inquiry in the elementary school science curriculum

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Inquiry in the Elementary School Science Curriculum Alphoretta S. Fish and T. Frank Saunders University of Arizona., T’ucson, Arizona The goals or ends of science instruction can be variously described. The particular purposes of science instruction in the elementary school have usually been seen in terms of some specific subject matter applications. Example A illustrates the means and method which might be em- ployed to achieve a subject-matter end. Example A. Miss A, a second grade teacher, in- tends that her pupils "discover" (i.e., rediscover or find out what others know) that like poles of mag- nets repel and unlike poles attract. Pupils are pro- vided with bar magnets, several of which are sus- pended, and are instructed as follows: Decisions* regarding Teacher: Boys and girls, bring the north pole of process are made by A, the teacher; hence, your magnet toward the north pole of the meaning, or the ^ suspended magnet. What happens? teacher’s conceptual _ ., , i- "" scheme is imposed Pupil: They push away. upon the pupils. Opportunity for pu- Teacher: Now, bring the south pole of your mag- pils to predict or to y ^ -7 formulate hypoth- net toward the north pole of the sus- eses is not provided pended magnet. What happens? for m any precise l IA planned manner. Pupil: They pull together. SKS^^^ Teacher: What have we learned from our experi- "by-products of dis- ments today? covery" is provided, p^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ p^g attract. This is the hoped for product of this method of instruction. But is it enough that pupils be guided to "rediscover" the "by-products55 of scientific investigation? In other words, is it not likely that the pupil will become dependent upon the guidance of the teacher and "un- cover" or "discover" only the subject matter the teacher values? The assumption in this paper is that inquiry behavior is fostered only as the pupil examines the processes of inquiry and makes judg- ments regarding the relevancy of alternative processes. Example B has been designed to illustrate an instructional scheme for guiding pupils to reconstruct inquiry by making them aware of the conse- quences of alternative inquiry processes. The design of inquiring * Throughout this paper marginal notations will be used to develop the rationale for teacher-pupil interaction. 13

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Page 1: Inquiry in the Elementary School Science Curriculum

Inquiry in the Elementary SchoolScience Curriculum

Alphoretta S. Fish and T. Frank SaundersUniversity of Arizona., T’ucson, Arizona

The goals or ends of science instruction can be variously described.The particular purposes of science instruction in the elementaryschool have usually been seen in terms of some specific subject matterapplications.Example A illustrates the means and method which might be em-

ployed to achieve a subject-matter end.

Example A. Miss A, a second grade teacher, in-tends that her pupils "discover" (i.e., rediscover orfind out what others know) that like poles of mag-nets repel and unlike poles attract. Pupils are pro-vided with bar magnets, several of which are sus-pended, and are instructed as follows:

Decisions* regarding Teacher: Boys and girls, bring the north pole ofprocess are made by �’ °

’° A,

the teacher; hence, your magnet toward the north pole ofthe meaning, or the ^ suspended magnet. What happens?teacher’s conceptual _ ., �, i- °

""

scheme is imposed Pupil: They push away.upon the pupils.

Opportunity for pu- Teacher: Now, bring the south pole of your mag-pils to predict or to y ° ^ -7 °

formulate hypoth- net toward the north pole of the sus-eses is not provided pended magnet. What happens?for m any precise l ° IA

planned manner. Pupil: They pull together.

SKS^^^ Teacher: What have we learned from our experi-"by-products of dis- ments today?covery" is provided, p^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ p^g attract.

This is the hoped for product of this method of instruction. But is itenough that pupils be guided to "rediscover" the "by-products55 ofscientific investigation? In other words, is it not likely that the pupilwill become dependent upon the guidance of the teacher and "un-cover" or "discover" only the subject matter the teacher values?The assumption in this paper is that inquiry behavior is fostered

only as the pupil examines the processes of inquiry and makes judg-ments regarding the relevancy of alternative processes. Example Bhas been designed to illustrate an instructional scheme for guidingpupils to reconstruct inquiry by making them aware of the conse-quences of alternative inquiry processes. The design of inquiring

* Throughout this paper marginal notations will be used to develop the rationale for teacher-pupil interaction.

13

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14School Science and Mathematics

education then is to provide pupils with experiences in:

1. locating the consequences of alternative inquiry strategies byguiding them ina. recognizing that alternative conceptual schemes underlie the

the selection of strategiesb. recognizing that alternative conceptual schemes lead to diver-

gent data2. establishing criteria for selecting strategies of inquiry by guiding

them to recognize some of the criteria for judging alternativestrategies.

