality of human beings wasnot determined genetically. They all have more or less thasame potentiality, the same capacity to think. Every effortshould thus be made to develop this potential. In a truedemocracy, knowledge should be democratized so that allcan play a role in the determination of their destiny.

Finally, Capdevielle points out that the UPTTRAIL pilotproject endeavors to place the benefits of knowledge in thehands of all people, to achieve total and responsible

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participation by an members of society, especially theBlacks, in the social, economic, and political life of SouthAfrica.

*** ***

IntroductionThe crying educational needs in Black schools in S. A.,

portrayed so vividly by Alex Thembela in the previousarticle, have given rise to numerous endeavors, alldirected at improving the situation. Among others thereare the Molteno Project the Anglo-Vaal Project in Nataland the Bophuthatswana Elementary Education UpgradingProject in Bophuthatswana (vide Odendaal, 1985). In

spite of their commendable efforts and notable successes,much remains to be done in view of significant overallimprovement in education for Blacks.

Attention is focused in this article on a new pilotproject, which could contribute significantly towardspossible solutions to the problems in education for Blacks,viz the UPTTRAIL pilot project.

What is the Purpose of the Pilot Project?The immediate objective of the UPTTRAIL pilot project

is to demonstrate convincingly that the quality of educationfor Blacks in particular can be improved significantly andlearning outcomes can be accelerated. The Trust wants toachieve this by trying out a new and unique amalgam ofenriched suggestopedic language teaching and methods topromote thinking skills in a pilot project. The separatecomponents have been tested locally and abroad, and theirsuccesses have been documented in various publicationsand unpublished, but accessible, dissertations and reports,such as the work of Feuerstein (1979 and 1980),Schuster (1983), Edwards (1983), the Harvard report(1983), a study done by Gassner-Roberts and Brislan

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(1984), Dhority (1984), Botha (1986), and Odendaal(1987). UPTTRAIL believes that an integrated package ofthese and other components will deliver even betterresults than the sum total of its parts. Once positiveresults of the pilot project are demonstrated to educationdepartments, the private sector and Institutions, locallyand abroad, favorable decisions regarding the escalationand wider implementation of similar in-serviceprogrammes are expected.

The Needs

The needs the UPTTRAIL project wants to address havealready been clearly and convincingly described by AlexThembela in the previous article. Further information onthe subject is contained in the article by van der Vyver,"SALT in South Africa: Needs and Parameters" in the SALTJournal, 10 (3). In summary it can be said that most ofthe Black primary and secondary school teachers, whosemother tongue is not English, are expected to teach pupilsfor whom English is also a foreign language, through themedium of English. Further, the present poor standard ofEnglish as a medium of instruction in education for Blacksis self-perpetuating; poor language skills in the primaryschool affect the quality of education in the high schoolwhich in turn impedes the quality of tertiary education.The primary school seems to be the logical point of entryinto this vicious circle for any endeavor aimed atupgrading the skills of Black primary school teachers aswell as those of teacher-trainees.

Background, History and the Creation of theUPTTRAIL Trust

An Interuniversity Committee for Language Teachingwas formed in 1979 at the University of the North in

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South Africa (one of the universities with predominantlyBlack students). Today it consists of representatives of thefollowing universities: Bophuthatswana, Fort Hare, theNorth, Venda, Stellenbosch, Transkei and Zululand. Thereader will notice that six out of the eight predominantlyBlack universities in South Africa are represented on thiscommittee.

The Interuniversity Committee defined two priorities in1979:

* To do thorough research into the English languageneeds and deficiencies of Black primary schoolteachers in a limited, but fairly representative,geographical area in South Africa, and

* To search for innovative approaches and/ortechnologies by means of which training andlearning outcomes could be accelerated.

With regard to the first priority, a report, withguidelines for more effective training and inservicetraining of primary school teachers, was published asSpecial Issue Nr. 1 of the journal Per Linguam in 1985

(Odendaal 1985). A second report ensued afterdeterminmg and analyzing the relevant constraints whichare prevalent in colleges where training and in-servicetraining of primary school teachers are taking place(Odendaal et al., 1986).

As far as the second priority is concerned, reportsabout and meta-analyses of suggestopedic/SALT projectswere studied, fact-finding missions with a view to learningmore about suggestopedic/SALT language teaching wereundertaken, SALT conferences were attended from 1983(vide van der Vyver et al in INTUS NEWS, 8 (2), 1984

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and various controlled experiments were initiated (videe.g. Botha, 1986; Odendaal, 1987, 1987; Swart, 1987).It became increasingly clear to researchers and teachersthat SALT could contribute significantly towards improvingconditions in Black education and ultimately in educationfor all South Africans. Furthermore, discussions duringthe SALT conference in 1986 in Florida withrepresentatives of Project Intelligence in Venezuela, aswell as a subsequent study of the Harvard report(1983),led to the idea of developing an integrated package ofmaterial for the in-service training of primary schoolteachers. It became evident even then that an Englishlanguage programme, presented by means of SALT intowhich thinking skills were incorporated in co-operationwith leaders in the field of cognitive development, offeredan ideal opportunity to prepare people for better and moreeffective participation, not only in all the subjects ofprimary and secondary education, but, indeed, in all theprocesses of society.

It was thus decided that a SALT course would be devisedwhich would deliberately and systematically aim atimproving the thinking skills, and more specifically, theproblem solving and creative skills of primary schoolteachers by utilizing elements from Odyssey (1985),from Edward de Bono's CoRT (1986) and from othersources. It was argued that if language and ininkingproficiency as well as defective teaching methods could besignificantly improved, the entire range of problems ineducation for Blacks could be influenced positively, notmerely certain aspects of it. Furthermore, it wassincerely believed that positive results could contributesignificantly to improving human relations, to effectingmore responsible participation at all levels of society and,subsequently, to stabilizing the crisis situation in thecountry.

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Thus, on behalf of the Interuniversity Committee forLanguage Teaching, the UPTTRAIL Trust was launched on27 March 1987 under the Chairmanship of Thembela,Vice-Rector of the University of Zululand, with thesupport of a number of prominent academics, educationistsand businessmen. The reason for creating this Trust was toget an appropriate mechanism for launching, financing,monitoring and evaluating the envisaged pilot project. Afurther important task of the Trust would be toconceptualize the future of the project, that is the widerand intensified implementation of the programme after theexpected successful completion of the pilot project.

What does the Pilot Project Comprise?

Since January 1988 materials had been prepared anddidactic strategies had been selected for a three week in-service training programme for Black primary schoolteachers in KwaZulu. These materials had been based inthe first place on a thorough study of the syllabi for theother standard three subjects; furthermore, they had beenbased on the needs analyses referred to above and on theadvice received from de Bono and Capdevielle (ProjectIntelligence) and other consultants on cognitivedevelopment.

After the materials and didactic strategies had beenprepared and selected, a statistically representativenumber of primary school teachers in KwaZulu receivedin-service training at the University of Zululand inJanuary 1989. These teachers, who represented auniverse of about 19000 teachers from about 1000primary schools, underwent an intensive course, aimed at

-improving their English language skills,6 5

-Improving their teaching skills in grade fivesubjects,

-preparing them specifically for the teaching ofEnglish and thinking skills in an integrated packagewhich had been prepared for this purpose SALT wasused as a method, and

-the teaching of thinking skills for two periods perweek in the mother tongue of the pupils, usingelements of SALT.

The effects of the training on the teachers are beingevaluated and compared with the effects of a conventionalin-service training course on a statisticallyrepresentative number of teachers in a control group.Progress with regard to self-image, English proficiencyand thinking skills will have a positive effect on the qualityof their teaching in general and consequently on the qualityof pupils' learning. These teachers are being encouraged toapply at least some of the SALT principles and techniques tothe teaching of subjects like mathematics and history.English, however, receives more specific attention.Thinking skills are incorporated in the English coursewhich is being taught by means of SALT.

In the case of the pupils, assessments are being madewith regard to their English proficiency skills, cognitiveskills, scholastic achievement, pass and failure figures andcompared with those of the pupils in the control schools. Ifit can be demonstrated that a significantly larger numberof pupils passed grade five in the experimental schoolsthan in the control schools, the prospects for widerimplementation of the course will become favorable indeed.

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An independent panel of internationally recognizeda4Amics are evaluating the research design, the executionof the pilot project and the research report and will maketheir findings and recommendations known.

Decision makers will be presented with the final re-ports and recommendations.

Guidelines and Principles

Since the inceptic,I of the UPTTRAIL Trust and the pilotproject, a number of guidelines and principles have beenstrictly adhered to:

Involvement and acceptance by the community forwhich the programmes are intended, are of courseessential. Therefore, educationists, administrators,community leaders and parents have been involved in theUPTTRAIL pilot project right from the beginning.UPTTRAIL is therefore seen as a project by us for us.Obviously the meaning of what has just been written willbe (best) understood by people who are knowledgeableabout the deep divisions in South African society.

Everything possible is being done to ensure that the,Itual wider implementation of the programme in the

;,/' -,ary and secondary schools will be as inexpensive as,ssible. in other words, the quality of education should be

iroproved with making it more expensive.

The whole nitiative is ultimately aimed at contributingtowards unleashing the potential of each individual humanbeing in South Africa (and maybe even beyond theboundaries of South Africa) and by doing so, atcontributing to a healthier society.

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Since the whole initiative is ultimately aimed atserving the interests of one South African nation and evenof mankind, all endeavors are geared towards making thiseffort a national one and even an international one in thetrue sense of the word.

Considering the input, involvement and frequent visitsof so many prominent SALT members and associates overthe years, there exists at least some justification for theconviction that UPTTRAIL has become an internationalendeavor and that the SALT community members areimportant stakeholders.

The Social, Economic and PoliticalImplications of the UPTTRAIL Pilot Project

Even today only a few men control the destiny ofhumanity. They often decide for all, and they are the onlyones who can determine whether a war will start tomorrowor not, or whether an atomic bomb will explode or not.

But where are the rest of the people? Do they have asay in this? And if so, is what they have to say taken intoaccount? it can be firmly stated here, with full awarenessof the significance of the words, that no really democraticsystem exists in the world. Democracy in the full sense ofthe word does not exist. At best, there are somegovernments for the people, but no government by thepeople exists! Even in the so-called "model democracies",the people are not really ruling over themselves (Machado,1982). Democracy is the result of the will andintelligence of all the people. To make democracy possiblewe can also generate within ourselves the faculties neededto live democratically. If democracy is the government bythe people, the people's capacities must be developed andmust grow continuously.

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Throughout history the world has been governed by afew. But even worse is the fact that throughout historyonly a few have benefitted from one of the greatestachievements obtained to date by humanity: the corpus ofscientific knowledge which increases day by day and whichpermits the development of the human intelligence and thehuman potential. The opportunity to develop intelligencehas always been in the hands of a privileged few; majorcontributions to cultural development have always beenmade by minorities. The course followed by mankind hasalways been in the hands of those who were able to developtheir inner capabilities, their intelligence to a greaterextent.

If Nature or God had decided that, due to geneticreasons, human beings were to be totally different; if ithad been previously determined that only some of themwould have the capacity to rule and to be creative, whatwould be the point of a democratic ideal? If Nature or Godhad created only a few superior human beings, it wouldhave meant and still would mean an injustice in naturewhich would be almost impossible to overcome (Machado,1980).

But today we know (and have sufficient and a stillgrowing body of scientific evidence which affirms) thatthis is not the case; we now have enough scientificknowledge which maintains that for all practical purposesall men are created equal in nature, all normal beings havethe same potentiality (Machado, 1980).

Nobody is born intelligent; everybody is born with apotential to become so. Nobody knows how to speak atbirth, but is born with a capacity to talk. Genetically, achild is born with the capacity to walk, but he has to learn.

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Likewise, a child Is born with the capacity to think, butagain this capacity has to be developed through learning.

If man can indeed develop his cognitive skills, allpossible efforts should be made to achieve this goal as soonas possible. It is our duty to accelerate this process. It isa matter of striving, by all the means at our disposal, toplace in the hands of the people, with no exceptionwhatsoever, the benefits of modern scientific knowledgeabout the development of human potential in general andabout the development of thinking skills specifically.

Intellectual independence is a necessary condition forachieving economic, social, and above all, politicalindependence. The worst of all colonialisms is culturalcolonialism. The existing inequalities will not be amendedunless the ones that exist between men are first corrected.

The democratization of knowledge is a basicrequirement for a true democracy in which all individualscan receive the benefits of knowledge, achieving at thesame time an active role in the country's development andin the determination of their own destiny.

Clemengeau once said, °War is too important to besolely left in the hands of the generale. Today it can alsobe said that the corpus of knowledge regarding thedevelopment of intelligence is also too important to be leftin the hands of scientists, just as politics is too importantto be left in the hands of politicians.

The position that each man/woman adopts towards theissue of the development of intelligence substantiallydetermines his/her attitude towards life. By itself, itrepresents an ideological revolution. By transforming

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man, making him more intelligent, we will betransforming society.

The UPTTRAIL pilot project is a significant endeavor toplace the benefits of knowledge in the hands of all people,beginning with the most underprivileged groups of SouthAfrica. Initially, the idea was to teach English as a secondlanguage in an accelerated and efficient way, in order tohave more effective teachers teaching through the mediumof English and, consequently, to give the Blacks in SouthAfrica a better opportunity to participate in the social,economic, and political life of the country.

Later it was realized that a one-sided emphasis onlanguage proficiency was not enough. it was not sufficientto speak and understand a language in order to participatein a society. It was necessary to be able to speak andunderstand the language with a complete comprehension ofwhat one is being told, and with a clear idea of what onewants to say. Hence, the transcendental decision to includethe systematic teaching of thinking skills as a fundamentalaspect of the pilot project was taken.

The ultimate goal of the pilot project is theachievement of total and responsible participation by allmembers of society, especially the Blacks, in the social,economic, and political life of South Africa.

The UPTTRAIL pilot project is an example of a soundattempt to democratize knowledge as a means ofdemocratizing intelligence. It is a step toward themountain. A very fundamental step.

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References

Botha, H. L (1986). Suggestopaedia for second languageacquisition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Stellenbosch.

De Bono, E. (1986). CoRT thinking. New York: PergamonPress.

Dhority, Lynn. (1984). Acquisition through creativeteaching. (ACT): The artful use of suggestion in foreignlanguage instruction. Sharon, MA: Center forContinuing Development.

Dhority, Lynn. (1985) Penetrating learning barriers andthe art of suggestion. Per Linguam, 1(2), 12-19.

Edwards, J. and Baldauf, R. B. Jr. (1983). Teachingthinking in secondary school. In W. Maxwell (ed.),Thinking: The expanding frontier, Philadelphia:Franklin Institute Press.

Edwards, J. and Baidauf, R. B. Jr. (1986). The effects ofCoRT 1. Thinking skills program on students. In J. J.Bishop, J. Lockheed, and D. N. Perkins (eds.), Thinkingprogress in research and teaching, Hillsdale: N. J.Erlbaum.

Edwards, J. and Baldauf, R. B. Jr. (1987). The effects ofCoRT 1 In classroom practice. Paper read at the ThirdInternational Conference on Thinking, at the Universityo f Hawaii, January, 1987.

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Feuersteln, R. (1979). The dynamic assessment ofretarded performers: The learning potentialassessment device, theory, instruments and techniques.Baltimore: University Park Press.

Feuerstein, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichment: Anintervention program for cognitive modifiability.Baltimore: University Park Press.

Felix, U. (1988). The effects of music, relaxation andother suggestopedic elements in a primary schoolGerman class: An experimental investigation. PerLinguam, 4(2), 24-25.

Gassner-Roberts,S. and Brislan, P. (1984) A controlled,comparative and evaluative study of a suggestopedicGerman course for first year university students.Paper delivered at the Ninth International Conferenceof the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,Houston, Texas.

Harvard University, Bolt Beranek & Newman Inc., in

conjunction with The Ministry of Education, Republicof Venezuela. (1983). Project Intelligence: Thedevelopment of procedures to enhance thinking skills.

Machado, L. A. (1980). The right to be intelligent.Translated by Mark C. Wheeler. Oxford: PergamonPress.

Machado, L. A. (1980). The revolution of intelligence.The Madrid Colloquium, published by the lbero-American Bureau of Education, Spain.

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Machado, L. A. (1982). The development of intelligence:Fundamentals arvi perspectives. Speeth delivered at theinauguration of the First International Symposium onthe Venezuelan Programs for the Development ofHuman Intelligence. Caracas.

Odendaal, M. S. (1985). Needs analysis of higher primaryteachers in KwaZulu. Per Linguam, Special Issue No.1, 5-99.

Odendaal, M. S., Trengove, W., and Swartz, J. (1986). Theupgrading of English in Black primary schools, Phase2. Unpublished report of the institute for LanguageTeaching of the University of Stellenbosch.

Odendaal, M. S. (1987). Raising achievement levels bymeans of Suggestopedia. Per Linguam, 3(2), 22-30.

Odyssey. A curriculum for thinking. (1985). Watertown,MA: Mastery Educafion Corporation.

Schuster, D. H. (1983). A critical review of Americanforeign language studies using suggestopedia. Paperdelivered at the Aimav Linguistic Conference at theUniversity of Nijmegen, the Netherlands.

Swart, M. (1987). Shakespeare through Suggestopedia?Per Linguam, 3(1), 5-13.

Van der Vyver, D. H. (1985). SALT in South Africa: Needsand parameters. Journal of the Society for AccelerativeLearning and Teaching, 10(3), 189-195.

Van der Vyver, D. H., Kussier, H. R., and Roux, J. C.(1984). Abbreviated report on the Ninth

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international SALT Congress, INTUS NEWS, 8(2), 53-60.

In diesem Artikel, van der Vyver zuerst gibt das ziel desUPTTRAILS VERSUCHSPROJEKTS, naaemlich, zzuschlaagkraeftHch beweisen, dass es die vonThembela indem vorhergehenden Artikel umgerissende Beuerfinissewirkkkkungsvoll in betraacht ziehen kann. Zweitens, erbeschreibt die Bestrebene die den Anfang des Ver-suchsprojektes und des verwaaltenden Bildungstrustesvoraussgingen und beizutrugen, zum Beisplei:

die Forschung in Sprach Beduerfnisse inAusbildung der Schwarzen.

die Forschung in Neuerungeri einfuehrendeZugaenge, wodurch ausbildende und GelehrsamendeVerrichtungen Koennten beschleunigt warden.

Drittens, eer bescreibt das versuchsprojekt, indem eindarstellendes versuchsstueck der KWAZULU Leheren wurdeAenglische, lehrende, und denkende Geschicklichkeitenddurch SALT gelehrt. Dann wurde das versuchsstueckweiter gebildet, die Schuelern Aenglische und denkendeGeschicklichkeiten zu hehren, such durch die SALTmethoden. Dle Wirkungen des Kurses wardenwissenschaftlick durch vor- und nach-pruefen dennachsuechtigen und Schuelerishcen Beaufsichtigungenuebergewacht un abgeschaetzt warden.

Einigen wichtigen lenkenden Punkten werden angezeigt,zum Beispiel:

- Mitarbeit mit der eingewickelten Gemeinschaft wirdallerzeits erhaitet warden.

weitere Durchfuehrung der Programme wirdnachgestrebt warden.

Losbindung des Menschlichen Potentials nicht nuer vonalien den sued Afrikanern, aber auch von Schuelern,ausserhalb der Grenzen des RSA's, wird das aeusserst Ziel

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sein. Das Project ist schon eine internationalischeBestreben geworden.

1m zwisten Tell des Artikels, Capdevielle kehrt dieBeobachtung an die soziallschen, wirtschaftlichen, undpolitischen Hinweisen des Versuchsprojektes.

Es wird behauptet, das echte Dernokratie, das heisst,Regutierung bel dem Volk, existiert nicht, denn es keinen"dernokratischen Mann" gibt; das heist, einen Mann, dernichts nuer Demokratrle will, aber auch die Faehigkeithat, dernokrat1sch zu leben. Ueberail in der Geschichte istder Welt durch "die wenigsten" beherrscht worden.

Capdevielle begruendet, dass ueberall in der Geschichtehaben nuer wenige Leute beguenstigen von demaufwachenden Korpus Wissenschattliches Wissens, der dieEntwicklung Menschlicher intelligenz und MenschlichesPotentials erlaubt. Unglelchsamkeit der rnaenner warnicht genetisch vorgesagt. Sie elle haben mehr oder wenigedieselbe Latenz, dieselbe Faehigkeit zu denken. JedeBernuehung soli gemacht sein, dieses Potential zuentwickeln. In ()frier echten Demokratie, Wissen soildemokratisiert sein, urn class alle eine Rolle in derBestimmung ihres Schicksals splelen koennen.

End itch, Capdevielle zeigt an, dass dieses UPTTRAILVersuchsprojekt versucht die Wohltaete des Wissens in denHaenden eller Leute zu stellen, urn total undverantwortliche Teilnahme von alien Telinehrnern derGesellschaft, insbesondere den Schwartzen, zu erreichen,in dem sozialistichen, wirtschaftlichen, und politischenLeben Sued Afrikas.

***

For further information, contact the author: Dr.Dawid Van der Vyver, UPTTRAIL Trua 17 Park Street,7600 Stellenbosch, RSA.

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teachinii,

1990, 15(182).

Training Music Sight-Reading and Perfect Pitch in YoungChildren, As a Way to Enhance Their Intelligence

Win Wenger, Ph.D.

and

Susan Honey Wenger, MA.

Gaithersburg, MD 20884

Abstract. The following paper suggests an experimentalprogram for easily training children, ages 1-5 years, tosight-read and play music and to gain relative or perfectpitch. By integrating phase relationships between widelyseparate, key regions of the brain, the writers propose aneasy, game-like procedure that will significantly increasethe lifetime intelligence of children.