Example B. Miss B initiates the lesson by asking:The teacher providesopportunity for pu-pils to decide uponthe conceptualscheme, or the frameof reference, fromwhich magnets willbe examined.

This is the prospec-tive phase of the les-son in which the pu-pils decide upon astrategy in whichsome questions re-main unarticulated.

This is the involve-ment phase of thelesson in which pu-pils employ theirstrategy.

How can we determine how magnets interact witheach other?

Pupil: We could experiment with magnets.Teacher: How will we gather our data?Pupil: We can observe carefully and keep ac-

curate records.

Pupils experiment with their concept formationand its errors as well as becoming involved withan examination of magnets. They report back tothe teacher that magnets interact by pulling to-gether and by pushing away.

Teacher (holding a bar magnet in one hand): If Imove this magnet toward the suspended magnet,will it be "attracted" or "pushed away?"

At this point Miss Bcauses a discontinu-ity to arise. Thus,providing oppor-tunity for pupils torecognize that alter-native conceptualschemes are possible.

Since, in this hypothetical lesson, the pupils have neglected todesignate the conditions under which magnets "attract" and underwhich magnets "push away," there will be confusion regarding theobservable meaning uncovered by the "experimenting" and dis-satisfaction with the strategy they have selected will follow. It is atthis point that the pupil begins to question the adequacy of thestrategy selected, i.e., recognizes that alternative strategies are pos-sible. It is at this point, also, that the problem becomes dynamic inin the affective domain of the learner. In other words, the pupil facesa real problem�a problem about which he has some conviction be-cause it involves a judgment he has made. Here, too, the pupil is most

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Inquiry in Elementary Science 15

likely to be ready to speculate with regard to the "facts" he has ob-served and to formulate an alternative hypothesis.

Teacher: What is our problem?This is the retrospec-tive or the "lookingback" phase of thelesson in which pu-pils are guided torecognize that alter-native conceptualschemes lead to di-vergent data.

Pupil: We didn’t pay proper attention to theconditions under which the magnetswould "attract" and to the conditionsunder which they would "push away."

This is the secondprospective phase ofthe lesson in whichpupils are providedopportunity to stateand work from otherhypotheses.

Here the pupils areguided to think criti-cally about questionsand to recognizetheir responsibilityfor questioning ques-tions.

Teacher: Why?

Pupil: Because we have generally done scienceby observing carefully and keeping ac-curate record of the change which oc-curred rather than by observing andkeeping accurate record of the conditionsunder which the change occurred.

Teacher: If, when we undertake to answer a ques-tion, we have a decision to make aboutmethod, what does this mean?

Pupil: It means that a question can be an-swered in more than one way and thatwe have a choice of ways to answer it.

Teacher: How could we have decided upon thebest choice to make? Remember ouroriginal problem was: How can we deter-mine how magnets interact with eachother?

Pupil: We could have asked w^at you meant bythe words "how magnets interact."

Teacher: What have you decided I meant bythose words?

Pupil: Under what conditions does a magnet"attract" another magnet and underwhat conditions does it "push it away?"

Teacher: If we have two magnets (on the chalk-board | N S | | N S |) what hy-potheses could we suggest?

Pupil: There are several possible hypotheses:N�N repel N�N attract

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16School Science and Mathematics

S�S repel S�S attractN�S attract N�S repel

Teacher: How will we know we have foundwhether or not our particular hypothe-ses are adequate?

Pupil: We will be able to describe or predictwhat will happen when a magnet isbrought near a suspended magnet andwhat will not happen.

Pupils gather data and formulate the in-terpretation they know are contained intheir hypotheses.

This is the secondinvolvement phase ofthe lesson.

Science instruction has usually neglected the "involvement" phaseof inquiry where involvement has referred to more than the meredoing of the inquiry. Yet, "involvement" can be seen as the "excite-ment" component or product of such inquiry. Moreover, "excite-ment" could be seen as the goal of science instruction. In this mannercontinued inquiry is assured.The continuing example is now guided to implicate the pupil in the

"excitement" of inquiry:Teacher: Let us recall our experiences and or-

ganize some facts so that we may make acomparison. Questions are raised to theend of bringing the following chart intofocus:

This is the secondretrospective phase ofthe lesson in whichthe pupils are guidedto "double think"their two experienceswith the magnetsand judge the conse-quences of alterna-tive inquiry strate-gies. Here opportun-ity is provided forpupils to recognizethat alternativequestions (the for-mulation of whichare based on concep-tual schemes) leadto divergent data.

Problem: How can we determine how magnetsinteract with each other?

Expert- Meaning Given Methodence to the Problem Selected Means Answer

No. 1

occur when

No. 2Under what

do magnets

By pupils:What changes

magnets in-teract?

By teacher:

conditions

interact?

Randomresponsemethod

Experi-mentalmethod

Manipu-latingmagnetsrandomly

Manipu-latingmagnetsaccordingto statedhypoth-eses

Magnetseither"attract"each otheror "repel"each other

Northpoles ofmagnetsrepel eachother;south polesof mag-nets . . .

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Inquiry in Elementary Science 17

The chart is discussed to the end of guiding pupils to recognize thatdifferent questions call for different means and different methodswhich result in quite different kinds of answers.Opportunity is pro- Teacher: Which method would you judge to bevided at this point - �’ °

for pupils to build the better, the random responsecriteria for selecting method or the experimental method?strategies of inquiry A

^ol^^effS0 P"P" �� The experimental method.as a criterion forjudging alternative teacher: Why:-strategies. This endsthe retrospective Pupil: Because with the random responseCi^nic’n Se8 ^on method, each time a question was askedcesses were recon- about whether a magnet would be at-

tracted or repelled, the method wouldstructed.

have to be repeated.

Teacher: Are we saying that the experimentalmethod is better because we can pre-dict from it and, therefore, it is moreefficient?

This lesson could be described further, in greater detail and withmore attention to putting questions and responses into language at alltimes suitable for second graders. Nevertheless, in this lesson thepupil has been guided to make decisions to the end of expanding andreconstructing his own inquiry behavior. In essence, then, elementaryschool pupils can be guided to inquire into the strategies of inquiry.

It is desirable and profitable to expose pupils to the proceduralaspect of "scientific method" where inquiry behavior is the end to beattained. The assumption is that pupils become aware of the excite-ment of inquiry and refine and extend their inquiring behavior as theyare guided to "self-judge" and "self-correct" their own inquiry stra-tegies. Furthermore, pupils are moved forward on several frontssimultaneously: Skills basic to searching and critical thinking are de-veloped, science concepts are extended and refined and an under-standing of the structure of science is developed at the same timeinquiry behavior is being expanded and reconstructed.While it is desirable to guide pupils to "discover" the nature of

inquiry by subtly allowing them to tread the pre-established patternsof search, it is only as scientists are seen as the creative inventors andreconstructors of processes that excitement is perpetuated and auto-nomy is insured.

Probably the most important end of science instruction, then, isthat which aims to develop understanding of the abduction1 and

* Abduction: The first stating of a hypothesis and the entertaining of it, whether as a simple interrogation orwith any degree of confidence from Buchler, Justus, Philosophical Writings of Peirce. New York: Dover Publica-tions, Inc., 1955, p. 151.

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18 School Science and Mathematics

reconstruction of conceptual schemes. For, while the reconstruction ofbehavioral techniques of inquiry may serve as important incrementsto commitment, they are subordinate to the survival value of anunderstanding of conceptual meaning. In other words, then, thedevelopment of commitment should be hastened by helping pupilsanalyze the connections between their conceptions and the resultingconsequences as well as the alternative conceptual possibilities whichmight have been constructed initially and which would have resultedin quite different consequences.Example C illustrates an instructional technique designed to pro-

vide challenge and opportunity for pupils to revisit the initial concep-tion in search of alternative, or the "surprise," hypothesis. Parts of thelesson are similar in design to Example B, extending it to includeopportunity for pupils to locate specific consequences and facts ordata which may lead to a continuation of the data analysis. The pivoton which science as commitment turns is the point at which inquiryturns on itself and pupils are guided to

1. Seek a system in which a previous phase of the lesson wasarticulated.

2. Return to the assumptions held to locate a particular conceptualscheme with its resulting strategy.

3. Return to the initial hypotheses, conceptual schemes, andassumptions in search for alternatives to each.

Example C. Teacher C, a second grade teacher,may begin by providing each of three groups ofpupils with different means for coping with thequestion: With only the materials you have beengiven, how would you describe a magnet?

Group A is given one magnet.

Group B is given a magnet and an assortment ofmetallic objects all of which are iron or steel.

Group C is given several sets of magnets. Pupilsexamine and experiment with their materials andrespond somewhat as follows:

Teacher records onGroup A: we would describe a magnet by saying:

^er’rTrS for n is a metal n is ^^YIt is hard It is shinyIt is a solid It has a north end

and a south end

Group B: We would describe a magnet by saying:Magnets attract metal objects

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Inquiry in Elementary Science 19

Pupils are providedopportunity to seeka system withinwhich this phase ofthe lesson was artic-ulated. Here the ra-tionale of the teach-er’s conceptualscheme, as well asthe teacher’s strate-gies come under thecritical eye of the pu-pil. The pupils arethus encouraged toexamine the verybasis of the teacher’sends-in-view.