*4*

As simply as this:

1) Face the young child away from the piano or otherkeyboard instrument, as part of a game.

Sound a single note on the piano, while playing (orsinging) the name of the note - "A", "B" or whatever.(Flats and sharps can be introduced a little later in thistraining, other than being named when hit during thechild's "miss".)

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3) The game is to have the young child turn to thekeyboard and try to hit the same note on the keyboard - onfirst try if possible. When s/he strikes a single note, sayor sing again the name of the note struck but the "hits"then get reinforced with laughter, applause, hair-tousle,hug or whatever Is reinforcing for that child in a light-hearted kind of way. The "misses" are part of the game butare less reinforced too absolute a non-reinforcementwould be another kind of reinforcement and the gameshould be kept light-hearted.

4) At the same time in each round , a 3" x 6" or largercard is set vertically on the music rack above thekeyboard, Just a short segment of base and treble clef barsand, prominently, the note you're about to hit.

Don't point out the card. Just change the card each timeto the next note you're about to hit. It may be immediate,or it may be several hours long (spaced over several weeksat 2 to 5 minutes of this game each day or so), before thechild catches on that the card has something to do with thenote you are hitting. Only when s/he asks about it do youminimally explain that where the note is on the card,shows where the note is on the keyboard. Now the child hasboth eye and ear to help guide him or her on the keyboard.

After the child has the first game well in hand(including, eventually, those sharps and flats): you can dothe same thing with sequences of 2 and 3 notes.

Once that skill is well in hand, simple tunes will makesense to the child and be well within his/her competence tolikewise pick out and play.

From there, the child will be well equipped to take fulladvantage of conventional music training if desired, or of

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(now widely available) Suzuki training, which is excellentfor developing playing skills and attitudes. If you useSuzuki, though, continue to reinforce the sight reading, onthe side or at home, since Suzuki training does not teachsight reading until much later and it'd be a pity to wastethe reading skills already developed. Even without suchfollow-up musical training, though, a major boost to thechild's intelligence will have been accomplished by theabove game.

Children too young (or developmentally too young) toas yet be able to pick out a single key on a conventionalkeyboard, may be able to do so with full benefits by beingstarted on a special keyboard whose individual keys arebroader, so long as its pitch is true.

(The above technique was created by Susan Wengerduring October, 1989.)

Purpose of this technique

The purpose of this technique and game is not that oftraining the child to become a musician. That may indeedoften develop, and a musical perception and backgroundmakes for a far richer and more rewarding lifetimeexperience, but the purpose here is not that of making thechild into a musician.

The purpose of training perfect pitch and music sightreading skills, in children between ages one and five yearsold, is to sut"intially improve their intellectualintelligence for a

We predict that normal children ages 1 to 5 years will,within several years, average more than ten points 1.Q."higher and may well average more than a full standard

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deviation higher (see discussion below). Older children,and developmentally young people of any chronological age,are also expected to make substantial gains from anotherbrain-building procedure, Image Streaming as discussedbelow, to be very gradual although thzise gains continuedeveloping for some time beyond the interval during whichImage Streaming was practiced. In very young childrenwho image Stream, we've seen instant and extraordinarygains in understanding, in apparent intelligence and inlanguage skills.

Even in adults and college students, the eventual gainsfrom Image Streaming, per eighty minutes of practice, addup to a full point I.O. so we expect substantial gains withthis music procedure even wiM older children. However,the greatest and most immediate gains may be expectedwith children who are so young that most of their habitsand short-cuts for perceiving and thinking have not yetbeen formed and who for that reason, can obtain the mostbenefit from a given amount of such training.

Why should such training as this bring any benefit interms of intellectual skills or intelligence? Can an earlyexperience in music relate somehow to later academicabilities?

Why are people who learn, early in childhood, to sightread and play music, usually several standard deviationsabove average In intelligence? It's long been assumed thatthey had an inborn natural "gift" most of which, ofcourse, are never developed. Early economic and culturaldisadvantage can be a preventing factor, though ours is aninformation-pervasive environment. There definitely doappear to be some instances of special "gift". Recentdiscoveries, however, poiint toward early musicaldevelopment itself being a main cause of this sugbsequent

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higher intelligence, not merely a co-by-product of socialprivilege or the magic wand of a "genius geneTM.

Discovery of Brain-integrative Factors

The phemtmenon of Image Streaming (defined below),was discovered early in 1975. From that time on, weobserved that the practice of Image Streaming enriches theIntelligence of its practitioners. In 1984, we developed asimple hypc4hesis to account for this increase inintelligence (as set forth bplow). In spring of 1989, withthe results of the Reinhert Study, which formallymeasured some of the effects of Image Streaming on physicsstudents at Southwest State University, this hypothesis,called "Pole-Bridging", became a cupported theory.

Definitions

Image Streaming is the practice of letting oneselfbecome aware of the spontaneous free-flow, freeassociation, visual mental imagery which is going on allthe time as a reflection of unconscious perceptions,thoughts and understandings. Part of this practice also isthe describing of these images aloud while examining them.To be effective, this describing must be out loud, to anexternal focus a person as a listener, or a tape recorder.

This is quite different from the directed imagery whichis familiar to many people and programs. ImageStreaming, being undirected, when brought consciousconstantly surprises the viewer with unexpected imagesand associations. This imagery appears to arise in other,subtler-s;gnalling rbgions of the brain. This differentlocation is significant in giving rise to higher intelligence,according to the theory of Pole Bridging.

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This constantly ongoing stream of images is usuallyunconscious, but virtually every person can readily self-train or be trained to bring this stream conscious.(Wenger & Wenger, 1981). That general ease of training,in turn, makes Image Streaming an ercellent candidate forany program which seeks to improve the intelligence oflarge numbers of people. In the aforementioned study,students who practiced Image Streaming as an enrichmentoutside of class, gained in general intelligence at a rate of afull point's ul.Q." per eighty minutes of practice, amongother benefits.)

Pole-Bridging - Combines in expressive form theactivities and/or perceptions which are characteristic ofwidely separate regions of the brain. One should involvethese perceptions or activities closely and intenselytogether, so that those widely separate regions of the brainare forced to work closely together.

-In Image Streaming, the left temporal and parietallobes (expressive and articulative, and specificassociative) are caused to work closely with the righttemporal lobe (making general sense), and with wideadditional regions of the brain including apparently theright optic chiasm at the rear r f the brain.

-In the above method for developing both sight readingand music playing skills and relative or perfect pitch,much of the motor cortex is involved with the left ;emporal(reading recognition), the right temporal (music andaesthetic response). and with wide-ranging auditoryregions of the brain. In addition, one of the writers, whoenjoys perfect pitch, speculates that this automatic ready-made auditory orientation becomes a great help to all theareas of the brain which make sense out of sound orotherwise sort out sounds. (This hypothesis, concerning

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effects of perfect pitch, might eventually be tested by bio-instrumented comparison of the brain behaviors of personswith and without perfect pitch, in response to diverseauditory stimuli.)

Obviously, causing widely separate regions of the brainto work closely together, by building up communicationbetween those regions, will cause the resources of eachsuch region to become more available to the operationsproceeding in the other regions. This is a factor in theincreased intelligence observed to follow such Pole-Bridging activities. A still more significant issue in Pols-Bridging, though, is the factor of Phase Relationships.

Phase Relationships concern the length of timebetween when one part of the brain receives a stimulus andwhen othor parts of the brain become involved in theprocessing of that stimulus.

Significance of Phase Relationships:

All of the brain sooner or later lights up on any majorstimulus. The length of time before this happens, though,is the critical issue. Ertl (1967) Ned Herrmann (1989)and oti. rs have consistently found for decades that closelyIntegrated phase relationships between left and righthemispheres, at least, are associated with higherintelligence, and wide lags with lower levels ofintelligence. One of the writers found this samerelationship in studies he performed on his own studentsduring 1969-70 and again in 1970 in testing eight pre-identified geniuses.

If there is too great a delay between the time when someinitial part(s) of the brain get(s) that stimulus and therest of the brain thence receives that stimulus, then the

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first part completes its operations and writes close-outinstructions into that stimulus as it is passed along into therest of the brain. (In effect, the first part says, °That'sthe way it was done, folks!" and the rest of the brain,saying °Yeah,- shuts down.)

If the phase relationship is closer, however, otherparts of the brain are reverberating with the first on thatstimulus before the first has completed its processing.What results then is a much more involved set ofinstructions getting written into that stimulus as it ispassed along into the rest of the brain. (In effect: "Here'swhat we've come up with so far, folks, but there's this tobe checked, that to be investigated, with such-and-suchstill to be found outl")

A brain so instructed does many more things, and muchmore involved things, with that stimulus. Consequently:

A person with well-integrated, close phaserelationships (not only lett-right but, apparently, in alldirevions within the brain) will sense morerelationships, perceive more and richer meanings withthat stimulus and generally. -In other words, bsconsiderably more intelligent.

The Reinert Study (1989) supported this theory ofPhase Relationships and Pole Bridging, in 3 ways:

1. The overt, overall gain in intelligence of imageStreamers at a rate of a full point of "1.0." per eightminutes of easy home practice, a considerably greater rateof gain in intelligence tt'an by other means thus far studied.

2. In perceptual and learning styles, the students whoImage Streamed zipped strongly and immediately into

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integrated balance. Students who enriched with a differentmethod, as most college physics students do during theircourse of study, moved sharply further toward extremeimbalance.

3. The combination, between image streaming anddescribing aloud, was crucial to the outcome. Thosestudents in the Reinert (1989) study who did everythingalso in the procedure but did not describe aloud theirimages to a listener or to a tape recorder, not only did notgain as much as those who did so; they showed no gainwhatever during the interval of the experiment! It is thecombination of these regions of the brain which issignificant in increasing Intelligence and in the otherbenefits associated with Image Streaming or other forms ofPole-Bridging.

New studies are currently underway, three by Reinert,and one by one of the writers in a project graciously fundedby the I. A. O'Shaughnessey Foundation. These studies arefurther testing the theory - that to integrate phaserelationships between regions of the brain, by PoleBridging between those regions (combining their severalactivities into some expressive form), increasesintelligence.

Relationship to the proposed early training ofmusic skills in young children:

As an excellent further test of this Pole Bridgingtheory, we suggest a longitudinal study of intellect andintelligence in young children taught as described at thestart of this paper. Such musical Pole Bridging integratesbrain behaviors which are very different from those ofImage Streaming, and brain regions which are somewhatdifferent, If the behaviors so integrated are different and

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Intelligence still increases substantially, then the commonfactor causing the increase will be the integration ofdiverse brain functions the dynamic principle,not justthe particular brain behaviors which happened to becombined in the one lucky technique of Image Streaming.

The prediction is that young children who learn thesemusic skills by such a method will enjoy more than 10points I.Q. advantage over children who are not so trained.To be frank, this average advantage in intelligence couldwell be la the range of 25-35 points 1.0. or even higher -with all that this can mean in terms of a lifetime ofenriched experience and in terms of potential contributionto our society and culture.

If this prediction is confirmed in the context of musictraining, that should cause a significant increase in publicsupport for the arts and for arts education. As alreadyshown at the start of this paper, the procedure is certainlysimple and easy enough to make testing this proposedexperiment feasible for any reasonably competentmusician, music teacher or music education programwhich can also arrange access to the appropriate child-level LQ. tests. Even ordinary parents, sibling or tutorswho at least know musical notation should be able toconduct this program successfully.

Such further confirmation, from another context, ofthe Pole Bridging Theory, should encourage furtherinvestigation and development of this theory. Given thegreat number of brain functions, and of the identifiedregions of the brain where some of these functions arelocalized, it should soon be feasible to create 10,000different specific Pole Bridging techniques, each effectivein increasing intelligence, or as therapies and/orremediations.

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To research and test any of these, at least in aneducational context, will qualify the researcher to receivegraduate academic semester credits, not just Ceu's, at arespected mid-Western state university's department ofeducation (not Southwest State University, which isoutside of such arrangements so its physics department canpursue those researchers a little longer without anyreason to become biased.) Teachers and others who can usesuch academic credits may contact the writers for details1care of this publication.

Complete step-by-step instructions for how to learn,practice, teach to other individuals and groups, and applyto practical uses, the Image Streaming procedure, at least,are widely available. (Wenger, 1989). This presentpaper Is the first and thus far only publication of theproposed procedure for enabling very young children tosight read and play music and to develop perfect or relativepitch, generally or as a means of increasing intelligence.

The one Pole-Bridging procedure already tested, ImageStreaming, Is remarkably easy to learn and perform. Yetit also has been demonstrated to increase generalintelligence a full point "I Q" for every eighty minutes ofhome practice (at least among mixed college-age and adultcollege physics students). The proposed procedure forteaching very young children music, sight-reading, andperfect or relative pitch, which likewise seems to producesubstantial and rapid improvements in generalintelligence, also is self-evidenfly "painless" and easy.Weigh this against the pain, effort, and foregoneopportunities associated with less than high intelligence inmany contexts. Add lo this balance the lifetimeenrichments which naturally accompany musicalbackground and awareness. Given this combination,undertake the proposed research should prove highly

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productive of human benefit, in addition to the advance ofscientific knowledge about the human mind and brain,

With Pole Bridging appearing to be a major strategygenerative of many possible techniques to restore orimprove key sectors of human well being, and, moreover,because of the ease of such techniques, research in thisarea appears certain to produce many significant findings,and a higher career standing for many professionals.

Given this combination of effects, we stronglyrecommend to the attention of fellow professionals,especially of musically involved professionals, and toeducational institutions, this proposed longitudinal study.We propose that you measure the effects upon Intellect andintelligence, of training children between ages one and fiveyears, by the easy method cited here, to sight read and playmusic and to enjoy relative or perfect pitch. If youundertake this study soon, its results will dovetail with theresults of other investigations of Pole Bridging which arecurrently In progress. That coinciding of studies will be ofhigher scientific value because these will involve differentbrain behaviors and context. Evidence strongly suggeststhat your study will not only advance the well-being of theparticular children in your study, but advance the timewhen the relevant benefits to humanity can be pursued on abroader basis.

References

Ertl, J.(1967) Evoked Potentials and Intelligence.Ottawa: Department of Cybernetic Studies, Universityof Ottawa.

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Hermann, N (1989). The Creative Brain, Lake Lure, N.C.: Brain Books, Inc.

Kolb (1976). Kolb Learning Styles Inventory.

Reinert, C.P. (1989). A Preliminary Comparisonbetween Two Methods for Intellectual SkillDevelopment. Unpublished paper, Marshall, MN:Department of Chemistry and Physics, Southwest StateUniversity.

Wenger and Wenger (1981). Adventuring through theLooking-Lobe: Working with Undirected Visual MentalImages. Journal of the Society for AccelerativeLearning and Teaching, 6(3).

Wenger, W. (1987). A Method for Personal Growth andDevelopment. Unpublished paper. Gaithersburg, MD:Project Renaissance.

Wenger, W. (1989). A Proposed Therapy for CorrectingSome of the Effects of Traumatic Brain Damage.Private Monograph. Gaithersburg, MD: Author.

Wenger, W. (1990). A Great Way to Increase YourIntelligence: How to Image-Stream. Gaithersburg, MD:Project Renaissance.

It**

Das folgende Papier andeutet eine Versuchsprogramme fuer die einfacheAusbildung der Kindern, (ab ein-jaehrigen, durch fuenfjaehrigen),Musik anblicklich zu lesen, Musik zu spielen, und bezuegliche oder voll-kommende Tonhoehe zu entwickeln. Durch die Enfuegung der

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Phaseverwandschaften zwischen welt getrennt, haupt Gebleten dcGehims, the Verfassern schlagen eine eln-fache, spielgleichBehandlungsweise vor, die die Leben-zeitliche intelligenz der Kindebedeutsamlich vergroes-sem wird.

1114t

For further information contact the authors: Win andSue Wenger, Box 332, Gaithersburg, MD 20877.

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1 NO, 15(1 &2).

BOOK REVIEW

In Search of the 10 Correlation: A Scientific Whodunit

By Renee Fuller

Stony Brook New York: Ball-Stick-Bird Publications, Inc.

Reviewed ByJohn Senators

"Apparently IQ tests and the educational system are sotightly linked that one is descriptive of the other," Fullerwrote. "When one is changed, the other must be changed."Here is a scientist forced to look at intellectual functioningin a new way.

Oule unexpectedly, severely retarded students, 10's inthe 30's, learned to read with comprehension and performacademically with the system intended for superiorstudents thereby raising basic questions about the conceptof intelligence and I0 tests. Continued replication ofconcrete data shows, according to the author, something Iswrong with IQ tests, our concept of intelligence and ourbasic educational assumptions.

I started with Chapter 3: Does IQ Exist in the RealWorld (a readable history and review of 10 founders, themisuses/abuses of IQ tests and a reminder that theconstruct "intelligence" is a modem one). Then I readChapter 1: The Search for the IQ Correlation to discoverthe three assumptions questioned by the data: IQ tests

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predict academic performance; reading comprehension is adirect reflection of intelligence; abstract behavior is areflection of intelligence, Then I read Chapter 4: A NewTheory of Intellectual Functioning: Is Intelligence a ViableConstruct? (I enjoyed Fuller's observations since theypre-date Howard Gardner's theory of multipleintelligences and Robert Sternberg's triarchic mind.) I

completed Part I by reading Chapter 2: The Implicationsfor Learning and Education: Do We Make it as Computers?

U.S. ENGLISH Update FILE FACTS reported that 67million USA adults read below the 12th grade level, 27million below the 8th grade level; 60% of USA prisoninmates are illiterate and public assistance for thoseunemployable due to illiteracy costs the USA as much as $5billion a year, These constitute reasons I recommend thisbook: literacy and how a pleasurable, multi-dimensionalreading series (Ball-Stick-Bird Reading Series) allowedlearners to "utilize their strengths, their abilities andthereby bypass their weaknesses, But once their abilitieshad come into play, the students became intellectually verydifferent from what they had been before "...[a] change[that] presents a serious challenge to intelligence theory"The students (26 from Maryland's principal institutionfor the retarded) were failures in spite of the bestattempts of modern education.

Before Gardner labeled cognition as the Mind's NewScience, Fuller noted: "Our students exhibited cognitivechange. However, the extent of cognitive change was highlyindividual and not test correlated...students find a holisticor abstract approach more effective than a rote approach."

Fuller's Ball-Stick-Bird Reading Series featuresmultifaceted tasks, tasks that call up multiple learningmodes, multiple intelligences (using language popular

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now). These allow an organism to utilize her own mix ofabilities so that strengths in one area compensate forweaknesses In another area. It allows for an importantaspect of intellectual functioning, namely, compensatoryorganization. Each individual intellirjence thereby is itsown system.* And we have the tools and technology toIndividualize instruction, tailor-make learning-systems,once they have been effectively designed.

In a section "The Mind of the 21st Century," Fullercalls for looking at intellectual functioning (instead of thereification intelligence") as an emergent living sitstem,centered in discovering first how an individual Is organized(Echoes of Syngg and Combs' individual behavior and NLP'sstudy of the structure of subjective states-since behaviorresults from those.)

*The purpose of education in the future would be totrain people to call into play their various abilitiesthereby producing cognitive change." Yes, a necessaryreminder: Learning is change; no change, no learning.Fuller continued, "Our success is measured by the extent towhich we got cognitive transfer. The pleasure we gave wasan important and unexpected dividend."

Reframing intellectual functioning as a living system,we alter our expectations about what can be done witheducation. "By tapping the abstract thinking potential ofour species, we may be able to open a capacity forintellectualization, a capacity for understanding theuniverse, which up to now has been beyond our scope.When we do this, we will make it possible for the humanbrain to soar into space where it belongs."

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990, 15(1842).

BOOK REVIEW

The Explorative-Creative Way: Implementation of aHumanistic Language Teaching Model

By

Wil Knibbeler

Tubingen, Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag

Reviewed By:John Senatore

The Explorative-Creative Way aims to integrate theSilent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning,Confluent Education and the Natural Approach into acoherent system. I like integrating models; I likeHumanistic models; I like reports on implementation. Thebook reveals that the author knows what he is talkingabout. I like news, and the book has news for me.

Twelve chapters make the book: Two chapters onApproaches (Humanistic Approaches and the NaturalApproach); one chapter on the Integrative Model; one onthe Good Language Learner's seven traits; three chapters onresearch design, instruments, answers; and some of myfavorite chapters: Principles and Implementations;Guidelines for the Teachers and the Teacher's Personality.The Index Didactic Procedures is worth the price of thebook for reference and use. Furthermore, the book isconcise, candid, documented and readable.

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Nineteen different teachers of nine different languages,who had been trained in implementing The Explorative-Creative Way, were observed in order to determine theimpact of the teachers personality on the impiementationof a new approach. These teachers were compared to eightteachers who were considered to be successful in languageteaching but were unfamiliar with The Explorative-Creative Way. This Way is designed for beginning,intermediate and advanced language learners, "for theoperating principles are basic components of all languageacts at all levels, an attitude rather than a specific teachingmethod or language course."

The project was aimed at establishing how theExplorative-Creative Way works and not how well itworks, what its teachers do--and not what its results are.The limitations in objectives and implementation and datacollection and analysis are repeatedly and duly noted, I

longed for an end to "yes-but-isms," arguments andwrangling among language teachers, and this book showsthe large number of variables involved in human teachingand learning.

At the SALT San Diego Conference, I addressed theimportance and the neglect of teaching models (constructsin this case, not persons); the lack of intentional conscioususe of teaching models; the failure to instruct teachers indesigning teaching-learning systems (models); the factthat many teachers may not know dominant models runningeducational processes. Knibbeler wants to describe theWay and to account for the experiences of those who workedwith it; he also wants to describe (with evaluativeresearch) how teachers adopt/adapt this model personally.He succeeds. I long for the clarifying impact and changes inpresentation that occur when research and documentation

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are used in the context of a strong awareness of theUniversals of Models and the function of models. Forexample, did the study adequately differentiate betweentraining and educating models? Successful teachers wereobserved to be high in Exploration and Creativity, so "Thisfinding enables use to establish a hierarchy between theOperating Principles in the sense that Exploration andCreativity are situated at the top of the taxonomy." Usedappropriately, this book can contribute to successfulteachers and the training, and the education, of successfulteachers.

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THE JOURNAL OFTHE SOCIETY FOR ACCELERATIVE

LEARNING AND TEACHINGVolume 15, Number 3 & 4 Fall & Winter, 1990

PuNished by the Society for Accelerative Learning andTeaching, Inc.ISSN 0273-2459 ;

Guidelines for contributors to the JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FORACCELERATIVE LEARNING AND TEACHING

The Editor welcomes submission of manuscripts with a focus onaccelerating and improving teaching and learning. particularly with classroomsuggestion or Suggestopedia. This journal publishes articles on: criticalreviews. theoretical analyses, speculative papers, case studies, quasi-expertmental studies, as well as reports of controlled studies of empiricalresearch.

MANUSCRIPTS should be typed on one side of standard 8 112 x 11 bondpaper. Do NOT use ditto. The original and 3 copies of all materials should besubmitted, but the author should keep a copy for checking proofs. Ali maleriatshould be DOUBLE-SPACED, with ample margins on all 4 sides. Twice] length isabout 20 pages, including footnotes, tables & figures. Longer papers may besuitabie in some cases.

REFERENCES should follow APA style according to the latest AmericanPsychoiogical Association Style Manual. See any issue of this Journal forexamples. In the body of the text, the work of other authors should be referredto by name and publication date in parentheses as follows. 'Xis and Alexander(1987) reported..." In the references the referred-to articles should be fistedluny in alphabetical order by author(s), title and publication source informationas follows, "Vocl-Reed, E. (1987). Teaching adult learners using acceleratedWarning. Journal of the Society for Accelerative _Learning and Teaching,(1&2), 85-94. Footnotes should be used rarely, if al all.

TABLES and FIGURES should be kept to a minimum, and should supplementrather than duplicate the text material. Each table should be typed on aseparate sheet of paper and placed at the end of the manuscript Figures shouldbe submitted in a form suitable tor photographic reproduction: use India ink on agood grade of drawing paper. Photographs (black and white only) should be 5x7gtassy prints.

An ABSTRACT between 50 and 200 words should be placed at the beginningof the manuscript. The abstract should Include: purpose of the work/study,design, method and description of subjects. and results 8../or conclusions.

Authors using a word processor: 1. Submit 4 copies of the manuscriptusing FIXED-WIDTH characters, and NOT typeset! 2. Submit a floppy disk of themanuscript, specifying both the computer and word processor in detail.

Journal of the Society forAccelerative Learning and Teaching

Volume 15, Numbers 3&4 Fall & Winter, 1990

Contents

Letter from the Editor. Pedro Portes 99

On the Inner Relationship between Qigong and SALT.Dong Shu-zhang 101

The Use of Time Line in Teaching. Kchael Hager 133

Breaking down the Walls of the Self-contained BasicWriting Course. Julie Ann Mix 139

An Accelerated Learning Approach to Teaching CriticalAnalysis. James Quina 161

8 Stories and Tests. Donald H. Schuster 181

A Positive Look at SALT Techniques in the NationalResearch Council's Enhancing Human Performance.Lye lie Palmer. 201

Tables of Contents, Volume 15 227

Author Index, Vols. 11-15 229

Topic Index, Vols. 11-15 231

,

Don Schuster, Ph.D.Iowa State UniversityEditor-in-Chief

Renate Nummela-Caine, Ph.D.Calofornia State UniversityAssociate Editor

W. Jane Bancroft, Ph.DScarborough CollegeUniv of TorontoWest Hill, Ont M1C 1A4

Pedro R. Pones, Ph.D.University of Louisville

Senior Editor

Accelerated Learning SystemsMinneapolis, Minnesota

CirculationEDITORIAL BOARD

Jo Ann F. Bass, Ed.D.Arkansas State UniversityState University, AR 72467

R. McCrae Cochrane, Ph.D.Center for Cont. Development64 Mountain St.Sharon MA. 02067

Priscilla Donovan, Ph.D.3050 S Zenia StDenver CO 80231

Win Wenger, Ph.D.P 0 Box 332Gaithersburg MD 20877

Lye Ile Palmer, Ph.D.Winona State UniversityWinona MN 55987

Gabriel Recto, Ph.D.1554 Rolland Av

Ottawa, Ont K1G 0J4

Shirley Johnson, Ph.D.University of Louisville

Louisville, KY 40292

Kurt A Fuerst, Ph,.D.Carleton University

Colonel By Dr.Ottawa, Ont. K1S 5B6

JoLene Somsky3700 Orleans Av

Sioux City IA 51105

John Senatore, Ed.D.Univ of Southern Colorado

Pueblo CO 81001

Wendy Whitacre Stern5381 W Calle Conejo

Tucson AZ 85745

For subscription, send order to: SALT Journal, AcceleratedLearning Systems, 3028 Emerson Ave. So., Minneapolis, MN55408. $30.00 per year, outside U.S., Can. & Mexico, add$20.00 per year for air mail. Copyright 1990 by the Societyfor Accelerative Learning and Teaching. Printed in the U.S.A.

a u 9 8

Letter from the Editor

It is with great pleasure that I addressthis special audience in my role as editor. I

hope that you find the selected articlesuseful and stimulating. I am happy toannounce that with the help of our presidentL. Palmer, we have obtained permission topublish selected papers from last year'sSoviet conference on Salt which will appearin the next Special Issue along with otherinternational contributions. Our journal is atthe forefront of the field of education asbrain-based and socio-cultural models be-come increasingly refined. I hope that manyof you take initiative in ensuring that thejournal is received in your local and regionallibraries. As many of you know, frequentlycalls come inquiring about this model orapproach.

At present, we are trying to broaden thescope of the SALT journal to include a varietyof theoretical perspectives and researchstudies that have a sound methodologicalbase. In helping to make our journal a mainstream forum for new educational innova-tions and theory-based applications, I believewe can continue to increase our impact oneducational practice and teacher education. I

hope to attract papers from both mainstream

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and Ncutting-edgem origins that bear on advan-cing development.

We need your help in attracting qualityresearch, applications and theory-advancingpieces. Part of the reason for the recentdelays in getting the journal out to you hasbeen the fact that for the last year, the latterhave been scarce. We need to get the wordout that this journal serves as a showcaseand forum for competing paradigms witheducational implications. So in closing fo,now, I'd like to invite you to write with yourcomments and suggestions for the future ofour very promising journal. At the same time,I need to acknowledge the great contributionDon Schuster has made and continues to makeon behalf of the society's journal. We will allhave to actively participate and promote thejournal to safeguard those efforts andachievement of the last 15 years.

Pedro R. Portes, Ph.D.School of EducationUniversity of LouisvilleLouisville, KY 40292

t.;

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990, 15(3&4)

On the Inner Relationship between Qigongand SALT

Dong Shu-zhangFujian Teachers' University

Abstract. Qigong and SALT have a commonmechanism for activating the potentiality ofhuman accelerative learning. In particular,the activities and contents of breathing,physical and imagery adjustments of Qigonghave parallels in SALT.

JntroducticuL About 5,000 years agoQigong was used in education in a broadsense. The chiefs of various tribes in Chinaeducated their people by the method of"Adjusting the five Qi's" and "Adjusting Qi foreducating". In the Zhou Dynasty (ca. 11thcentury 256 BC), the philosopher, Lao Zi,expounded the idea of "managing learning byadjusting Qi," and "being ;n the great void andkeeping extremely calm and believing allnature to be in one state before you". Kong Zi(Confucius) thought successful learningdepended on "cultivating one's moral char-acter and attaining mental tranquility".

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Zhuang Zi maintained the opinion "under-standing by one's whole personality" and"understanding enriches one's personality" (LiHan-wen et al., 1988). Yet the more con-scious combining of Qigong with educationwould be by Zhou Dun-yi, an idealistphilosopher of the Confucian school in theNorthern Song Dynasty (960-1127). Headvocated "being quiet and calm underlieseducation". This idea was explained by ChengHao who said the "good learners would becalm ones" (Xie Fang-zhang, 1988; \fan Fu-chen, 1986). Cheng Ng's conception was that"students who sit down quietly would beeager to learn". In the Southern Song Dynasty(1127-1279), the famous phhosopher Zhu Xiwrote a book entitled The Exhortation ofAdjusting Yourself [Tao Xi Jian]. He taughtstudents with "half a day to learn, and half aday to sit quietly". Contemporaneously, ano-

ther teacher, Lu Jiu-yuan, said, "A learner canlearn well if he/she closes his/her eyes of-ten" and "sitting down comfortably and medi-tating will result in one's mind becoming

clear." About the year 1500, the scholar ChenXian-zhang always asked his students to sitdown quietly long enough to get confidencereadily. Wang Min-yan thought of quiet sit-ting as a method of getting into the frame ofmind for learning. In his book Conditions forTeaching [Jiao Ye), applied the principles and

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methods of Qigong to teaching. Specificallyhe applied all Qigong's physical, imagery andbreathing adjustments, and aigong's naturalrelaxation and calm to his teaching practices.He felt that through these ways teachingcould shape the students' "moral strength"and "make them feel more clear and com-fortable" (Van Fu-chen, 1986). In the abovescholars' works, the word "Oigong" did notappear, but its principles and methods wereso mentioned. Moreover these methods wereused to maintain the best state of mind forlearning, and not to become monks.

From this review, we can conclude thatsome early Chinese scholars were sure thatQigong and its methods were favorable tolearning. Nevertheless, only in the lastdecade or so have scientific experiments beenmade on applying the principles of Qigong tolearning.

By now, the reader is probably wondering,exactly what is Qi? China Sport (1984)defines Qigong as a series of breathingexercises aimed at stimulating the vitalenergy so as to strengthen immunity todisease and the ability to repair internalbodily damage. All forms of Qigong involvethe regulation of three mutually dependent

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basic processes: posture, respiration andthinking. A sample will be given later on.

MAjor Principles of SALT. In the 1960s,Dr. Georgi Lozanov, in Sofia, Bulgaria, intro-duced his Suggestopedia. American psychol-ogists have developed this into a broadertheoretical technique called SALT (Sugges-tive Accelerative Learning Techniques).Other similar terms are Super Learning,Suggestopedia, and Accelerative Learning. Wewill use the term SALT in this thesis. SALTwas partly established on the effective ap-plication of Qigong's principles to learning.Lozanov (1978, p. 69) was interested inQigong and found that memory could beaccelerated by it (Shen Fan et al., 1982, p.69-71). He studied and researched Easternexercises which could affect the state ofmind. He showed that when one relaxesphysically, synchronizes mental activitieswith those of the physical body, coordinatesleft and right hemispheres of the brain,harmonizes conscious with paraconscious,sets up confidence in his/her learning, thenthe reserves of learning would be opened andsuperlearning could take place. Lozanov usedthese methods or means: Intonation andRhythm, Authority, Infantilization, Double-planeness and Concert pseudo-passiveness.Both Intonation and Rhythm have a key

1041

position in super memory. Although Lozanov'sLearning Technique has developed into themore theoretical and practical SALT, perhapswe can enrich it with Qigong theory.

Beyiew gf Qong in Hetping Learning. Inrecent years many magazine articles andmany books of Qigong have been published.Qlgong research also has developed fast,especially the mechanism of Qigong itself andapplications to medicine and education. Qi-gong is conceived of as science with both apublic and private nature. Any person can doQigong and each can acquire experience andaccumulate his/her own feelings about it.Qigong can produce effects not understood bymodern science. The author, a teacher ofPhysical Culture and Sport Psychology hasdone Qigong exercises for more than twoyears. He firmly believes that Qigong canhelp learning by cleaning up one's mind, main-taining attention and utilizing one's ownmental resources.

Qlgong learning research in our countryhas focused on cause and effect: after doingQigong exercises, how is learping improved.There have been about a dozen scatteredreports of experiments on how Qigong affectslearning. Yang Yun-Lian's (1986) researchwas quoted in the lecture on "To Establish

1051:A 41)

Phenomenalistic Qigong" by the famousChinese scientist Qian Xue-sen. The research"Experiment on the Effects of Ohenqi'sRunning Exercise upon the AcademicAchievement and Physique of Middle andPrimary School Students" was published inthe journal Qigong and Science (1986). Thesubjects (Ss) in this experiment were 77middle school and 66 primary students for atotal of 141 (75 males and 65 females). Theexperimental Ss did the Still and MovingQigong exercises for 20 minutes prior to thefirst afternoon class, and prior to every im-portant class the Still Qigong exercise wasdone for 2-3 minutes. Then the teacher askedthe students to pay attention to the lesson.After class the students meditated on thelesson summary for three minutes. This ex-periment lasted 100 days. The followingtests of memory, mathematical ability andacademic performance were used.

Memory. Remember items from a list of50 common words with a given study time.

Math calculation. Complete within a giventime groups of math questions with differentarithmetic operations.

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Math judgment. In a list of numbers, judgewhich numbers are rational, irrational, orinfinKe fractions.

Idea expression. Within a given time, makesentences, extend or condense them, or writea passage.

Graphic analysis. Within a given time,arialyze charts or pictures.

Vision. Visual acuity for information on astandard chart.

Manual dexterity. Within a given time, usea pair of chopsticks to remove glass baiisfrom a box.

Body weight. Use a certain balance.

Retest averages are given in Table 1 forthe Experimental group (N.71) and the Controlgroup (N.70); all differences were significant(p < .001).

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Table 1. Means for Experimentals andControls

Test Fxperimental Controt

1. Math related 9.21 -23.042. Language related 26.53 -0.673. Left eye change 0.13 -0.034. Right eye change 0.13 -0.035. Body balance 1.78 0.81

The experimental group improved signi-ficantly (p < .001) over the 100 day Qigongtreatment, with Math and physics scoresrising from 58.45 to 66.22 and Chineselanguage scores rising from 50.11 to 75.65.However, similar retest data for comparablecontrols were missing.

Also the experimental group improved sig-nificantly (<.001) over the 100 day Qigongtreatment, with Manual dexterity scoresrising from 17.5 to 24.8, with Weight risingfrom 36.8 to 38.8 Kg, with Left visual acuityscores rising from 0.88 to 1.12, and withRight visual acuity scores rising from 0.98 to1.10. Again, similar retest data for com-parable controls were missing.

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Yang Yun-Lian concluded that Qigong exer-cises helped students improve their learningand their health.

Here are data from another researcher.Zhao Zong-yi et al. (1988) did a Qigongexperiment to help learning with fifth gradestudents in a primary school affiliated withShan Xi university. Both the experimental andcontrol classes were pretested as well asposttested. The experimental group did Qi-gong exercises daily for four months.

The following tests of memory, math andindicators of academic performance wereused.

Memory. (a) Use the Movement TestInstrument (DGS-6) to test Ss who listenedto the instructional tape on how to operatethe DGS-6 instrument. Then Ss made mis-takes if they did not remember how tooperate the machine exactly. Criteria weretotal operating time and number of mistakes.(b) Study 2 large aggregates of 9 smallerpictures for 1 minute time each. Rememberdetails.

Math. Complete groups of math items withdifferent arithmetic operations, working for30 minutes.

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Academic performance. Math and Chineselanguage were tested by the school standardexamination papers before and after threemonths of Qigong treatment (not the previousfour months).

Posttest averages and standard deviationsare given in Table 2 for the Experimentalclass (N = 45) and the Control class (N = 30),along with significance levels for differencesbetween the means.

Table Z. Means and standard deviations forExperimental and Control classes along with probabilitylevels of significance

Experimental ontrojTeat Mean mage 32 Prob,

Memory(a) 2597 902 3768 2250 .05(b) 76.86 11.24 58.11 17.94 .01

Math calc. 55.19 15.13 46.43 12.47 .01

in the Chinese language exam, the passingrates were: Experimentals 90.6% vs. Controls85.8% (p < .01). in the standard Math exam,the percent passing rates were: Experimental86.9% vs. 82.2% Controls (p < .01). Zhao Zong-yi concluded that Qigong exercises helpedstudents improve their learning and theirintelligence.

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Wang Ji-sheng (1989) reported on theeffects of Qigong on mental functioning.When Ss are in the Qigong state, thkiir mem-ory, thinking, and perceptual-motor skills arebetter than usual. He concluded that Qigongdid affect intelligence.

Zhu Pei-Li et al., and He Wei-kuo et al.(1985) used Qigong to try to improve retardedchildren. Teachers and Qigong masters askedthe students in their classrooms to do Qigongexercises for 20-30 minutes every day.Students were tested 6 months later andagain 12 months later. Results showed thatQigong not only helped students sleep betterand increased their resistance to commondiseases, but to some degree their languageskills and self-control improved. Hence, Qi-gong can help develop intelligence.

Hu Song-can et al. (1987) in his researchshowed that Qigong improved the mentalfunctioning of adults and older people.

Song Tian-san (1988) reported that Qigongexercise increased the memory rate by 0.5 to4 times. Zhang Fan-weng (1988) reportedthat Ss who had done Qigong daily for 40 dayshad the ratio of copper and zinc in their hairmaintained properly in the range favoringintelligence. Zhao Zong-yi et al. (1988), Han

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Tao (1987), and Xie Fang-zhang (1988)reported separately that Qigong in thetirexperiments strengthened mental functions.

In brief, about one dozen research reportshave shown that Qigong refreshes the mind,increases attention, and improves memory.All the above experiments showed that Qigongcaused improved learning, and that Qigonghelped develop intelligence, improved health,and refreshed the mind.

SALT confounds Qigong's principles andmethods in learning and instruction. The goalof this thesis is to try to find the commonpart of the mechanism for the effects of Qi-gong and SALT on learning. A logical, the-oretical analysis will be used instead of anexperimental approach.

Philosophical Considerations. In theancient Chinese world outlook, both the"Taiji" of Confuciansism and the "One" ofTaoism mean the starting point of evolutionof the universe and life.

Taiji means the essence, some sort of "Qi"which was one integrated mass before theuniverse was formcd. After the Qi of thegreat void there was Heaven and Earth. Afterthis was "Qi-izing", meaning formed by Qi. Qi

112

was the base of evolution for the whole uni-verse. An individual person has a spot on thebody 1.97 inches below the umbilicus ashis/her Qi's starting point, the individualTaiji or the so-called "Qi-sea" location,Dantian.

The world view of ancient China consi-dered human beings as part of the universe,common with it and communicating with it.However, the Qi in the small universe of thehuman body has differentiated, resulting inthe human evolution. A human individual isthe result of the combining, collecting, se-lecting and self-constructing of information,and is the integral of both nature and society.Human beings evolved in consciousness. Butthe original spirit (Yuanshen) was crowdedout by the reasoning spirit (Shishen) in theprocess. Correspondingly, instincts and in-nate sensibility have decreased. Now, manknows the use of the knowing spirit, butdoesn't know the unknowing spirit, its base.

Qigong exercise is a process in whichShishen arouses and fosters the functions ofYuanshen. One returns to the essential ego,regaining an unsophisticated consciousness.Paying all attention to this inner worldresults in understanding and insight.

1 1 3

agigntific ConsWerations. In the environ-ment around the human body, special factorssuch as gravity and electromagnetic fieldsinfluence and affect it. Their influence haslessened as the frontal lobe of the brain hascome to predominate evolutionarily. Peopleare sensitive to atmospheric electromagneticwaves in the frequency range of 1-100 Herz,with a peak at 8-14 Herz. During Qigongexercises, the brain's alpha waves (8-12 Hz)increase, particularly in the frontal andparietal lobes. Perhaps the Qigong exercisesquiet the brain cells and help harmonize theindividual soul and universal spirit. Free ofexternal interference, the best condition forlearning would be provided.

Conventional psychology suggests (Morganet al., 1979) that we have conscious andsubconscious control systems in the brain.The subconscious level is usually hidden bythe dominant conscious level. Experimentsshow that background information presentedwhile we consciously are focusing onsomething else can influence our thoughts.When this background or paraconsciousinformation harmonizes with our consciousactivity, things go much more smoothly for usthan when the background information inter-feres with conscious activity. Both Qigong

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and SALT strive to activate the paraconsciouspositively in order to facilitate learning.

Common mechanisms tar learning.Although the type of agong exercises vary,three nuclei remain essentially the same.These are breathing, ph fsical and imageryadjustments or regulation.

Breathing adjustment does just that for aparticular purpose, including inhaling andexhaling. Breathing then helps imagery ad-justment. SALT then take this nucleus ofQigong exercise as a useful way to helplearning. Iowa researchers studied severalSuggestopedic factors. Coordination of ma-terial presentation with breathing increasedthe rate of learning by 78% (Shen Fan, 1982,p. 22). Here we give an example of applyingbreath synchronization to presentation ofmaterial to be learned.

"Sit down comfortably or lie on a bed.Relax completely each part of your body.Close your eyes. Ilhale as deeply as possible.Hold it for 4 counts. Exhale gently as you feelcompletely relaxed. Hold it for 4 counts.Relax.

Then undertake the following:Exhale: 1, 2, Inhale: 3, 4.

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Hold: 1, 2, 3, 4.Exhale: 1, 2, Inhale: 3, 4.Hold: 1, 2, 3, 4. (Repeat pattern.)"

When learning lesson materials this way,one should control the breathing easily.While the material is being presented, s/heshould hold for 4 counts and listen carefully.Then s/he should exhale and inhale, andbecome ready for the next presentation ofmaterial. The student synchronizes his/herbreathing with what the teacher is saying.The following example is an English lessonfor Chinese students to learn English words.

The teacher presents one trio of words ata time: English-Chinese-English in 4 counts.Teacher pauses 4 counts and continues. Thestudents hold their breath 4 counts while theteacher is talking, then exhale 2 counts, in-hale 2 counts, and are ready to listen to theteacher talking for the next 4 counts.

Generally there are two stages. First thestudents follow silently what they listen toas they adjust their breathing per the above.Second the students close their eyes andlisten to steady background music while theteacher again reads the material in a 4-4count. The students simultaneously adjust

1 1 6

their breathing to follow the teacher's 4-4pattern.

Material other than word lists can belearned this way.

The SALT researchers in America usingthis technique thought that students bene-fited from the increased oxygen to the brain,and from the synchronizing of physical andmental actions which may have reducedmental noise (Shen Fan, 1982, p 31).

For comparison, here is a description ofthe Qigong Strengthening Exercise from ChinaSport (1984): Sit erect with feet flat on the

ground, legs shoulder-width apart, knees at a90 degree angle, palms resting relaxed on theknees, elbows naturally bent, shoulders down,chin slight withdrawn, chest in, eyes andmouth lightly closed, and tongue touching thehard palate. Breathe normally through thenose, regularly, slowly, evenly and quietly.Say "calm" to yourself on inhaling and "relax"on exhaling. Relax a different part of thebody with each respiration, first head, thenarms, hands, chest, abdomen, back, small of

the back, buttocks, legs and feet. Breathingis abdominal, inflating and deflating it

naturally. With no pause between inhalationand exhalation, breathing is gradually slowed

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without forcing to six to eight cycles perminute. Direct your attention to a point fivecm. below the navel without straining yourmind. Count the number of breathing cyclesone to ten and repeat. Begin again if yourmind wanders.

Now I would like to discuss further therelationship between breathing adjustmentand paraconsciousness. Ancient Qigong mas-ters believed that Zhenqi (an essential qi) isthe core of human life. Jing (sperm or egg),Qi (air or energy) and Shen (spirit) are thethree treasures of the human body. Jing isthe material base of biological movement. Qiis the physical function of material move-ment. Shen is the concentrated expression offunction's movement. People gradually losetheir Jing, Qi and Shen in the course of living,so they should "sip" Tien-yang (the positiveprinciple energy from the sun) and "drink"Diyin (the negative principle energy from theearth) to obtain more Zhenqi. With enoughZhenqi, Jing is produced which in turn pro-duces Shen. Without Zhenqi, no Jing, no Zhenand death will come. Zhenqi comes fromTien-yang and grain containing Di-yin; Zhenqicomes from a combination of breathing andnutrition. Zhenqi moves in the human bodydependent on breathing (Zhang Zhen Huan,1988, p 151-2).

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Both the respiratory system in Westernscience, and the Main and Collateral Channels(MCC) in Qigong theory undertake themovement of the body's energy. In 1968Soviet sr;entists demonstrated an energycirculation system in the human body cor-responding to the MCC. They showedstreaming sparking lines of the body's energyin their photographs. They found a proto-plasmic energy analogous to Zhenqi which canbe strengthened by breathing (Shen Fan, 1982,p 35). Scientists in Japan smeared a liquidpolycrystal on a subject's arm, and then madeone acupuncture point warm. The affectedMCC iines were brightened.

The MCC have their own base and lineswhich are independent of the nervous andcirculation system in the body, as shown bymany experiments.

According to Qigong theory, breathing canhelp move and enliven the MCC, foster andmanage the movement of Zhenqi. If Zhenqi isexuberant, the human has exuberant vitalityand the whole mental state is in harmonywith all nature.

According to yoga, all beings are immersedin prana, this cosmic energy. The energy of

1 1 9

every cell, tissue, organ and mindstuff is amanifestation of prana. Through breathing,one's psychological forces can communicatewith physiological forces, resulting in unityof motion for the organism, and culminatingin reaching cosmic energy. Qigong exerciseshave the effect of harmonizing the brain'salpha waves (8-12 Hz) with the predominantatmospheric waves. Thus breathing is abridge between individual and universalenergy. Breathing is life, breathing is energy(Mishra, 1987, pp 379-385).

By adjusting breathing externally and me-chanically, one can awaken the faculty ofunderstanding and eventually enlightenmentof the soul. In Yar Xin's Skill of DevelopingIntelligence, inhale for 120 counts whileimagining a hot beam of light rising from theperineum to the top of the head. Atremendous amount of energy can be moved tothe brain, changing Jing into Qi, then intoShen.

Modern physiology concurs that breathingcan bring potentiality into actuality. Peoplegasp for breath when in pain, hold theirbreath when attentive, and so on. The mannerof breathing can affect the body's sensitivityto illness, health and general emotion level ofgloom or pleasure (Fang Ren, 1982). Brea-

ig4s; 20

thing is controllable, but not beyond limits.Chu Wei-zhong (1985) experimentallyreported that inhaling and then suspendingbreathing temporarily can increase bloodcirculation. But exhaling deeply and inhalingdeeply reduces the carbon dioxide in theblood, and then blood circulation in the brain,bring a clam sense of control. Thus adjustingone's breathing appropriately can cool one'semotion. Both Qigong and SALT applybreathing adjustment to actualize the mind'spotentiality.

Physical aajustment. The famous Qigongmaster Van Xin pointed out, "The prerequisitetor doing Qigong exercises to consciouslyrelax oneself completely from the hair to

toes. Relax, relax and relax again." In doingQigong exercises, one needs to keep relax-ation in mind always. SALT also uses relax-ation in the learning process, starting withinitial physical relaxation and continuingwith a (elajng approach by the teacher andthe use of music. Thus relaxed, learners canaccept suggestions about increased learningthat are compatible with their own views ofthemselves and their learning barriers.

In communication, the speaker's messagehas to pass through both his/her own para-conscious barriers and those of the recipient,

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and also through the communicative medium.Noise can enter this process at several pointsin several ways. To students, such noise inthe learning process can be distraction (mindwandering), restimulation (reintegration), orimprecision in the teacher's communications.

In Qigong, physical adjustment typically isrelaxation, stillness and gentleness. In SALTthe preliminary relaxing exercises can becategorized as Qigong physical adjustment.In the Qigong quiet state one has a clear mindand is less distractible than ordinarily, and

_ thus the mind can process the teachers' les-son with more than usual mental resources(Wang di-sheng, 1989). In SALT worries anddistractions diminish, and positive restim-ulation helps learning.

Qi can be broadcast by the teacher to helpthe students in the learning process, some-thing not understood by modern science. Theauthor reports the following experiment totest this. The cooperation of a Qigong mas-ter, Chen Lin-fen in Peking, was solicited. OnApril 9, 1989, he sent Qi from Peking overthousands of kilometers to some 40 studentsin the author's class at 2:30 pm. The authorhad the students relax and think of the mas-ter's name. After several minutes, severalstudents showed evidenfte of the relaxed

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t4a

Qigong state; after half an hour most of thestudents showed the effect in various ways,such as changes in posture or physical activ-ity. This experiment was videotaped andlater shown over local TV. In the author'sopinion, most of the students did respond insome way to the master's sending of Qi.

Qigong "trains oneself here" to "understandothers there." In so doing, Qigong increasesperceptibility and intellectual capacity, andone can master the environment more easily

than otherwise. In Piaget's terms, Qigongemphasizes more accommodation than assi-milation.

As one starts to learn, one usually changesfrom an active mental state to a passivestate. The calm state provides a bridgebetween the two stltes. But any state ofrelaxed awareness is easily broken by thelearning task. Once the state is broken, onebecomes stressed enough with an optimallevel of brain functioning with some 15-25 %increase in beta brain waves (Prichard et al,,1980, p 130).

Yang Gou-shu, et al. (1980) experimentallyinvestigated the relationship between anxietyand learning. University students weregrouped according to IQ and different instruc-

123

tions were given to halves of students withinIQ groups. Half were told, "I expect you tofinish this examination; it's easy and simpleto finish within the time allotted." Suchinstruction provided a type of stress; theywere poor students if they didn't finish it.The other half were told, "You do not have tofinish the examination; there are too manyquestions, and no one can actually finish it."These students had an excuse for notfinishing it quickly, no worrying. Studentsreceiving the latter instruction got highertest scores than those with the formerinstruction. Students with relaxing, lessstressful instruction achieved more thanstudent with stressful instruction. Theseresults are consistent with the stressresearch of Spielberger (1966) and Schuster& Martin (1980).

imagery Adjustment. Imagery adjustmentor regulation is a means for gradually puttingciaily thoughts out of the mind andconcentrates on a particular location ofhis/her body, or some outside thing, or someself-created fantasy. Here is a techniquefrom the Tang dynasty, "Gently and slowlyclose your eyes. Keep your mind on seeing asoft amalgamation of Qi in the air like abeautiful violet cloud over you. Gradually thecloud descends to your head and then covers

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every pore of your body. It seems as if thesun is shining just after the rain, with arainbow over the mountain. Through yourskin, the beautiful light touches your brainand bones; all your internal organs are beingwet as water penetrates the earth. Keep yourmind on the energy flowing in your abdomen;don't get distracted." The haziness or ambi-guity in such imagery adjustment instruc-tions does not violate the relaxation require-ment, but facilitates it.

SALT leads learners to enter a state ofrelaxed alertness through using imaginationand music to dispel ordinary thoughts fromthe mind. Imagining a beautiful natural scenedynamically gets rid of worry and distraction.For example, learners imagine walking alonga beach, hear the waves come crashing in,feel the fresh air and a breeze on the face, apeaceful relaxing scene. Imagination plays animportant role in SALT mental relaxation.

The George Concept (Schuster & Griffon,1986) uses imagination inventively as a wayof involving the subconscious mind deli-berately rather than haphazardly in learning.Here are the condensed rules for so using theGeorge Concept: 1. Visualize yourself havingjust accomplished your goal. See yourselfthere, feel yourself there. Use your ima-

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129a

gination freely to make it vivid and realistic.Talk to your subconscious, "George, I wantthis goal without any doubts or skepticism."2. State the goal verbally, give yourselfreasons why you want the goal, and tellyourself what you can do once you achieve thegoal. 3. Work out a schedule of how to getthere from the present. Then do it. Applyingthe George Concept to leaning helps integratethe conscious and subconscious to helplearning.

Qigong imagery adjustment affects thewhole physical body. In Watson's peripheraltheory of thinking, ideation is a function ofthe whole body. Chaplin notes that there isincreasing evidence to show that con-sciousness, thinking and muscular processesare complementary. Ideational activity ofteninitiates muscular activity, but therelationship is reciprocal. Muscularcontractions by stimulating lower braincenters indirectly affect the cortex. Theabove may shed some light on why imageryadjustment helps learners learn well. Thebenefit of such mental relaxation is that themind is free of competitive distraction.

In conclusion, there are three essentialnuclei to the many varieties of Qigong exer-cises: breathing, physical and imagery

.126

adjustments or regulation. SALT uses thesein an integrated way to accelerate learning byactualizing the learner's potential.

Beferep.ces

China Sport. (1984). Traditional ChineseFitness Exercises. Beijing: New WorldPress, 88-92.

Chu Wei-zhong et al. (1985). Effects ofQigong's breathing adjustment upon braincirculation. Qigong, (4), 163-164.

Da-lian Industry Institute. (1987). Investi-gation of the effects of Qigong exercises.Qigong and Sport, (3), 29-31.

Fan Ren. (1982). On breathing. Informationon Science Abroad, (3), 54-56.

Gu Fan-jin. (1987). Discussion on QigongAtavitic theory. Qigong and Science, (7),3-5.

Han Tao. (1987). Qigong: A good prescriptionfor improving the brain. China's Qigong,(2), 22-23.

Jiao Xiu-yi et al. (1986). A sketch of currentWestern philosophy. Shanghai, China:

1 27

Eastern China Teacher's University Press.

Li Han-wan et al. (1988). Teaching of Qigongin Schools, pp 3-4. Peking, China: People'sPhysical Press.

Mei lie. (1985). Qigong and the science of thebrain, Zong fa. Qigong, (1), 2-5.

Mishra, R. S. (1987). Textbook of yogapsychology. New York: Julian Press, 379-388.

Morgan, C. T. et al. (1979). Introduction toPsychology, 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Prichard, A. & Taylor, J. (1980). Accele-rating Learning. Novato, CA: AcademicTherapy Publications.

Schuster, D. H. & Griffon, C. E. (1986). SALT(Suggestive Accelerative Learning Tech-niques). New York: Gordon & Breach.

Schuster, D. H. & Martin, 0. J. (1980). Theeffects of biofeedback-induced tension orrelaxation, chronic anxiety, vocabularyeasiness, suggestion and sex of subject onlearning rare vocabulary words. Journal of

1 28

the Society for Accelerative Learning andTeaching, 5(4), 275-288.

Shen Fan et al. (1982). Edited & translated inSuper Learning. Lan zhou, China: Gan ShuPeople's Press.

Shen Je-xien. (1988). A bridge betweenconsciousness and unconst;iousness.Qigong and Science, (12), 2-5.

Shi Fa-yun et al. (1982). Appearance of"Unconsciousness". Information on Psy-chological Science, (3), 52-53,

Song hian-san. (1988). Qigong and Chin Iseeducation. Qigong, (1), 16-19.

Spielberger, C. D. & Smith, L. H. (1966).Anxiety (drive) and response competitioreffects in serial verbal learning. Jiurnaiof Experimental Psychology, 72, 589-595.

Wang Chong-xin et al. (1979). Resea:ch onQigong abroad. Science and Technology inSport, (3), 72-77.

Wang Ji-sheng. (1989). Psycholr,:y ofChinese Qigong. Peking, China: ChinaSocial Science Press, 101-102.

1 29133: r

vk

Wang Ming-wei. (1985). Research progresson the treatment of hypertensive diseasewith Qigong in the past 25 years.Experimental Studies in Nature, (6), 436-442.

Xie Fang-zhang. (1988). Scientific Basis ofQigong. Beijing, China: Peking Science &Industry University.

Yan Fu-chen. (1986). The application ofQigong to education. Oriental Science -Qigong, (4), 27.

Yang Yun-lian. (1986). An experiment on theeffects of Zhenqi's running exercise uponthe academic achievement and physique ofmiddle and primary school students.Qigong and Science, (7), 20-23.

Wang Chong-xin et al. (1979). Researches onQigong abroad. Science and Technology inSport, (3), 72-77.

Wang Ming-wei. (1985). Research progresson the treatment of hypertensive diseasewith Qigong in the past 25 years.Experimental Studies in Nature, (6), 436-442.

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Zhang Zhen-huan. (1988). Selected articleson Oigong. Peking, China: Science Press,151-152.

Zhao Zong-yi et al. (1988). A study of theeffects of Qigong upon children'sintelligence. Oriental Science - Gligong,

(4), 37-39.

Zhen Kuo-pen. (1980). On consciousness.Information on Psychological Science, (4),52-53.

Zhu Pei-li et al. (1985). Research on Qigong'simproving retarded children in theirattention, memory and motor coordination.Information on Psychological Science, (4),49-50.

Zhu Zong-xiang. (1987). Acupuncturedemonstrated by biophysics. ZhongfaQigong, (3), 6-7.

* * *

Qigong y SALT tiene un mecanismo comOn

para activar la potentialidad de humano. acelerativo aprender. En particular, las

actividades y contenidos de respirar, ajustes_ ffsicos y mentales de Qigong tienen paralelos

en SALT.

_ 131 1354.4,34

* *

For further information write the author:Dong Shu-zhang, Department of Education,Fujian Teachers' University, Fuzhou, Fujian,PRC.

13213q.

Journal of the Society for Accelerated Learning and Teaching,1990, 15 (3&4)

The Use of Time Line in Teaching

Michael Hager

Abstract. Time. How do we store and use it?Answering this question can be of greatassistance in the teaching of a foreignlanguage.

***

Through various studies it has been foundthat almost every one of us stores our timeon a continuous line of some sort. This linecan take on various forms, but according to

Eric Robbie the most common are presented in

Fig. 1.

a. b.

Fig. 1. Types of personal time lines

Those people who select "a" usually havethis line located just a little in front of

them. in most cases they are dissociated inrelation to their time line. With form 'b" theline goes directly through the person and the

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person is associated. Form "c" can be eitherassociated or disassociated. See Fig. 2.

cQD-

Fig. 2. Associated (a) and disassociated(b) time lines

It has been found that these lines of timecan vary from situation to situation.However, in English the normal form is likeFig. 2a for most of the native speakers ofEnglish (Andreas et al, 1987.).

The concept of time can bel used in the lan-guage classroom rather effectively to installin learners what the Andreases consider to bethe "average" English time line. To do this Ipresent a normal time line like Fig. la andexplain it to my students with a metaphor ofa history book, where the past is on the leftof the time line, the present in the center andthe future on the right. See Fig. 3.

1 1 1

past present future

Fig. 3. History book time line

las 134

This time line I draw on the blackboard foreveryone to observe. Then I include thepresent perfect tense and explain how this

tense starts in the past, goes on to the

present, and perhaps into the future. See Fig.

4.

1 1

past present future

present perfect

Fig. 4. Present perfect on the time line

Once I have completed this, I have mystudents relax and just imagine what I say.

While doing this, they should notice wherethey see or feel what I am telling them. First

I have them imagine "a man is walking rightnow", then "a man walked yesterday", fol-lowed by "a man is going to walk in thefuture", and then " a man has walked from thepast to the present". Because the presentperfect is difficult for Germans learningEnglish, I have them write under their picturefor the present perfect "a man has walkedfrom the past to the present". This techniqueis possible for all difficult new tenses.

After completing this part of the exercise,I talk to my students about where they lo-

1 35 139

cated their pictures or feelings each time.Most students located the past, present andfuture times just like the Andreases claim istrue for native speakers. However, some saythey preferred to use form "b" in Fig. 1. SinceI explained to them beforehand how a normalEnglish time line can look, they used the sameform as on the board. Then I explain to themthat this time line is for their English, andthe other form is for their German time line.

In teaching different tenses, I teach thisEnglish time line step by step. When be-ginners learn the Present Progressive, I havethem imagine "a man is walking at themomont". Here too I talk to them about wherethis picture or feeling for the sentence islocated. This process can be done each time anew tense is learned. In so doing, I reviewthe tenses already learned on the time line,and present the new one last. Of course, it isimportant that the students understand thenew tense before including it on the timeline.

Once my students reach the PresentPerfect tense, I explain the concept of thetime line, and how it functions to keep "timesorted out in our minds to auid confusion.

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Through using the time line, my studentsget a chance to integrate new tenses intotheir own system of sorting and storing time.The tenses the learner has in the mothertongue that may be used differently in theforeign language can be easily sorted andstored through using the time line in the newlanguage.

aibliogiaphy

Andreas, S. and Andreas, C. (1987). Changeyour mind and keep the change. Moab, UT:Real People Press.

Robbie, E. Personal communication.

* * *

Tiempo. ei,C6mo lo guardamos y usamos? Con-

testar esta pregunta sea una ayuda en ensellaruna lengua extranjera.

* * *

For further information, write the author: Dr.Michael Hager, Finsterwalder Str. 72, 1000

Berlin, Germany.

137

J. of the Society for Accelerated Learning and Teaching, 1990,15(3&4)

Breaking down the walls of the self-contained basic writing course

Julie Ann MixWayne State University

Abstract The time has come for the basicwriting curriculum in the university today to"escape" from the isolation ward and be"mainstreamed" into the academic community.How is this achieved? Through the adoptionof an affective, integrative basic writingcourse model, one which is enjoyable andeffective. This unit on the Vietnam War,which serves as a prototypical unit, demon-strates the use of affective methodology(whole-brain, suggestopedic techniques) asthe key to cognition and, also, to theintegration of "real" academic reading andwriting tasks and sources. Through anoverview of this unit, practitioners willunderstand how the use of this model (1)captures the students' attention and makeslearning a pleasure as curiosity is piqued andcreativity is fostered; (2) creates a non-threatening learning atmosphere; (3) im-merses students into high-interest, inter-disciplinary sources (including literary

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sources), providing both cultural and his-torical background information and a positivebasis for further reading; (4) leads studentsthrough synthesizing these outside sources inthe creation of a critical written piece, atask frequently required in academic writing;and (5) enables previously "unreachable" stu-dents to take part in worthwhile instruction.

Introduction It seems so obvious that manycollege basic writing instructional modelsare largely unresponsive to students' realwriting need, that of preparation forsuccessful academic writing tasks. Studentswho have passed basic writing, but whocannot write successfully for other courseswill attest to this. Frequently they end upfrustrated because, in their basic writingclasses, very little time was devoted toacademic writing tasks such as writing inresponse to reading from sources in thevarious disciplines, or synthesizing fromthese sources to create a critical writtenpiece. Instead, they have spent untold hourson personal experience essays, on writtenresponses to literary sources (at theexclusion of all others), and on grammarworkbooks. The knowledge students gleanfrom involvement in these usual basicwriting course tasks seems quite irrelevantin that it does not serve as a sound basis for

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9DX '

academic writing. This is a particular shameas, above all other students, these basicwriters need a framework upon which to

model academic writing tasks. This situationpersists despite the fact that respectedpersonages in the field of basic writing, suchas Mina Shaughnessy (1977), Mike Rose(1983), and David Bartholomae (1987) haveexhorted basic writing instructors to becomeresponsive to the real situation facing basicwriting students, the necessity to write forthe academic community. To address the is-sue in the Division of Community Education atWayne State University, I created an affec-tive, integrative basic writing course modelwhich immerses students into academicwriting tasks and sources from various dis-ciplines. I piloted most of the activities in

the model on a small group of students (six)who had tested well below college level in

writing and had been placed in the BasicWriting Tutorial class. I was well aware ofthe low confidence levels and the attitudeand attendance problems which plague thislevel of student. Also, I knew of the impor-tance of a sound emotional atmosphere(Krathwohl, Bloom & Bertram, 1956; Wolcott& Buhr, 1987). Therefore, I wove the powerof suggestion (using suggestopedic techni-ques) and positive, affective techniques intothe fabric of the course model (A full ex-

141 4114

planation will follow.) I purposely strove toestablish a non-threatening learning atmos-phere through encouraging student responsewithout fear of negative repercussions and,also, by playing classical music during class.As we completed the activities in the unit, Irealized ways to make the model morecomplete and have included them here forinterested practitioners.

I am delighted to report that all of thestudents remained in the course throughoutthe term and attended quite regularly. Inaddition, all but one of the studentsprogressed to the point where they were bothready for their next writing course and muchmore confident to write for their academicclasses. Since the pilot study, over the pasttwo years I have used the model with groupsof ten to fifteen students in our GIS 051course (remedial writing) with marked suc-cess.

The concept of integrating suggestopedictechniques and Pepper's root metaphors intothe English course is the "brain child" of Dr.James Quina (1989), an Associate Professorof Education at Wayne State University. Abrief explanation (and, therefore, an overlysimplistic one) of suggestopedic techniquesand, then, Pepper's root metaphors is in order

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as they are the organizing principles uponwhich the lesson plans depend. First, accor-ding to Schuster and Gritton (1987), "sug-gestopedia" is a term that means "the ap-plication of suggestion to education andlearning, especially improving them" (p. 1).

Dr. George Lozanov of Bulgaria, the "father" ofsuggestopedia, has based his methodology onthe power of a joy-filled and relaxed learningatmosphere, in combination with the power ofsuggestion, as the means to reach both theconscious and paraconscious levels of ourminds. He developed three phases in thesucgestopedic lesson, preliminary, presen-tation, and practice, which contain specificactivities for teaching foreign language.Schuster and Gritton, however, specify thatdifferent sequences may be appropriate forother subjects (p.7). Therefore, I have takenthe liberty of formulating specific activitiesfor teaching basic writing through sugges-tion, using preliminary, presentation, prac-tice, and review phases. (These activitiesfollow shortly.)

The root metaphors, ways of organizingand viewing the world in rigorous Westerncognition, involve more detailed explanation.The root metaphors are: formism (simi-larity), mechanism (cause and effect), con-textualism (a series of experiential mo-

143146,

ments), and organicism (integration andharmony). Thus, for instance, if a situationor experience is reflected upon, one couldexamine it from four different perspectives:Formistically - in what ways is this exper-ience similar to others? How could it beclassified or categorized? Mechanistically -What is the cause of the complications in thissituation, and what are the effects? Why didthis occur? When such and such a theory isapplied, what is the result? How much? Howoften? Contextually - From what variouspoints of view may this situation be viewed,now and as time evolves? How does this issueor situation change or how does conflictprovoke change? Organically How do thepieces or the details fit together to createthis experience? What must occur to providethe "whole story"? How do the elements worktogether? It is easy to see that even a seem-ingly mundane fact, experience, or situationcan become a mystery to be solved.Actually, the most efficient method ofexplaining this affective, integrative tech-nique is to present a prototypical unit as amodel for interested colleagues. To begin,however, I will concentrate on the first twodays of the unit in detail because they willreveal how this course model: 1) immersesstudents into sources from literature andhistory, providing them with both cultural

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and historical background information and apositive basis for further reading, 2) cap-tures students' interest and fosters crea-tivity through the incorporation of affective,suggestopedic techniques and 3) enablespreviously "unreachable" students to parti-cipate through the experience of a multi-sensory delivery system and the incorpora-tion of the root metaphors specified byStephen Pepper (1970).

Yes, incorporating both the suggestopedicapproach and Pepper's root metaphors resultsin a teaching unit with depth and intrigue.Beginning with day one and two, a modelbasic writing unit, replete with activities,follows:

Vietnam War Unit

DAY 1

Preliminary Phase(primarily mechanistic: sensory cause andeffect)

Albinoni's "Adagio" (slow and heart-rending) is playing as students walk in.The lights are low, and one of the nineslides of actual Vietnam War photos isprojected on the screen.

Presentation Phase

145 148

(mechanistic: cause and effect)

1. While the music plays and with onlybrief commentary provided by theinstructor, students view nine slides ofactual Vietnam War photos which relaythe tragic message of the war, and oneslide of a modern painting depicting thetragedy and violence. (This last slideremains on the screen throughout therest of the presentation phase and all ofthe practice phase.)

A student (at random) reads severalpoems written on-site during the war.Then,

The instructor elicits emotions andthoughts from the students whilemapping them on the board using"Vietnam War" as key words in thecircle. All words are defined incontext.

Practice Phase(mechanistic: cause and effect; organistic:integration and harmony; formistic:similarity; and contextual: a series ofexperiential moments)

146

149

1. Students pair off and choose six to

eight words from the map. Each studentwrites a paragraph expressing histhoughts and feelings about the VietnamWar, drawing upon the chosen words.The music plays as students write.(These paragraphs become the basis forongoing revisions which incorporatepertinent critical writing skills beingstressed in the course at the time.)

2. Students share their written workaloud.

3. Now as the presentation phase is

concluded, students request informationon the war. The instructor passes out afour-page factual report and refersstudents to passages that explainseveral of the situations presented onthe slides. Also, difficult vocabularywords are highlighted and defined in

context. Students are assigned to studythe four-page handout.

DAY 2Review Phase(mechanistic: cause and effect; contextual:a series of experiential moments; andformistic: similarity). When studentsenter the next class (in my case, two days

1 47

105P

later), "The Green Berets," a patriotic1960's song, is playing.

1. Students view the slides again fromthis different perspective. They arefree to ask questions as the slides arebeing viewed.

2. Then a student (at random) reads a briefcommentary written by a Marine com-mander in the war, and students engagein a discussion to understand thissecond perspective, adhering to theinstructor imposed rule that allcomments must be made in sympathywith the Marine commander's point ofview.

3. Finally, the instructor briefs thestudents on the dissension felt andmanifested at home in the United Statesduring the war's final years.

The Rest of the UnitThe rest of the unit is outlined here. For

purposes of brevity, however, I have desig-nated the activities in sequence, withoutreference to "phases." Please note that innumber seven, students synthesize outsidesources in the creation of a critical writtenpiece for the first time. Up to that point,they are gathering information.

148:.(1151

To complete the unit, students:1. take a guided "fantasy trip" (eyes

closed, concentrating) during which theconcept of internal monologue vs. ex-ternal speech is presented in prepara-tion for reading the short story, "Fear,"by Peter Mahoney, which portrays atrue-to-life Vietnamese War experience(formistic)

2. learn the critical reading technique of"scientific skimming" so that theimportance of gaining control over thetext, before actual reading, is stressed

3. share in reading the story aloud; and,finally, write about an incident thatfrightened them, and then rewrite forthe purpose ,f strengthening specificwriting skills currently being em-phasized (formistic and contextual)

4. read letters written by PresidentsEisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnsonconcerning U.S. involvement in Vietnamand report on them (contextual)

5. briefly outline the course of U.S. invol-vement in the Vietnam War and, then,discuss it, using the four-page handoutprovided

149 152;:r

6. interview Vietnam War vets usinggroup-formulated questions (contex-tual)

7. create a group-made synthesis chartwhich explores significant aspects ofthe Vietnam War in relation to variousviewpoints and sources (including theactual, aforementioned interviews);write in response to the chart, forminggeneralizations and conclusions; and,then, share this information with otherstudents (organistic)

8. create a group-designed booklet, con-taining poetry and writings on theVietnam conflict, to be duplicated sothat each student retains his own copy(mechanistic and organistic).

Sirengtbs of the Affective. iptes4Wive,3asic Writing Course Model

It is apparent that this prototypical unit isquite comprehensive. I do not wish to convey,however, that other practitioners shouldadhere to the steps I have elucidated. Rather,using this unit as a framework, instructorswill discover the beauty of using thisaffective, integrative model in formulatingtheir own creations. Here is a tool which

1501SW

stimulates interest and excitement aboutteaching. The four world views sculpt anddevelop the lesson planning. Students becomeactively involved :.'.uring preliminary,presentation, and practice phases. The pos-sibilities are limitless. Also, because stu-dents do not all learn in the same ways,oftentimes they do not learn well in responseto "usual" methodology. When instructorsdiversify by including all four ways oforganizing and viewing information duringplanning and teaching, a broader spectrum ofstudents become involved. Instructors dis-cover that the audio/visual delivery system,coupled with free discussions, group work,lecture, and creative and structured indi-vidual writing, guarantees that differingtypes of learners are reached. For example,those who learn better by involving all oftheir senses are accommodated.

Appropriately enough, perhaps the keyreason for the unit's effectiveness is that itis, overall, organistic; all the "pieces* worktogether to form the integrated whole ofpreparing students to successfully negotiatecollege-level reading and writing. Lookingdeeper, however, the various strengths of themodel are best understood when they aregrouped formistically (according to simi-larities):

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First, students experience enjoyableinterdisciplinary (historical, cultural, andliterary) units in preparation for futurecoursework in these areas. Vocabulary andlanguage facility are enhanced. Also, stu-dents become better critical readers andwriters overall, learning how to discern andthen synthesize different views from varioussources in preparation for assignments whichrequire these competencies. In addition,students are given the opportunity to experi-ence the recursive model of writing (Flower& Hayes,1981), which allows for ongoing re-conceptualization in light of new infrrmationthrough the incorporation of reviewing andrewriting as natural processes. In otherwords, this model provides advance orga-nizers (Ausubel, 1968), "hooks" onto whichfurther knowledge and experience may be"hung."

Secondly, by engaging in the affective andsuggestopedic techniques, students developan intellectual curiosity, a need to know, ifyou will, which transfers into other learningsituations. They begin to share in a practicewhich "good" language learners utilize: be-ginning "with a function, a need to getsomething done, and moving gradually towardacquiring the forms which reveal thatfunction" (Shuy, 106-7).

152,t

1 55

Finally, this model places students into aworkshop classroom, where reading, writing,listening, and speaking are integrated so thateach mode of discourse enriches the others(Moffett and Wagner, 1976; Bruffee, 1983;

Bickel (1985)

Conclusion

In my experience, it is not often that basicwriting instructors are provided theopportunity to raise their teaching to thelevel of an art. Through using the affective,integrative basic writing course model, I

beiieve that instructors can become creativeartists. By way of explanation, I refer firstto Jerome Bruner's chapter, "Art as a Mode ofKnowing" in his book, On Knowing: Essays forthe Left Hand (1979). Bruner states thatmetaphor is the structure by which we effecta "connectedness" or a "unity of experience"in relation to a work of art. "Metaphor joinsdissimilar experiences by finding the imageor the symbol that unites them at somedeeper emotional level of meaning"(p. 63).The metaphor of art, according to Bruner, alsoinvolves a canon of economy which results ina "compact image or symbol that, by its

genius, travels great distances to connectostensible disparities" as man is inundatedwith knowledge and tends "to perceive things

153 156

schematically, for example, rather than indetail" (p. 65).

In this innovative model, the root meta-phors serve as the schema, structure, ormetaphor which "connects ostensible dispar-ities," the various units to be createdaccording to the affective, integrative coursemodel. They become the"structures" inBruner's "structuralism" (1960) which allowteachers to produce continuity of learning,the transferral of knowledge, that which liesat the heart of the educational process accor-ding to Bruner (p. 17). Once instructors havebegun to master the art of metaphoricplanning and instruction, they may draw uponthese "structures" as keys to subsequentinstructional units. They employ the art oftransfer, "the continual broadening anddeepening of knowledge in terms of basic andgeneral ideas" (p. 17).

Likewise, the students, who are curious,engaged, and thinking and learning better,become empowered with the tools foreffective transferral of knowledge (p. 17).They are prepared to transfer these ways ofknowing and learning to future educationalsituations. Metaphoric teaching and learning,therefore, become nothing less than art.

154

4.) A

157

In his book, The Basis of Criticism in theArts, Stephen Pepper (1965) seconds thisopinion as he employs the four rootmetaphors as the basis for artistic criticism.He believes that the worth of a work of art ismeasured by the extent to which it isevaluated in terms of all four root metaphors.Thus, when all of the metaphors are incor-porated into the basic writing instructionalunits, the results may be comprehensivelyevaluated in terms of these metaphors.Instruction becomes an art - an experience ofbeauty which Pepper defines as, "one vivid inquality, organized, and a source of immediateenjoyment for a normal mind" (pps. 140-141).

Yes, when practitioners actually experi-ence designing and teaching according to theaffective, integrative model, they will rea-lize the joy of artistic creation and expres-sion and truly partake in an experience ofbeauty.

fieferenos

Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology:A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston.

Bartholomae, D. (1987). Writing on themargins: The concept of literacy in higher

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,-,,,c

education. In T. Enos (Ed.), A source bookfor basic writing teachers (pp. 66-83).New York: Random House.

Bickel, L. L. (1985). Word processing and theintegration of reading and writinginstruction. In J. L. Collins & E. A. Sommers(Eds.), Writing on-line (pp. 39-45).Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann EducationalBooks, Inc.

Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. S. (1979). on knowing: Essays forthe left hand. Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press.

Bruffee, K. (1983). Writing and reading ascollaborative or social acts. In J. N. Hays,P. A. Roth, J. R. Ramsey, & R. D. Foulke(Eds.), The writer's mind: Writing as amode of thinking (pp. 159-168). Urbana, IL:National Council of Teachers of English.

Flower, L. & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitiveprocess theory of writing. College Com-position and Communication, 32, 365-87.

Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., and Bertram, B.M. (1956). Taxonomy of educational obj-ectives: The classification of educational

156155

goals (Handbook II: Affective domain). NewYork: David McKay Company, Inc.

Lozanov, G.K. (1978). Suggestology and outl-ines of Suggestopedy. New York: Gordonand Breach.

Moffett, J. & Wagner, B. J. (1976). Student-centered language arts and reading, K-13.Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Pepper, S. C. (1965). The basis of criticism inthe arts. Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress.

Pepper, S. C. (1970). World hypotheses.Berkeley, CA: University of CaliforniaPress.

Quina, J. (1989). Effective secondaryteaching: Going beyond the bell curve. New

York: Harper & Row.

Rose, M. (1983). Remedial writing courses: Acritique and a proposal. College English,45(2), 109-128.

Schuster, D. H. & Gritton, C.E. (1987).Suggestive accelerative learning techni-ques. New York: Gordon and Breach SciencePublishers.

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Shaughnessy, M. P. (1977). Errors and expec-tations: A guide for the teacher of basicwriting. New York: Oxford UniversityPress.

Shuy, R. W. (1981). A holistic view oflanguage. Research in the Teaching ofEnglish, 15(2), 101-112.

Wolcott, W. & Buhr, D. (1987). Attitude as itaffects developmental writer& essays.Journal of Basic Writing, 6(2), 3-15.

* * *

El tiempo ha venido por el fundamentalescribiente plan de estudio en la universidadde hay a escapar del barrio de aislamiento yser integrado en la comunidad académica.LCórno se logra esto? Por media de la adop-don de un afectivo, integrado fundamentalescribiente modelo de curso, lo que esagradable y eficaz. Esta unidad en la guerraVietnam, quo sirve como una unidadprototIpica, demuestra el uso de lametodologia afectiva (entero-sesas, técnicassugestopédicas) como la Have a cognición y,también, a la integral de real lecturaacadémica y fuentes. Par medio de unasobrevista de esta unidad, los practicantesentenderán coma el uso de este modelo (1)

1 58161

captura la atención de estudiantes, (2) haceaprender un gusto como curiosidad es

provocada y la creatividad es nutrida, (3)sumerge los estudiantes en fuentes de graninterés e interdisciplinarias (incluyendofuentes literarios) que proveen informacionesambos culturales e históricos de fond() y unabase positiva para más lectura, (4) conducelos estudiantes por los fuentes en la creaciónde un crftico pedazo que escribir, una tareafrecuentamente requerida en el escribiracadémico y (5) capacita anterioramenteestudiantes no-alcanzados que hacen un papelen instrucción digna.

* * *

For further information, write the author:Julie Ann Mix, College of Lifelong Learning,Wayne State University, 18100 Meyers Rd.,Detroit, MI 48235.

159 162;!1

J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990, 15(3814)

An Accelerated Learning Approach toTeaching Critical Analysis

James OuinaWayne State University

Abstract The author describes the use ofaccelerated learning techniques in a graduateliterature methods course to teach criticalanalysis in reading. Four basic metaphors inliterature and science, formism, mechanism,contextualism, and organicism, are taught andapplied. Students are thus prepared in ausually neglected important skill.

* * * * * * * * *

Popular accounts of Accelerated Learningappear in Peter Kline's The Everyday Genius(1988), Colin Rose's Accelerated Learning(1985) and Eric P. Jensen's Super-Teaching(1988).* The methods developed in thesebooks are based on the research of GeorgiLozanov, documented in hisSuggestology andOutlines of Suggestopedy (1978); the brainresearch of Robert Ornstein and Roger Sperry,and more recently, Lynn Nadel; Band ler andGrinder's neurolinguistic programming; and

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163

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intell-igences, elucidated in his Frames of Mind(1983). The methods developed out of thisbody of research make use of a variety of"whole brain processes" to enhance long-termmemory, promote discovery, and integratelearning.

Some techniques of Accelerated Learningare the use of multiple sensory processing,the use of fine arts and classical music toincrease retention and discovery in anycontent area, special uses of metaphor,storytelling, rhythmic movement, bodysculpture, educational kinesthetics, imagi-native drawing, and the singing of songsbased on content. On the surface thesetechniques seem far removed from anyrational approach to interpreting literature,and especially removed from approachesdesigned to teach students how to think inways represented by literary-critical tra-ditions of the past--the thinking of Aristotle,Coleridge, John Dewey, or LA, Richards. Andyet it is precisely these processes oflearning that provide a way for the studentsto trans!ate their perceptions, feelings andideas into an articulate interpretation ofliterature approximating the thinking of greatcritics.

: 162

Teaching Potcy 'dab M usic

In 1967 at Sophia University, Bulgaria,Georgi Lozanov first established theeffectiveness of using music to increaseretention in foreign language instruction,obtaining vocabulary growth rates three tofive times greater than those achieved byconventional methods, and three times theretention rate when compared with norms onthe Ebbinghaus Curve of Forgetting.

Currently, Accelerated Learning trainersStephanie Merritt (Mind, Music and Imagery,1990), Ivan Barzakov (founder of Optima-learning) and Peter Kline (The EverydayGenius, 1988) all demonstrate the effec-tiveness of using music in the teaching of avariety of content areas. In my graduateliterature methods course at Wayne StateUniversity, I use Ted Hughes' "The Thought-7-sox" to demonstrate reading poetry with

Isic. This poem is highly functional to ther..rpose because of its short length, facili-.atirig a cf,mplete reading of the poem, andbecause .ts rich imagery, providing strongcross-conn-ntions with drawing and visua-lizing with music.

163 165

THE Tf.OUGHT-FOX

imagine this midnight moment's forest:Something else is aliveBeside the clock's lonelinessAnd this blank page where my fingers move.

Through the window I see no star:Something more nearThough deeper within darknessIs entering the loneliness:

Cold, delicately as the dark snow,A fox's nose touches twig, leaf;Two eyes serve a moment, that nowAnd again now, and now, and now,

Sets neat prints into the snow,Between trees, and warily a lameShadow lags by stump and in hollowOf a body that is bold to come

Across clearings, an eye,A widening deepening greenness,Brilliantly, concentratedly,Coming about its own business

Till, with a sudden sharp hot stink of foxIt enters the dark hole of the head.

0164

166

fr"

The window is starless still; the clockTicks, the page is printed.

(Selected Poems. Thom Gunn & Ted Hughes

1962, Faber and Faber, Ltd.)

I first direbt my students to read the poemsilently, then I read "The Thought Fox" aloudwithout using music and the students followthe text silently. The purpose of the firsttwo readings is to decode the semantic senseof the poem. Next, I read the poem with apassage from Debussy's "Prelude to theAfternoon of a Faun." The music is selectedbecause the work of Lozanov shows Debussy'scompositions to be highly image-evoking.

The reading of poetry with music is notthe same as a reading of poetry with themusic as background. As Ivan Barzakov,founder, of Optima learning, has stated it, "thevoice surfs on the music." The purpose ofusing the music is to increase activation ofparts of the brain, to activate the limbicsystem, the reticular formation, as well asleft and right hemispheres. The emotions andthe imagination are aroused and voice isconnected with music as a context for thepoem, just as silence is a context for thesense of the poem in the first reading and

1 65 167;I#C)1

«or*-7-

171,

voice with silence is a context for the senseof the poem in the second reading.

Drawing a Poem

The next step is to pass out art supplies:drawing paper, paint sets, colored pencils orcrayons, and invite students to draw theirexperience of the poem from the threereadings: their silent reading, the reading ofthe poem without music, and the reading ofthe poem with music.

Drawings can be representational or ex-pressionistic. Debussy's "Prelude to theAfternoon of a Faun" plays in the backgroundas the students draw. Drawing facilitatesthe processing of imagery both visually andkinesthet;cally, thereby opening students tofurther possibilities of interpretation.

Integrptjng Imaging. Thinkipa _and FeelinQ

In the next step I use an adaptation of atechnique borrowed from Eugene Gendlin'sfocusing. Gendlin developed focusing as aself-counseling technique used to harmonizeimaging, thinking and feeling.

When one feels a disturbance in a rela-tionship, says Gendlin, it is like losing awallet or key. To find the lost object one can

1

6866

randomly search for it or one can foc thequality of the feeling one is experiencing. Aperson gets in touch with the feeling of theloss and allows any images associated withthe feeling to become conscious. One then"resonates" with the image-feeling andmatching thoughts until an exact match isobtained. The exact match is signaled by asimultaneous intellectual discovery and afelt sense, a bodily release: feeling equalsimage equals word or phrase.

Focusing can be readily adapted as anAccelerated Learning Technique, a techniquethat supports self-reflection in interpretingliterature or art, guiding students through thesorting of feelings, images and thoughts tofind exact matches--matches that makesense intellectually, intuitively, and physic-ally as felt sense. In interpreting literature,do we not naturally "resonate" to these modesof knowing and experiencing? In anaccelerated learning approach to teachingpoetic analysis, this process is made moreexplicit. Students are verbally guidedthrough a focusing process. A possible scriptadapted from Gendlin's Focusing follows:

167 16

Focusing Script

Choose an aspect of the poem or anaspect of your drawing to focus upon.Notice any feelings you are having as youfocus on that aspect of the poem ordrawing. Notice any sensation or emotionsyou are feeling.

Now--what is the quality of thatfeeling? What word, phrase or imagecomes to mind?

Go back and forth between word (orimage) and the feeling. What word orphrase best fits? When word or imagematches with feeling, have the sensationof matching them several times. If thefeeling changes, follow it. What is thequality of the feeling now? And now?

When you get a perfect match, thewords being just right for the images andfeelings, begin to write down the wordsand phrases that have come to mind.

Continue to write about your experienceof the poem or your drawing of it. Writefrom a fourth to a half a page,

168

Writing with )(Ely Wows

The focusing process is transitional--akey to building a bridge between feelings,images and verbal expression. As thestudents complete a fourth of a page, a list ofkey words is passed out and students areinvited to look on the list to see if they haveused any of the key words or phrases or anysimilar words or phrases. They are theninvited to use the words or phrases on thelist to complete their analysis.

The key words are a random mixture ofterms and phrases taken from four criticaltraditions in literary history, the criticalthought of Aristotle (formism), Coleridge(organicism), John Dewey (contextualism),and l.A. Richards (mechanism). (See 'KeyWords for interpretation.")

After the students have completed theirinterpretation of the poem, they will thendiscover the critical positions they haveadopted in their interpretation. The chart,Moot Metaphor in Literature and Science," ispassed out and the students locate theirinterpretation on the chart.

KEY WORDS FOR INTEREPRETATIONIn developing an interpretation, please circleany of the following words that you find

169 171ti

useful. You may find these words or phrasesuseful as suggestive of another term or ideathat you will use in your interpretation, oryou may use the term or phrase directly-aspart of the language of your interpretation.

definition qualityrelationship purposeg ro wthgoalfluxmeasurementquantitylocationnormsunitypart/wholeassociationcomparisondesigncompleteorganizationeventsituationintensityconformitygroupsuitablemoldtypicalvariety

formintegrationidealchangeconnectionstrandstexturestandardsnormalconflictspace/timeactpatternrepetitioncategoryharmonygenreclassappropriatedescriptiondeterminedorderdiscovery

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172

cause/effectcharacteristicsstimulus/responseplanclassificationcumulative knowledgepoint of viewfragmentsphysical lawssensations/emotionsmultiple realitiesorganismappearance/realitypleasure/painpresence(now)frequencydurationuniversalcharacterlawrubricfittingcastarchetypalquintessential

naturediversityclashmutatedivergeencounteronenessindividualityuniquenesscongruitybring offoutcomeimpetusenact

prototypicalvariegatetransformdiscordrefashionprobeexaminationweb-likebridgeproductconsequenceresultproducerender

tapestrymachine-likereconciliationmodifyrenewbondlinknexussolidarityinterrelationshipcarry outmakeimpulse

In answer to the question, What keywords did you use? their interpretation of thepoem will be dominantly formistic (Aristo-tle), organistic (Coleridge), contextualistic(Dewey) or mechanistic (LA. Richards). For;ome students their word choices may beeclectic, balanced between two or more orthe critical theories. And for some, it ispossible they do not connect with the modesof criticism that are presented. Perhaps theyhave invented a new language, a new criti-cism. Nevertheless, all the students at thisstage are given the opportunity to discoverthe language they have used and to reflect onhow they arrived at that language. The

171 173i. tar4 A

language of each world view is represented inthe chart. See Fig. 1.

Briefly, the formist position, representedby Aristotle, sees the world as a system ofsimilars and dissimilars. Out of thisvision of the world the concepts of com-parison, classification, pattern, form,standard, ideal type, and characteristicemerge as constructs for organizing theworld, including the world of literary form,the nature of character, style, and genre.

To the formist "The Thought Fox" is aneffective poem because of its conformity tonorms of prosody (consonance and assonance,for example), its use of patterns ofsimilarity, evident in rhyme structure, andits developed parallel between the image of afox emerging from the forest and the creativeprocess emerging from mind and thought.

The organicist, represented by Coleridge,sees,, reality as relationship of parts towhole, an integration of fragments. Inliterary criticism, one looks for unity, forreconciliation of opposites, for appro-priateness of part to whole, the fitting ofideas, images and feelings. Each part of apoem supports every other part.

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174

As one of my graduate students(Petrovich, 1981) pointed out, every stap of"The Thought Fox" interrelates imageryconveying the development of the creativeprocess: the mystery (stanzas 1-2), theapproach (stanzas 3-4), and the rush (stanzas5-6).

The contextualist, represented by thethinking of John Dewey, sees reality as a pro-cess. This view of reality emphasizeschange, and the experience of the moment.Out of this view of reality emerge the con-cepts of point of view, quality, act,event, and conflict. Literature can be richin strands of experience, conveying pur-poseful action, multiple realities, andserial, funded experience. As Dewey says,a work of literature becomes a differentreality with each successive reading. To testthis hypothesis, students are encouraged tore-read "The Thought Fox" several times andto document changes in their experience ofthe poem.

173175

Root hittaphor n Litoratsra and Science IEMMOMM.

FOTrgent Mechanism Contaxtualk Int Organidsm

Root metaphor Similarity Machine Changing historical event/ integration (harmoniousexperiential mornmst

Theories oftruth

Key words

Correspondence (absolute) Cowls' skqustmont(relativistic)

instrumental/pragmetk(relativistic)

unity)

tikteliAiovt.VM*Vi

Coherence (mbsolute)

definitioncharacteristicsform

Plandassificationideal formparticipationnormsstandardsnormalcomparisondesignpattern

causeeffectstimulusresponsemeasurementquantitylocationphysical lawssensationsassociationspace-time

176

qualitypurpose

fluxchangepoint of viewstrandstexturemultipie realesconflictarbitrarypresence (now)sztevent

relationshipgrowthintegrationidealcumulative truthnousfragmentsunitywholisticorpnismappearance/realitycomplete

Root Metaphor in Literature and Science (Continued)

Form ism Mechanism Contextualism

Literary Manderds/norms determinism in character funded experiencemanifestation genre motivation points of view

character types emotive and sensory conMetliterary period response (cause and aesthetic qualitystyles of writing effect) In literary criticism purposive action

Standard of Conformity to a standard or productive of the pleasures Rich in rtrends ofliterary norm (e.g., conformity to of sensory and emotive experience: intensejudgment the requirements of an

Elizabethan sonnet)response; e.e pleasures ofassociation

experience of quality

Scientific Galen: Archimedes: Leonardo da Vinci:metaphors "A physician needs to study "Give me a place to stand "Those sciences are vainas root anatomy as an architect and I will move the earth." which are not born ofmetaphors needs to follow a plan." experience."

Doyle:Newton: The rise of mercury in a Thomas Edison;Noting the.similarity between column is caused by "the "There's a better way to do

the falling of an apple andthe orbiting of the moonsuggested law of

spring in the air." it . . find lt."

Reniamin Thompson:gravitation. Invention seems to be

peculiarly the province ofthe many sciencesdiscovery his harvest;utility his reward.

Organicisrn

"reconciliation of oppositeend discordant qualities"

every image and conceptsupports every otherimage and concept

Appropriateness; fitting adparts to create a unifiedwhole; organic unity

Kekule:

sasim4'%

t Excerpted from Chapter 12 of _UNgvApsingeHLTmiLM2 Be rgijmdBelt by James Quin&New York: Harper & Row, 1Sae. By permission of Harper & Row.

177

The mechanist, represented in literarycriticism by LA. Richards, sees reality as amachine. Cause and effect, stimulus andresponse are its basic concepts. in literatureit is translated as determinism in characterdevelopment, emotive and sensory re-sponse, the pleasures of association.Students record their sensory, emotive andassociative responses to "The Thought Fox"and then hypothesize cause and effect rela-tionships between elements of the poem andtheir pleasurable or displeasurable re-sponses. If the poem rates high onpleasurable response, it is considered effec-tive. Mechanism is relativistic, but it is notlimited to subjective judgment; studentsdevelop the discipline of making theirresponses public by identifying the images,lines, and words, which caused their pleasureor displeasure.

A Metacognitiye Approach tg LiteraryQriticis ni

Dominant critical positions are identified byhand count and students are directed to find apartner holding a view other than their own.They are asked to explain to the other studentthe stages by which they came to hold theirview. What was the genesis of the languagethey used? Here the student must make ametacognitive search starting from an initial

176178

silent reading on through the reading withmusic, the drawing, the focusing pro-cess,initial expression in verbal form, andselection of key words to match their lan-guage.

A final stage is a whole class discussionof interpreting "The Thought Fox" and asharing of various perspectives. At this pointthe teacher can assist the students in moreclearly articulating whatever critical posi-tion they have adopted, guiding them in devel-oping counter-arguments to their positions,and exploring the class's experience oftranslating feeling and image into verbalform. Each stage of the teaching-learningsequence can be reflectively explored todiscover what worked for the students and torefine the process.

A continuum will have been constructed--acontinuum moving from an exploration offeeling and perception to an exploration ofcritical modes of thought. The students nowhave entrance into four distinct traditions ofcritical thought. The critical traditions ofAristotle, Coleridge, Dewey and Richards cannow be explored philosophically, historicallyand culturally. The mastery and applicationof these critical concepts becomes progres-sively easier for these students, for they

17717 9

have already been at the center of thesemodes of thought. They have created suchthoughts and they have discovered how theyhave created these thoughts.

* End Note: SuperLearning published in 1979by the journalists Sheila Ostrander and LynnSchroeder, describes a system of acceleratedlearning that is markedly different f, !Irn

those cited above. The complex system ofbreathing and timing recommended in Super-Learning is not representative of Lozanov'sresearch and is not essential to achievingextraordinary results.

Wprks CitedDebussy, C. Prelude to the Afternoon of a

Faun. The Optimalearning Classic, Barzak

Educational Institute, Inc., 88 Belvedere,Suite D, San Rafael, CA.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: Thetheory of multiple intelligences. NewYork: Basic Books.

Gendlin, E T. (1982). Focusing. Now York:

Bantam.Gunn, T. & Hughes, T. (1962). Selected poems,

London: Faber and Faber, Ltd.Jensen, E. (1988). Super-Teaching. Del Mar,

CA: Turning Point for Teachers.

Kline, P. (1988). The everyday genius. Ale-xandria, VA: Great Ocean Press.

Lozanov, G. (1978). Suggestology and out-

lines of suggestopedy. New York: Gordon

and Breach Science Publishers.Merritt, S. (1990). Mind, music and imagery.

New York: Penguin Books.

Ostrander, S. and Schroeder, L. (1979).

Super learning. New York: Delta.Pepper, S. (1942). World hypotheses.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Petrovich, B.U. (1981). A Search for Meaning

in Literature, unpublished graduate essay.Submitted in partial completion of thecourse, Teaching Literature in SecondarySchools, Wayne State University, Detroit,

Ml.Quina, id. (1989). Effective secondary

teaching: Going beyond the bell curve. New

York: Harper & Row.Rose, C. (1985). Accelerated learning.

Fngland: Accelerated Learning SystemsL;mited.

* * *

El autor describe el uso de aceleradastécnicas de aprender en un curso graduado de

métodos de literatura para enseñar análisiscritic° en lectura. Cuacro metaforas funda-

mentales en literatura y ciencia, formismo,mecanismo, conextualismo, y organicismo, se

enseñan y aplican. Estudiantes son asi pre-

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401

parados en una usualmente descuidada des-treza importante.

* * *

For further information write the author:Dr. James Quina, Department of EnglishEducation, Wayne State University, Detroit,Ml 482G2.

180'182

it:AV "

J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990, 15(3&4)

8 Stories and Tests

Donald H. SchusterIowa State University

Abstract. The 8 stories package wasdeveloped to provide cognitive criterion testsintermediate between global and microcriteria to use in learning or SALT research.For each story, test items were developed andrefined with item analyses for each ofBloom's 6 cognitive levels plus 1 level ofperceptual memory. Re liabilities ranged from0.59 to 0.79 (median 0.73) for the multiplechoice tests and 0.93 for the vocabularyrecall test. Factor analysis with 6 factorsprovided limited support for Bloom'sTaxonomy using a triangularity criterion.User recommendations are made.

* * *

The purpose of this document is to (1)

provide the background and characteristics ofthe 8 stories themselves, (2) to presentreliability and factorial validity test data,

and (3) to make user recommendations.Norms are not yet available since revisionswere made.

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Story development

About 1980 the author became aware ofthe need for intermediate criteria to use inSALT research. Most SALT studies usedeither global criteria (e.g., grades) or microcriteria (e.g., vocabulary learning tests). The8 stories project grew from a desire toproduce intermediate criteria for use instudying learning and reading research. The 8stories were written and developed as avehicle to measure cognitive functioningaccording to Bloom's taxonomy of cognition(Bloom et al., 1966). Bloom's 6 levels inorder of progressively higher functioning are:knowledge, comprehension, application,analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Pring(1971) reviewed the literature on Bloom'staxonomy.

The stories were written about 1983 byMargaret Dobson under contract to the author,and with certain desired characteristics.Each story was to be about the same length,be of the same general interest, and to embed25 rare English words to be learned incontext.

The resulting stories have a sciencefiction flavor with roughly the same reader

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goodness or interest ratings, and range inlength from 1700 to 2300 words. Half of thestories (coded 41-44) have hard vocabularywords embedded, while the others (coded 51-54) have easy vocabulary words embedded.Ease of learning definitions had beendetermined beforehand in preliminary itemanalyses, so that an easy list or set on theaverage will have 2 more words right than ahard list. Averages for college studentsrange typically from 8-12 for the hard listsand 10-14 for the east lists.

Descriptive characteristics about thestories are given in Table 1. Goodness in-terest ratings (Boring = 1 through Fascinating= 9) were obtained for undergraduate stu-dents (n = 6). A computer program RightWriter analyzed each story to get Readability,Strength (forcefulness) and Descriptive (%adjectives & adverbs) indices.

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Table 1. Characteristics of the 8 stories

Good- Reada- Descri-nem bility Strength Oa.

Title

Facient of Love 6.5 7.93 0.57 0.39Odysseus 6.2 6.31 0.69 0.36Perspectives 5.0 8.14 0.66 0.46Ody5seus-2 5.8 6.97 0.72 0.39

Centaur 6.7 6.30 0.69 0.35Cockfight 6.8 5.59 0.75 0 35Keryl 7.7 7.42 0.68 0.36Shared Soul 7.8 5.70 0.78 0.33

Test Deyelgpment

C_OGNITLON. Following Bloom's Taxonomy,originally items were written to measure his6 levels of cognition as follows.

Knowledg e, the lowest level, wasmeasured by writing items asking people torecall and write down the precise definitionto rare words learned in reading a story. Eachtarget word was defined in parentheses in itsfirst use in a story, but not thereafter.Ability to learn word definitions is generallyaccept3d as a measure of verbal knowledge.

These words were unknown by the authororiginally, and most college students don'tknow them either. It's only an occasional

student that will know 1 or 2 words in a list.As a result, the vocabulary tests measureability to learn word definitions in context,and not the size of an existing vocabulary.

The word lists across stories arecomparable in structure: each list in a storyhas 2 words each beginning with b, c, d, 1, g,k, I, m, p, r, s, t, and 1 with w. Most of thewords are nouns, with an occasional verb oradjective.

Reader ratings of pleasantness and alert-ness are solicited at the beginning of eachvocabulary test. These ratings provide usefulaffective criteria to compare with thecognitive test scores. The ratings use a 1-9Likert format with verbal anchors at theextremes, and "5" indicating an intermediaterating.

C9nIprehension items (4 per story) werewritten in multiple choice format to measurethe reader's understanding of a story. A

typical item is:

When a beggar justifies his begging byclaiming the world owes him a living, he is

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a. behaving psychotically. b. hallucina-ting. c. reacting babyishly. d. rationa-lizing.

Application items (4 per story) werewritten in multiple choice format to measurethe reader's ability to apply information. Atypical item

Mrs. Smith has frequent heeclaches and herdoctor can find nothing physically wrong withher. Her headaches are probablif due to

a. personal maladjustment.b. inherited mental weakness.c. undiscovered germs.d. incipient insanity.

Analysis items (4 per story) were writtenin multiple choice format to measure thereader's ability to think critically aboutinformation read, and to draw appropriateconclusions. A typical item is:

In discussing the merits of a gradingsystem (A-B-C-D-F) versus pass/fail (Satis-factory/Unsatisfactory), one student said,"Students go to college to learn, not just toget grades. Grades are determined by chanceor guessing. The student knows how he/sheis doing in a given course, and so is a better

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judge of his/her performance than theteacher. So a Satisfactory-Unsatisfactorysystem is preferable since it reducesdifferences between grades and gives abetter picture of how a student is doing."This conclusion basically depends on the ideathat

a. The student is the best judge of howhe/she is doing.

b. Grades are poor indications of whatstudents learned.

c. One grading system is better thananother.

d. Multiple choice test are used in grading.

nthesis items (4 per story) werewritten in multiple choice format to measurethe reader's ability to synthesize theinformation read. A typical item is:

People were asked to give their sensationsof comfort in a room where the air and walltemperatures (degrees F.) could be controlledindependently. The data are:

187 189(M

till. WALE Ail &malign1. 85 85 Uncomfortably hot2. 85 50 Uncomfortably hot3. 70 85 Comfortable4. 70 70 Comfortable5. 70 50 Comfortable6. 50 50 Very cold7. 50 70 Uncomfortably cold8. 50 85 Cold

The best explanation for these reportedsensations is that comfort, or discomfort,depends on:

a. wall temperature only.b. air temperature only.c. both temperatures.d. need more information.

Evaluation items (4 per story) werewritten to measure the reader's ability toevaluate information critically in a moreglobal sense than for analysis items. Atypical item is:

Many people believe that our states shouldhave more uniform traffic laws. However,there may be dangers in doing so. Which ofthe following would avoid the greatestdanger?

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190

a A US constitutional amendmentprovides the basis for all traffic laws.

b. A US presidential commission worksout standards for traffic laws andencourages all states to consider themin state laws.

c. A conference of staie governors agreeson a traffic law code and each governortries to get it passed into law.

d. The US Supreme Court establishes auniform traffic law code and rulesagainst all non-conforming states.

PEKEPTION. Recently emphasis has focusedon Guilford's (1967) Structure of Intellect(SI) model, with 3 facets of informationprocessing: input, processing and output.Accordingly, 10 items were developed forinformation input or perceptual memory foreach story. The reader is asked, "Which wordof the 4 presented did you see in the storyyou just read?"

The philosophy used in developing theseitems follows. The computer program RightWriter was used to produce the frequencydistribution of all words appearing in eachstory 1 or more tines. Common words, notrare English words to learn for the vocabularytest, were used for the perceptual test. Twowords were selected that appeared just once,

189 191U;-,i

2 more that appeared twice, 2 more withfrequency 3, 2 more with frequency 4, andfinally 2 with frequency of 5 or 6. Also anattempt was made to pick words not directlyrelated to the plot of the story, so that thereader had to have read all words and thenremember having seen them in the story.Distractors were selected that did not appearin the story, had the same initial letter, butplausibly might have appeared in the story.

No data have been collected on these SIinput or perceptual memory items; they arefor research only. Accordirgly, informationsuch as norms and validity is not available.

Test results

Two complementary techniques were usedto analyze the data: Item analysis was usedto assess the existing scales, and factoranalysis to determine empirical structure. Acomplete report is given in Kottke andSchuster (1990).

Item analysis was used to evaluate thecognitive items and as a basis for revision ofitems. Two preliminary item analyses wereused to refine and rewrite items with datafrom 50-100 undergraduate students. Thendata were obtained from 487 psychology

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undergraduate students at a mid-wes.ernuniversity who read all 8 stories in randomorder and answered all test items. Studentswere instructed to learn the rare wordsunderlined in context as they read each story,as well as understand the story. The 4 itemscores per story were summed across all 8stories to provide these higher Bloom scales:comprehension, application, analysis, syn-thesis and evaluation. Bloom's knowledgescore was computed as the number of rarewords defined correctly (O-25 range perstory), and summed over all 8 stories.Sample N's vary somewhat due to someincomplete data per test.

Data on means, standard deviations andalphas are presented in Table 2. Althoughsatisfactory for research purposes, thesealphas indicate a need for continued work indeveloping items to measure Bloom'scognitive domain. Poor items have beenrevised, and new ones written particu;arlyfor Analysis and Synthesis. New norms arenot yet available.

191 193T,

Table Z. Means, standard deviations,items/scale and coefficient alphas

Test Mem 512, Items Alpha

Knowledge 69.66 34.86 200 0.93Comprehen. 23.63 4.62 31 0.79Application18.36 4.33 27 0.74Analysis 15.28 3.44 23 0.67Synthesis 14.53 3.46 25 0.59Evaluation 18.74 4.17 27 0.73

All 165 multiple choice items and the 8vocabulary scores were submitted toprincipal axes factor analysis with varimaxrotation using the SPSSX package. No clearfactor structure emerged. The first 6 factorsaccounted only for 15% of the variance, andthe first 33 factors for 51% of the totalvariance. These item factors reflectedcontent unique to one story generally. Theseresults do not appear to support Bloom'scategories.

Factor analysis was also done with the 12half-length scales of like domain items orvocabulary scores. The sum of the odd-numbered items per Bloom level constitutedthe Odd score, and the Even score wascomputed similarly for the even multiplechoice items or vocabulary scores. These Odd

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and Even scores defined that cognitive leveland were expected to correlate highly witheaGh other.

A 6 factor solution was forced, and pro-duced just one clear factor, Knowledge, ac-counting for 45% of the common variance. All6 factors accounted for 63% of the variance.The remaining factors were conceptuallyindistinct; see Table 3.

Some support for Bloom's hierarchicalstructure is seen in Table 3. The Com-prehension tests have loadings on theComprehension factor, with rather marginalloadings on the Application factor. In

addition, the higher level tests of Appli-cation, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluationhave appreciable loadings on the lower levelComprehension factor. Also, the Synthesissubtests had appreciable loadings on theApplication factor. However, there are holesof trivial or zero loadings in the remainder ofthis desirable loadings triangle. Note thatthe Vocabulary tests were recall, while thehigher level tests were multiple choice. Thusthe lack of similar factor loadings of thehigher level tests on the Knowledge factormay reflect this difference in method.

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RIM I

As the 6 factor solution resulted in just 2factors wIth eigenvaiues over the customarylimit of 1.0, a 2 factor solution was run next;see Table 4. Eigenvalues were 5.8 and 1.7,and the factors accounted for 49 and 14% ofthe total variance.

Table 3. Rotated factor loadings and testcommunalities by half-length Odd (0)-Even(E) subtest in the 6 factor solution

Tentative Factors

Test

Vocabulary 0E

sum. cal= Appl. Amt.,

9495

SYn. EvaLC21114.

9292

Comprehen. 0 81 22 7572 33 29 74

Application 0 48 59 6972 28 69

Analysis 0 70 34 7230 87 94

Synthesis 0 34 80 13 8528 16 91 98

Evaluation 0 35 82 9363 28 71

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Table 4. Rotated factor loadings and testcommunalities for half-length Odd-Evenscales in the 2 factor solution*

Test Knowledge Factor a Gomniun.

Vocabulary 0

Comprehen. 0

Application 0

Analysis 0

Synthesis 0

Evaluation 0

95 13 9195 08 91

00 78 6100 82 68

11 76 5908 79 63

15 78 6315 66 46

09 74 5601 64 40

12 74 5606 78 61

*Decimal points omitted for convenience.

* * *

Future research could work on improvingthe triangularity of subtest loadings onfactors as illustrated in Table 3 above. A

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dual criterion could be used to select andrevise items for a given Bloom cognitivelevel. Here we used only an item-totalcorrelation in screening items to insure thateach item did provide some contribution tothe total score for that subtest. This shouldbe augmented by a logical cognitive levelanalysis per item as follows. Two or moreexperts who are thoroughly familiar witheach story, its questions, and Bloom's levels,rank each item as to which 2 levels it bestmeasures. An item is retained for a subtestwhen the experts agree. When they disagree,a third expert resolves the problem, orrevises the item, or discards it. Thisprocedure should refine items and definelevel tests with both precise logic andempiricism. Hopefully this would lead to amore nearly filled-in triangular matrix offactor loadings, and thus further support forBloom's Taxonomy.

User Recommendations

These 8 stories and tests are now suitablefor accelerated learning and teaching re-search. We present here 3 different ways ofusing the 8 stories and tests in the classroomand research. These ways differ in how theBloom level scores are summed for subtotalsand how many stories tests are adminis-

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tered. These ways are presented in order ofmost conservative to least conservative, asjustified by the present research. Note thatthe perceptual memory items are not part ofBloom's taxonomy.

1. Two scores, Vocabulary and Higherlevel. At least 2 stories with tests, pre-ferably one hard and another easy vocabulary,are given per class or experimental conditionto achieve adequate reliability. The 2 voca-bulary scores are summed for the Knowledgescore. The 20 multiple choice items perstory-test are summed first and then addedacross the 2 story-tests.

2. Three scores, Vocabulary, Compre-hension-Application-Analysis, and Synthesis-Evaluation. At least 4 stories with tests,preferably 2 hard and 2 easy vocabulary, aregiven per class or experimental condition toachieve adequate reliability The 4 vocabularyscores when summed across tests yield theKnowledge score, and the 4 sets of multiplechoice items yield 2 factor scores ofComprehension-Application-Analysis andSynthesis-Evaluation appropriately.

3. Six scores, all Bloom levels separately.All 8 stories with tests, preferably in randomorder, are given per class or experimental

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condition to achieve adequate reliability. The4 item scores and vocabulary scores aresummed over levels and across tests asdescribed earlier.

The user may wish to consider this testinformation speculatively in the Structure ofIntellect (SI) Model following Guilford(1967). It was for this reason that theperception items (SI input) w)re developed.Recommendation #2 above may fit with thismodel, with Comp-ehension-Application-Analysis being putatively the SI processingand Synthesis-Evaluaticn the SI output.

Users are invited to submit their test datato provide norms and further validity studies.

References

Bloom, B. S. (1966). Taxonomy of educationalobjectives. Handbook I: Cognitive domain.New York: McKay.

Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of humanintelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kottke, J. L. & Schuster, D. H. (1C90).Developing tests for measuring Bloom'slearning outcomes. Psychological Reports:Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66, 27-32.

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Pring, R. (1971). Bloom's taxonomy: Aphilosophical critique. Cambridge Journalof Education, 2(1), 83-91.

* * *

El paquete de 8 cuentos fue desarrollado paraproveer cognitivas pruebas de criteriaintermedia entre globales y micro-criteriosque usar en investigaciOn de aprender o SALT.Por cada cuento, artIculos de prueba fuerondesarrollado y refinados con análises dearticulo para cada uno de los 6 nivelescognoscativos de Bloom más 1 nivel dememoria perceptiva. Veracidacles recorrieronde 0.59 a 0.79 (mediano 0.73) para laspruebas de escogimientos multiples y 0.93para la prueba de recordar vocabulario.Andlisis de factor con 6 factores proveyeronlimitado apoyo para la taxonomia de Bloom alusar un criterio de triar,gularidad.Recomendaciones de usario se harevi.

* * *

For further information such as orderingthe 8 stories and tests, write the author: DonSchuster, Rt#4, Ames, IA 50010.

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J. of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching,1990, 15(3&4)

A Positive Look at Suggestive AccelerativeLearning and Teaching Techniques in the

National Research Council's Enhancing HumanPerformance: Issues, Theories, and

Techniques

Lye lie L. PalmerWinona State University

Abstract The author has extracted manypositive comments and statements aboutSALT from the National Research Council'smonograph: Enhancing Human Performance.This information can be quite useful inplanning research and preparing researchproposals.

The National Research Council is one ofthe most prestigious scholarly organizationsin the United States, having been formed bythe National Academy of Sciences for thepurpose of advising the United Statesgovernment on science issues. The NationalResearch Council's Committee on Techni-ques for the Enhancement of Human Perform-ance, formed by the Commission on Beha-vioral and Social Sciences and Education,

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recently published a review of accelerativelearning procedures in a report formulatedfor the United States Army in the bookEnhancing Human Performance, edited byDaniel Druckman and John A. Swets (1988).Imbedded in this report are many positivestatements regarding Suggestive Accele-rated Learning and Teaching Techniques(SALTT) which may be of use to teachersand trainers for brochures, publicity,articles, grant proposals, verbal introduc-tions to courses, etc.

The portions of text regarding accelera-tive learning are scattered throughout thebook, and the purpose of this article is toextract these statements and to list thesestatements for use by SALT practitioners,The quotes cited are consistent with thephilosophy of the science of suggestion in theclassroom in that the statements given hereare positive in tone and implication.

The purpose in extracting these portionsfor the reader is to create a list of quotesavailable for whatever uses SALT practi-tioners can make of them. Most of thesequotes stand alone and are not necessarilyintended to flow in an order with a conclu-sive message.

..,- 202203

The review team used a library documentreview process in coming to conclusionsregarding SALTT procedures, one site visitwas made to the 1986 SALT Conference inPalm Beach.

A historical overview of the review in

the preface states that the Army Research

Institute in 1984 asked the NationalAcademy of Sciences to form a committeeto examine the potential value of certaintechniques that had been proposed to en-hance human performance. As a class, thesetechniques were viewed as extraordinary (p.

vii).

These techniques are thought possiblyto provide such unusual benefits as accel-erated learning,..(p. viii).

The technologies singled out in the reportare those that can improve creativity and

innovation, learning and training, motiva-tion and cohesion, leadership and manage-ment, individual, crew, and unit fitness,soldier- machine interface, and the generalproductivity of the Army's resources. (p. 5).

Examples of techniques include Sugges-tive Accelerative Learning and Teaching

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Techniques, a package of methods gearedprimarily toward classroom learning. (p. 5f).

Suggestive Accelerative Learning andTeaching Techniques (SALTT) is an approachto training that employs a combinationof physical relaxation, mental concentration,guided imagery, suggestive principles, andbaroque music with the intent of improvingclassroom performance. Some applicationshave included language training, typinginstruction, and high school science courses.Attempts have been made to evaluate theapplications, and many of these evaluationsare published in the Journal of the Society forAccelerative Learning and Teaching (Psycho-logy Department, Iowa State University).The following is a sampling of claims madein brochures and convanticn announcements:'A proven method which has broad potentialapplication in U.S. Army training'; 'It willsignificantly reduce training time, improvememory of material learned and introducebehavioral changes that positively affectsoldier performance--self-esteem, self-con-fidence, and mental discipline.); and 'Moststudents win prove to themselves that theyhave learned a far greater amount ofmaterial per unit of time with a greateramount of pleasure than they have everpreviously done. (undocumented, p. 6).

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In introducing "FINDINGS AND CONCLU-SIONS," the committee describes their ex-plorations. ...We learned about the possibi-lities of priming future learning by pre-senting material during certain stages ofsleep, of improving learning by integratingcertain instructional elements, of improvingskilled performance through certain com-binations of mental and physical prac-tice, of reducing stress by providing infor-mation that increases the sense of control,of exerting influence by employing certaincommunication strategies, and of maximi-zing group performance by taking advantageof organizatonal cultures to transmit values.(p. 16).

Under "GENERAL CONCLUSIONS," urgentrecommendations are given. The Committeesuggests that the Army move vigorously, yetcarefully and systematically, to implementtechniques that can be shown to enhanceperformance in military settings. Such aneffort would be timely because of recentdevelopments in the relevant research areas.Moreover, the payoff is likely to be very highif techniques are selected judiciously... TheArmy's concern for enhancing human perfor-mance and its substantial resources forevaluating tochniques place it in a favorable

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position to take advantage of developments.(p. 16)

"ACCELERATED LEARNING" is included in asection on "SPECIFIC FINDINGS AND CON-CLUSIONS:"

1. Many studies have found that effectiveinstruction is the result of such factors aothe quality of instruction, practice or studytime, motivation of the learner, and thematchil g of the training regimen to thejob demands. Programs that integrate allthese factors would be desirable. We recom-mend that the Army examine the casts,effectiveness, and longevity of training bene-fits to be derived from such programs andcompare them with established Army proce-dures." (p. 19).

2. The committee finds...that these pro-grams...such as Suggestive AccelerativeLearning and Teaching Techniques, integratewell-known instructional, motivational, andpractice elements in a manner that isgenerally not present in most scientificstudies." (p. 19) .

3. We find that sciintifically supportedprocedures for enhancing skills are notbeing sufficiently used in training programsand make two recommendations to remedythis problem. First, the basic research liter-

207 206

ature should be monitored to identify proce-dures verified by laboratory tests to increaseinstructional effectiveness. Second, addi-tional basic research should be supportedto expand the understanding of skill acqui-

sition for both noncombat and combat acti-vities." (p. 19f).

4. We conclude that the Army training sys-tem provides a unique opportunity for cohorttesting of training regimens. The Army is

in a position to create laboratory classroomenvironments in which competing trainingprocedures can be scientifically evaluated."(p.20).

5. The committee recommends that theArmy investigate expert teacher programs by

identifying and evaluating particularly ef-fective programs within the Army. In

addition, transferable elements of effectiveinstruction can be reported to the largerinstiuctional community. (p.20).

Under the topical heading "LEARNING,"the committee justifies the choices ofprocedures examined. In the area of learning,the committee chose learning during sleepand accelerated learning techniques astopics for consideration. The choice of

these particular topics relates to the Army'sdesire to reduce training time. (p. 39).

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An "ACCELERATED LEARNING" review ofresearch states:

With respect to the goal of acceleratingthe learning process, that is increasing therate or depth, or both, of learning beyondthat characteristic of typical training in agiven task, three types of research are rel-evant. First, basic research on humanbeings as learners is crucial: knowing thebasic characteristics of human attention, ofthe storage and retrieval processes thatunderlie human memory, and of the re-presentation of the knowledge and proceduralskills in long-term memory provides aframework for examining practical tech-niques that are...likely to accelerate learning.(p.48).

The other two areas of research P.re rela-ted to each other: research on the charac-teristics of effective instruction, andresearch on effective (p. 48) learningstrategies on the part of the learner. Thefirst of these more applied researchdomains focuses on the skills, techniques,and knowledge the instructor can bring to thetraining situation; the second focuses on thestrategies the learner can bring to thetraining situation to accelerate thelearning process. The fact that efficient

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learning strategies may be transmitted from

the instructor to the learner is only oneof the ways in which these two researchdomains are related. (p. 49).

We focus...on accelerated learning pro-grams that attempt to provide a system foraddressing instructor and student variablestogether...., [and to] look at teacher-learnerdynamics as a whole. (p. 49).

"PACKAGED PROGRAMS FOR ACCELERATEDLEARNNG" are described:

"Accelerated learning methods are a classof techniques using unusual methods of in-struction with the intent of substantiallyincreasing the speed of learning. The tech-niques are referred to by the names ofSuggestive Accelerative Learning and Teach-ing Techniques (SALTT), Suggestopedia,and Superlearning. The approach employs acombination of physical relaxation exercises,guided imagery, a suggestion of efficientlearning, a belief in tapping mental reserves,and an alternation of active and passivereview (generally with baroque music). (p.49).

Examples of improvement in learning weregiven as follows: 10 percent improvement inlearning German (Gassner-Roberts and

209

Brislan, 1984); 25 percent improvement inlearning Enghsh as a second language (Zeiss,1984). A number of quasi-experimentsreport that students can learn comparableinformation in one-third the time (seeSchuster and Gritton, 1986). (p.50).

SALTT procedures exploit a number oftraditional (e.g., spacing repetitions) andnontraditional (e.g., review with music) pro-cedures in a conglomeration of techniquesto improve learning. SALTT provides a pack-aged program with specific techniques todeal with student motivation, instructormotivation, instructor training, and pre-sentation of material. By dealing with themultiple aspects of instruction, SALTT tech-niques may enhance the instructor's abilityto keep students motivated to perform, toremain engaged in the task, and to providema:orial at an (pp.50) appropriate level. (p.51).

SALTT seeks to change instructors'attitudes, expectations, and behaviors toproduce better instruction... In general,...techniques employed by SALTT instructorsmay motivate ...practicing instrw:tors toalter their teaching behavior for the better.(P-51)-

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"THE SALTT CLASSROOM" is described:

SALTT classroom includes featuresthat are not present in the traditional class-room. The environment is a pleasant livingroom-lounge atmosphere with comfortablechairs rather than rows of desks. This settingis intended to provide a relaxed, comfor-table, and nonthreatening learning environ-ment. The instructor encourages the inter-action of the entire class through the use ofpositive reinforcement, relaxation, and confi-dence-building techniques. (p,.51).

Schuster and Gritton (1986) provide a de-tailed account of the components of a SALTTclass session. A session includes three majorcomponents: preliminaries, presentation, andpractice. Rather than focusing on contentmaterial for an entire session, a signifi-cant period of time is spent performingrelaxation, suggestion, and restimulationexercises. (p. 51).

The preliminary phase (about 10 percentof the class time) relaxes the students andprepares them to absorb new material.This involves mild physical relaxationexercises such as stretching. Next, studentsperform a mental relaxation task (e.g.,watching their breathing) to take their

211

minds off their day-to-day problems andattend to the teacher. Thereafter teachersperform a 'suggestive setup' to convincestudents that the learning will be fun, easy,efficient, and long-lasting. Students useguided imagery to recall a pleasant learningexperience (e.g.,) Remember how you felt onyour best-ever English test...Who [the]teacher [was]... How ... your stomach ...[felt].These procedures might take three to tenminutes of an hour-long session, with moretime required for the first two sessions. (p.51).

The presentation phase (about 40 percentof the lesson) presents the material in adramatic, dynamic way and then reviews itpassively with background music. This phasehas three components. The first, preview,gives the student the big picture, providingadvanced organizers as to how the currentlesson fits into the entire course and thespecific behavior (p. 51) objectives of thelesson (Ausubel, 1960). The previewtypically requires only a few minutes. Thesecond component, dramatic presentation,presents the material in a dynamic way.Students are strongly encouraged to makevivid images relating to the material to belearned. They generate images on their ownand actively deal with the material. For

212213

example, to learn programming, they imaginethemselves as a computer sequentially ex-ecuting instructions. This component mighttake 20 minutes of a class. The third com-ponent involves passive review withmusic. The instructor rhythmically repeatskey material while playing baroque music inthe background. The rhythm of the wordsand the sound of the music are assumed toproduce a special mental condition thataccelerates learning. This might encompass15 minutes of an hour-long session. (p. 52) .

The third phase of a SALTT session ispractice, which entails 50 percent of thelesson. There are three components. Thefirst, activation of the knowledge, involvesusing the knowledge described in thepresentation phase. For example, in a foreignlanguage class, there might be a choralreading of the material. The second compo-nent is elaboration, which involves havingthe student use the material in new anddifferent ways. In a foreign language class,students are given foreign language namesand perform interactive procedures such asordering a meal in the new language. Errorcorrection is often indirect (e.g., the teacherdoes not say that a foreign phrase was wrongbut rather immediately uses the phrasecorrectly). The third component is the use

213

of frequent quizzes. The questions generallyassess information that has been presentedseveral times. The students are providedthe answers to the quizzes and scores aregenerally not used to determine class grades.(p. 52).

"Support for Traditional InstructionalComponents" is rationalized from results ofSALT effectiveness using the context ofconventional pedagogy. This rationale is inpart due to the fact that none of thereviewers ever experienced an accelerativelearning lesson or class. The reviewers arethus left to account for the research findingsusing information from their own tradi-tional backgrounds.

The majority of the time in a SALTTclassroom is spent in activities that aretypical in the classsrooms of expertteachers and have substantial psychologi-cal support. Although 10 minutes of a SALTTclass session may be occupied withnontraditional tasks (relaxation exercisesand review with music), perhaps 50 minutesare spent engaged in component tasks (ela-boration, generation, imagery, repetition, andfrequent testing) that clearly benefitinstruction in standard laboratory expe-riments. (p. 53).

214215

Generation and Elaboration. A SALTTclass session typically presents fewerinstructor-generated elaborations of thematerial and encourages more student-generated elaborations. Research in readingcomprehension indicates that students bene-fit little from author-generated elaborations,and such elaborations may even impede thelearning of facts. In contrast, student-generated elaborations enhance learning;...students who read author elaborated chaptersfrom college textbooks did consistentlyworse than students who read only chaptersummaries, which were one-fifth as long. (p.53).

From this perspective, the SALTT strategyof presenting a short preview, dramatic pre-sentation and review (during the presenta-tion phase), followed by an extensive practicephase involving student-generated imagesand elaborations is likely to be superior toa single presentation by the instructorwith extensive instructor-generated elabor-ations. Study of the 'generation effect' (e.g.,Slamecka and Graf, 1978) has shown thatstudents learn far more by actively genera-ting answers (e.g., solving simple anagrams)than by passively reading or listening tomaterial. (p. 53) .

2152,1.6

Spacing of Repetitions. SALTT lessonsrepeat material more frequently and withsubstantial spacing relative to typicalcollege (p. 53) courses. Critical material ispresented during the presentation, review,activation, elaboration, and test phases ofthe experiment. The literature on spacingand repetition effects... shows that long-termmemory can be greatly increased by repea-ting the material under optimal spacingconditions rather than presenting it once orunder massed conditions. (p. 54).

Imagery. SALTT procedures emphasizethe use of imagery. Imagery has long beenemployed by mnemonists (Luria, 1969) andcan generally improve long-term memoryfor concrete objects (Paivio, 1971; Paivioand Desrochers, 1979). (p. 54).

Songs and Rhythm as Mnemonic Devices.The use of song and rhythm has been shown toimprove recall. In a SALTT foreign languageclass for lawyers, students sing the elementsof a contract (Stockwell, 1986). The rhyminginformation embedded in such songs providesan extra cue that may facilitate learning.(p. 54).

Cooperative Learning. SALTT classesfrequently break up into groups in which

21 6

217

students cooperatively utHize the material.Cooperative teaching has been shown tobe effective in enhancing instruction in theeducational literature....(p.54).

Advanced Organizers. SALTT instructorsare encouraged to present 'advanced orga-nizers' to give students an overview of howthe material to be learned relates toprevious material. Advanced organizers havebeen shown to enhance the learning of readingmaterial (Mayer, 1979). (p. 54) .

Tests as Motivational Devices andLearning Events. SALTT instructors employdaily quizzes. Frequent testing has longbeen recognized as a factor in maintainingsubject effort in animals and humans (e.g.,Adams, 1980). But SALTT procedures do notoverdo testing, as is frequently done withprogrammed instruction. When tested toooften, students are encouraged to read passi-vely, forfeiting the benefits of generationand elaboration. (p. 54).

A review of published SALT documentationis discussed in a "Review of the SALTTLearning Literature:

"There is an extensive publishedliterature on accelerated learning techni-ques (at least three major books and over

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2,800 pages of journal articles). in a[meta-analysis] review of the field, L.L.Palmer (1985) found that... about half thestudies report statistics... [related directlyto non-foreign language public school appli-cations, and that effect of SALTT with spe-cial needs sfudents increases the rate oflearning a factor of two to four times incomparison to normal students]. (p. 55).

Musical suggestive techniques may behelpful in counteracting certain phobias(e.g., math or computer anxieties) that inhi-bit learning in problem populations. Anindividual with a strong phobia may learnlittle in a traditional class; treating thephobia may greatly accelerate his or nerlearning. Klockne7 [1984] reports a fivefoldimprovement in learning for her students.Given that a student may be unwilling topractice in a traditional classroom, andhence learning may be near zero, propor-tionally large improvements may occur." (p,E5).

Schuster (1976a) taught students withtwo hours of lectures per week comparedwith six hours in the control conditions.He found that the groups were not signi-ficantly different. (p.56).

218

_In a 15-minute learning study, Bardonand Schuster (1976) found that SALTT-taught students recalled 2.5 times as manypaired associates as controls. ...Unusualprocedures such as SALTT can motivate themto perform well. ... (I)-57).

"DIRECTION AND DESIGN OF FUTURERESEARCH* are discussed:

Accelerated learning procedures providepackaged educational programs that incor-porate traditional and nontraditional instruc-tional elements... Accelerated learningapproaches deal with multiple aspects ofinstruction, including teacher motivation,student motivation, material presentation,elaboration and assessment. This attempt todeal with the whole range of instructionalissues is not typical for most instructionalinterventions (e.g., computer-assisted in-struction). (p. 59).

The Army can...distill components ofcognitive psychology and accelerated learn-ing to apply them to Army training. Itshould monitor and support research toidentify procedures that reliably enhancelearning. Additional basic research isneeded to produce guidelines for instruction(e.g., how often should a component skill

219220

be practiced, with what spacing andelaboration, to be useful a year after thetraining course ends?). It is important thatnew procedures evaluate the interaction ofquality of instruction, practice, study time,motivation of the learner, and matching ofthe training paradigm to the job demands. Inaddition, the Army should evaluate its owntraining programs to identify the transfer-rable elements of effective instruction toother instructors and training procedures.(P. 59).

...careful application and extension ofcognitive science and instructional princi-ples could bring about a substantial enhance-ment of training effectiveness. (p.60).

In a "Summary of Techniques: Theory,Research, and Applications," discussion con-tinues under the heading, "Theory andAssumptions:"

The techn!ques permit content material tobypass traditional emotional blockages andantisuggestive barriers and go directly intolong-term memory areas of the brain. Thesame information is routed simultaneouslyto different regions of the brain, producinginformation gain rather than the information

220221

losses of the forgetting curve. ...Retentionis greater over time. (p. 236).

SALTT related comments follow under avariety of headings:

"Key Elements" are:Relaxation, guided (pleasant) imagery,

concentration, and suggestion combined--thepackage is what counts. (p. 236).

"Tasks and Designs" are:Classroom instruction in conjunction

with courses and foreign language traininginstitutes. Omnibus evaluation experimentsinvolve treatment versus no-treatmentpackages. (p. 237).

"Performances Assessed" are:Classroom learning, including reading

comprehension, course content (emphasizesgain scores in before-after designs), for-eign language learning, [and experimental-control group studies] (p. 237).

"Examples of Results" are:(1) Pretest-to-posttest improvements in

science performance; (2) increases in pleas-antness ratings, self-motivation ratings,and task commitment appraisals. (p. 237).

"Applications" are:

221 222

A relaxed approach to new materials,overcominc learning blocks in foreignlanguages. (p. 237).

"Guided Imagery or Rehearsal" are:"Mental practice is beneficial because it

serves either to give the performer a chanceto rehearse the sequence of movements assymbolic task components or to provide apreparatory set by focusing attention andlowering sensory threshold...(p. 237).

Readers may discover other positivestatements in this book, and the authorrequests that those references be reportedin order to create the most complete filepossible. This extract is intended to savemost readers the time and trouble ofextracting this imbedded material. Readersnow have an extremely authoritative setof sources to quote as ackground for thescientific foundations of SALTT.

For researchers, this book contains otherimportant and useful infcrmation, and areview of this book is recommended in orderto extract the many research questions whichare raised by the committee as possibletopics for grants and research projects whichmay be planned by SALT practitioners andresearchers.

222

223

The following background papers should berequested because of the theoretical back-ground and the many references to researcharticles which compose a scientificbackground for SALTT:

Harris, M. J. and R. Rosenthal. "Interper-

sonal Expectancy Effects and HumanPerformance Research."

Slavin, R. E. "Principles of EffectiveInstruction."

These articles may be ordered directly (no

cost given) from:

Publication on Demand Program,National Academy Press2101 Constitution Avenue, NWWashington, D.C. 20418

ReferencesAdams, J.A. Learning and Memory: An

Introduction. Homewood, IL: DorseyPress, 1980.

Ausubel, D.P. The use of advance organizersin the learning of meaningful verbalmaterial. Journal of EducationalPsychology, 51, 267-272.

223 224

Druckman, D. and J. A. Swets, Editors,(1988). Enhancing Human Performance:Issues, Theories, and Techniques. Wash-ington, DC: National Academy Press.

Gassner-Roberts, S. and Brislan, P. (1984).A controlled, comparative and evaluativestudy of a suggestopedic German coursefor first year university students.Journal of the Society for Accel-erative Learning and Teaching, 9, 211-233.

Luria, A. (1969). The Mind of a Mnemonist.London: Cape.

Mayer, R.E. (1979). Can advance organizersinfluence meaningful learning? Reviewof Educationa! Research, 49, 371-383.

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and VerbalProcesses. New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston.

Paivio, A., and Desrochers, A. (1979). Effectsof an imagery mnemonic on secondlanguage recall and comprehension.Canadian Journal of Psychology, 33, 17-27.

Palmer, L.L. (1985). Suggestive Accel-erative Learning and Teaching (SALT)with Learning Disabled and other SpecialNeeds Students: A literature review andmeta-analysis. Journal of the Society forAccelerative Learning and Teaching,10(2), 99-129; Erratum, 13(2), 217ff,1988.

224225

Schuster, D.H. and Gritton, C.E. (1986).Suggestive Accelerative Learning Techni-ques. New York: Gordon and Breach.

Stockwell, T. (1986). Discussion of Sugges-topedia in Liechtenstein. Paper presentedat the annual international conference ofthe Society for Accelerative Learningand Teaching, Palm Beach, Florida, Apr.

Zeiss, P.A. (1984). A comparison of theeffects of superlearning techniques onthe learning of English as a second lan-guage. Journal of the Society for Acceler-ative Learning and Teaching, 9, 93-102.

* * *

El autor ha extraido muchos comentospositivos e informes del libro El Aumentar deEjecuckin Humana por la US National ResearchCouncil. Esta informaciOn sea muy itil en elplaneamiento de investigaciOn y la prepa-racion de propuestas.

* * *

For further information, write the author:Lye Ile Palmer, Department of SpecialEducation, Winona State Univers:ty, Winona,MN 55987.

225 226

Journal of the Society forAccelerative Learning and Teaching

Volume 15, Numbers 1&2 Spring & Summer, 1990

Contents

Accelerated Learning Components in Elementary SchoolClassrooms. Sharon Foster 3

Ball-Stick-Bird: Teaching with the Story Engram.Renee Fuller 19

A SALT Pilot Study in College Developmental Mathe-matics. Allyn Prichard. 37

Black Education in South Africa: Issues. Problems andPerspectives. Alex Thembela 45

Towards the Mountain: Characteristics and Implications ofthe South African UPTTRAIL Pilot Project.David van der Vyver & Beatriz Capdevielle 59

Training Music Sight-Reading and Perfect Pitch in YoungChildren, as a Way to Enhance Their Intelligence.Win Wenger & Susan Honey Wenger 77

BOOK REVIEW In Search of the IQ Correlation: AScientific Whodunit, by Renee Fuller. Reviewed byJohn Senatore .91

The Explorative-Creative Way: Implementation of aHumanistic Language Teaching Model, by WilKnibbeler. Reviewed by John Senatore 94

22722 7

Journal of the Society forAccelerative Learning and Teaching

Volume 15, Numbers 3&4 Fall & Winter, 1990

Contents

Letter from the Editor. Pedro Portes 99

On the inner Relationship between Qigong and SALT.

Dong Shu-zhang101

The Use of Time Line in Teaching. Michael Hager 133

Breaking down the Walls of the Self-contained Basic

Writing Course. Julie Ann Mix 139

An Accelerated Learning Approach to Teaching Critical

Analysis. James Quina161

8 Stories and Tests. Donald H. Schuster 181

A Positive Look at SALT Techniques in the National

Research Council's Enhancing Human Performance.

Lye Ile Palmer.201

Tables of Contents, Volume 15 227

Author Index, Vols. 11-15 229

Topic Index, Vols. 11-15 231

228

AUTHOR INDEX, Vols. 11-15(Volume number before dash)

Adamson, C 12-317Alexander, M 14-55Altorfer, 0 13-87Amend, A 14-91Anderson, LD 11-177;

12-3Andrade, LM 11-103Armstrong, T 13-401

Bass, JAF 11-3, 67; 13-7 1

Bass, RV 11-3; 13-71Botha, HL 13-329Brown, R 11-3Brislan, PS 12-115

Capdevielie, B 15-69Carlson, ME 11-251Caskey, 0 11-137Cooler, S 11-83

Daines, JR 14-235Dillow, OK 13-265Dong, SZ 15-101Du Babcock, B 13-123

Ellis, N 14-55Er land, J 14-3, 91, 173Erskine, R 11-225

Felix, U 12-141Foster, C 11-33; 14-257Foster, S 15-3Fuller, R 15-19

Garcia, Y 13-221Gassner-Roberts, S Il-

1 1 5Ginn, AR 14-143Ginn, PL 14-143

Hager, M 15-133Hand, JO 11-25, 149,

233Hayward, M 14-157Hull, CR 12-169

Kirk, CC 13-347

Larsson, G 13-147

Machado, L 11-103McGinty, RL 13-47Merritt, S 12-39Mix, JA 14-183; 15-139Moon, CE 11-251;12-

169; 13-253, 265Moschel, TS 12-49

Nelson, A 13-363Nelson, J 14-43

Odendaal, MS 14-207Ogletree, EJ 12-65, 107;

13-309; 14-259

Palmer, L 13-217; 1455; 15-201

Pendley, OW 13-253, 265Petrie, GE 13-165

229

2,?a.

Portes, P 11-33; 14-287; 1 5-99

Prichard, A 11-41, 167;14-297; 15-37

Quina, J 13-181, 405;1 5-1 6 1

Recta, G 11-57Render, GF 11-177; 12-

3, 169; 13-253, 265Roberts, SG 11-115

SALT Soc., 11-60, 61, 63Schuster, OH 11-185,

263; 13-3, 375, 405;14-1 57, 229; 15-181

Schuster, L 13-3Seki, H 12-181; 13-277Senatore, J 11-131; 12-

217, 220, 223; 13-115, 401; 14-83,169; 15-91, 94

Stanton, HE 11-193; 14-3 1 1

Stein, BL 11-25, 149,233

Stock, WE 14-235Strudel, L 11-49

Taylor, BT 11-279Taylor, J 11-41; 14-297Thomas, SB 13-309Thembela, A 15-45Tsunoda, T 11-57

Van der Vyver, ID 15-59

230

Van Kraayenburg, F12-17

Voci-Reed, E 12-85

Walker, AA 13-291Wark, DM 11-203Wenger, SH 15-77Wenger, W 12-195; 14-

327; 15-77Wilkinson, RS 13-115Wilson, KM 11-123

230

TOPIC INDEX, Vols. 11-15(Volume number before dash)

accelerated learning, 14-235, 287& classroom components 15-3& magnet school 12-39& self-concept 11-33

Accelerative Learning and Teaching 14-55accelerating concept formation 11-137accelerating learning & 3 fingers 11-193accelerative learning & brain 11-25, 149, 233accelerative learning techniques 13-47achievement 14-55, 287adjustments of Qigong 15-101adult learners 12-85adult students & writing 11-3affective learning 13-181affective outcomes 13-265affective, integrative writing course 15-139alpha brain waves 13-277anti-suggestive barriers 13-87anxiety 14-43apology 13-119applications of music 12-115art of movement 12-65assembly language 14-143attempt to transform education 11-279attention 14-173attitudes toward English 14-207attitudes toward music 12-141autogenic relaxation 13-165autonomic nervous system & music 12-115awareness techniques for SALT 12-195

Ball-Stick-Bird 15-19baroque music 14-91basal metabolic rate 13-347

231231

basic writing course 15-139beta endorphins 11-149Black education In South Africa 15-45, 59Blooms's levels of tests 15-181book reviews:

Accelerated Learning 12-220Effective Secondary Teaching 13-405Everyday Genius 14-83In Search of IQ Correlation 15-91Explorative-Creative Way 15-94In Their Own Way 13-401Japanese Brain 11-57Joy of Writing 13-115Legals Issue in Spec. Ed. 13-309Magic Feather 12-107Master Teaching 11-131Teachers Guide to Whole Brained Learning 12-217Teaching for the Two-sided Mind 12-223Training the Teacher as Champion 14-169

brain & accelerative learning 11-25, 149, 233brain wave formation 13-277

Gaffe', 16 Personality Factor Test 14-229CBM 14-3, 113cerebral dominance 13-147changing cultures 13-3classic music 14-91classroom practices 13-3Cleveland's Master Teaching 11-131cognition & emotion 11-103cognitive abilities 14-3, 113; 15-181cognitive criterion tests & stories 15-181Cognitive Behavior Modification CBM 14-3, 113cognitive learning 13-181cognitive outcomes 13-265cognitive processing 13-375cognitive skill 14-207college freshmen 11-67college developmental math 11-167; 15-37

232232

college students 13-253components for teacher training 12-49computer language, Pascal 11-263concentration 14-173concept formation 11-137concert session differences 11-49creative writing 14-297critical analysis in literature 15-161criticisms of SALT 14-157

National Research Council NRC 15-201curve of forgetting 11-177

de-suggestion 13-187developmental college math 15-37developmental writers 14-183different concert sessions 11-49direct vs. indirect suggestion 11-123double-plane oriented education 12-181dual-plane awareness techniques 12-195

East Germany & language classes 11-49& research 11-115

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve 11-177education for blacks in South Africa 15-45, 59educational pc.ctices 13-3educators, suggestions for 11.233effective teacher training 12-49eight stories & tests 15-181elementary school, 14-55

& children 13-253& classroom components 15-3& self-concept 11-33

emotion as key 11-103emotional regulation 13-363emotopedia 11-103endorphins & enkephalins 11-149English as second language, ESL 13-123, 221; 14-207English composition 11-3

233 23

English grammar 11-83English teaching in black schools 12-17; 15-45, 59engram & story 15-19environmentally deprived children 13-265erratum 13-217exam Improvement & 3 fingers 11-193

fantasy journeys & self-concept 11-251first grade 14-287first grade reading 13-71five year study 11-83focus strategy 11-137forgetting curve 11-177formative causation & brain 11-25four year olds & suggestibility 11-123fourth grade 14-287fourth grade children 13-165France & concert session 11-49

GDR research 11-115grammar rules 11-83guided imagery 13-347

& self-concept 11-251

hemispheric brain functions 11-149, 233Hispanic elementary students 13-221historical analysis 13-3historic applications 12-115history of language instruction 13-123hypermnesia & Super learning 12-3

IBM pc 14-143imagery

components 13-347location in brain 13-363& model of 13-363& relaxation & imagination 12-169& study skills 11-203& writing 11-203

234

234.

magination imagery 12-169mmune activity 13-363n-service training 14-55ndividual learning strategies 13-221nduced brain waves 13-277ndustrial paper users 11-185ndustry training 13-87nformation processing theory 14-3ntegration of knowledge 14-327integrative writing coure 15-139intelligence's secret 11-103international education 11-279introductory piano instruction 13-165; 15-77

Japan 13-317Japanese language & SALT 12-181joy of learning 14-43

Kawaijuku Institute, Japan 13-317Krashen's L2 theory 13-329

language classes 11-4language discrimination & music 12-115language education of Blacks 15-59'anguage instruction, history 13-123learning disabled & math 11-225learning research 13-375learning strategy developoment 13-221legal issues 13-309letter from editor 15-99literature course 15-161limbic system 11-102, 149; 13-363Listed Thought Procedure 11-3literature of science 13-181long term memory LTM 11-149Lozanov's method 13-265

MacLean's triune brain 11-149magnet school & SALT 12-39

235235.

mathematics 14-287mathematics, college 11-167math project & suggestopedia 11-225maturation 13-3memory 13-363memory improvement 14-3mental rehearsal 13-165mental relaxation 13-375meta-analysis 13-253, 265; 15-201metabolic rate 13-347metaphor 13-181

in teaching critical analysis 15-161metaphoric teaching 13-181; 15-161mind calming & attitudes 12-141mind modales 11-233misuse of suggestion 11-103motivational drives 13-3movement & art 12-65multiplication tables 11-225music 13-1E5, 375; 14-91music &

accelerative learning 12-115assisted relaxation 13-165attitudes 12-141perfect pitch & IQ 15-77sight reading & la 15-77

National Research Council 14-157& criticism of SALTT 15-201

neural linguistic programming, NLP 13-291; 14-311

Ogletree book review 13-309

paper users' course 11-185Pascal computer language 11-263pattern recognition 11-25peak performance 14-235perception 11-25perfect pitch, training & IQ 15-77

23623ki

personality of SALT teachers 14-229phrasing 13-47piano instruction 13-165; 15-77Piers-Harris Scale 11-33, 251pilot study in developmental math 15-37positive look at NRC criticism 15-201prefocused mapping 14-183PsychINFQ 13-253psychotherapy 14-311punctuation rules 11-83

Qigong & SALT 15-101

rare English words & Superleaming 12-3reading 14-287reading comprehension 13-291reading & critical analysis 15-161reading instruction 13-291; 15-161relaxation 13-47

& long term training 13-147& imagination imagery 12-169& Qigong 15-101

remedial jr. high students 13-291remedial reading 11-41; 14-297retarded students 11-113retention 13-375retention & Super learning 11-177; 12-3retraining 14-113review with music 13-375romantic music 14-91

SALTAffiliation procedures 11-63components 13-71history 13-317programs 13-371Society By-laws 11-61Society Constitution 11-60teachers 14-229

237

237-

SALT &adult learners 12-85Africa 12-17; 15-45, 59awareness techniques 12-195black South African schools 12-17; 15-45college math 11-167; 15-37computer language 11-263concept learning 11-137criticsm by NRC 15-201English composition 11-3grade school reading 13-71Japanese language 12-181moderately retarded 11-13paper users course 11-185Oigong 15-101remedial reading 11-41structural analysis 11-67teaching English 12-17

SALTT 14-157& NRC criticism 15-201

scanning strategy 11-137scholastic achievement 14-287school curricula 14-327second language 13-123second language acquisition 13-329:iecondary school & self-concept 11-33secondary teaching 13-405self-concept & accelerated learning 11-33

& fantasy journeys 11-251self esteem 14-43self-image & math 11-225sequence training 14-173sequential processing 14-113sequential teaching 14-173sequential thinking 13-147Sheldrake hypothesis 11-25short course on paper 11-185short term memory STM 11-149sight reading music & IQ 15-77

238238

sine wave stereo sounds 13-277skin temperature & relaxation 12-169South Africa 14-207

& Black education 15-45, 59spacial ability 13-147special education 11-113; 13-309spelling 14-43Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test 11-41states of consciousness 13-363stories & research tests 15-181structural analysis 11-67student attitudes & music 12-141student-centered learning 12-85study skills & imagery 11-203suggestibility & four year olds 11-123suggestion, direct vs. indirect 11-123suggestions for educators 11-233Suggestopedia, 14-3, 43

& cognitive processing 13-375& Hispanic elementary students 13-221theory 13-329

suggestopedic approach & language classes 13-123suggestopedic language eines 11-49suggestopedic math project 11-225Super learning 13-265Super learning & retention 11-177; 12-3Survey of Mental Imagery 12-169synchronized music 13-47

taxon-locale brain model 11-149teacher education 14-287teacher training 14-169teacher usage of techniques 12-49teaching critical analysis in literature 15-161teaching literature 13-181teaching science 13-181teaching with story as engram 15-19Tell the Juggler 14-143temperaments 14-259

239

238

theta brain waves 13-277thinking improvement 14-3, 113three-fingers technique 11-193time line 15-133training in sight reading music 15-77transforming education 11-279triune brain model 11-149, 233Tsunoda book review 11-57TV gameshow metaphor 14-143

United States & language classes 11-49unity through communication 12-17university class & Pascal 11-263unlearning 13-87UPPTRAIL Trust 15-45, 59

verbal ability 13-147visual imagery 14-297visual information in memory 12-181visual thinking strategy 12-195vital components of training 12-49vocabulary acquisition 13-375vocabulary learning 11-67vocational education 14-235

Waldorf schools, 14-259& art, movement 12-65

whole brain learning 13-47whole-brain methods 13-291whole brain thinking 14-173wholistic techniques 13-291writing 11-3

course 15-139& imagery 11-203

240

240