Group C: We would describe a magnet by saying:Magnets attract each otherMagnets push each otherLike poles repel and unlike poles attract

Teacher: Why did I have you work in groups togather data about magnets?

Pupil: To show us that magnets can be de-scribed in many ways.

Teacher: What ways were they described?

Pupil: By appearance(Group 1)Teacher: You looked at the magnet as though it

would not interact with other objects.Your assumption then was that it wasstatic.

Pupil: By the way they behave with metal(Group 2) objects.

Teacher: You looked at the magnet as though itwould interact with other objects. Yourassumption then was that it was dy-namic.

Pupil: By the way they behave with other(Group 3) magnets.

Teacher: You looked at the magnet as though itwould interact with other magnets.Your assumption then was that themagnet is dynamic in relation to othermagnets acting on it.

Teacher:

Pupil:

Teacher:

How did I get you to describe in differ-ent ways?

By giving us only certain objects.

By giving you only certain objects, I ledyou to "see" in a particular way, hence,to make certain assumptions and toselect a particular-method of examiningthe magnet.

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20School Science and Mathematics

Next, Teacher C passes an object having the sameappearance as a magnet (i.e., marked N-S, etc.) toGroup A and asks, "What would you call this ob-ject?^

At this point Miss Ccauses a discontinuityto arise, thus, pro-viding opportunityfor pupils to recog-nize that alternativeconceptual schemesare possible. Pupil: Magnet

Opportunity is provided for pupils to try to formu-late hypotheses and to determine the method theywill use before examining the object. Then, theteacher asks the group to report the hypothesesand the strategy used and what they have dis-covered.

Pupil: We couldn^t think of a hypothesis, but(Group A) we used the strategies of observing and

feeling and discovered that the objecthas the same appearance as the objectwe examined first.

Teacher: "How would you predict this magnet(To Group would interact with these metal ob-

B) jects, steel pins, a brass key, a leadsoldier, and some copper wire?"

Pupil: The magnet will attract them.(Group B)

Teacher provides opportunity for someone to test hypothesis. Thediscussion which follows points up the fallacy of the initial assumptionheld by Group B.

Teacher passes an object having the same appear-ance as a magnet to Group C and asks, "Whatwould you call this object?"

Pupil: If north poles repel, if south poles repel(Group C) and if north-south poles attract, I

would call it a magnet.

Opportunity is provided for pupils to test hypotheses. Then, thegroup reports that since the object is attracted by the magnet butwill not repel a magnet it is itself not a magnet.On the following day a discussion and a summary of the previous

day^s experiences are organized into a table:

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Inquiry in Elementary Science 21

The most important"side benefit" of thecontinued scienceinquiry is the op-portunity to focusthe pupils* attentionon the demandingcharacter of sciencelanguage. Here theimportance of the"it-then" structuralstatement m inquirycomes into view astestable.

poles at-

is a magnet

Grour

A

B

C

Way Magne)

Was Seen

Magnets donot interact

Magnetsinteractwith metals

Magnetsinteractwith eachother

t

Magnets are

poles repel;

UnderlyingAssumption

Magnets arestatic objects

dynamic

Magnets aredynamic

Hypotheses

None

Magnetswill attractobjects

If northpoles repel;if south

and ifnorth-south

tract thenthe object

Means

Observea magnet

Use mag-nets andmetal ob-jects totest hy-potheses

Use mag-nets totest hy-potheses

Method

Randomresponse

Experi-mentalinvolvingexamplesof a re-strictednumberof cases

Experi-mentalinvolvingexamplesof allcases

Consequences

Inquirer isunaware ofassumption

Inquirer isunaware oferror inassumptionuntil a widervariety ofmetals areexamined

Inquirer canpredict on thebasis of theassumptionbecause it in-cludes allcases relatedto the prob-lem

Opportunity is pro-vided for pupils toreturn to the prob-lems for the purposeof guiding them torecognize the rela-tionship betweenmeans, ends andmethod. The meansof inquiry may beseen as components(the magnets) theends may be seen asparticular experi-mental goals (likepoles repel . . .);while method is seenad the controllinghypotheses and di-recting agency forthe relating of meansand ends. Thus,placing method at theapex of inquiry,

Here the awarenessof responsibility toprocess becomes ap-parent. The excite-ment attending the

Teacher: An original task of which we were notaware was to select a method by which todescribe a magnet. Group A describedby a random trial method. Group B de-scribed by an experimental methodbut included examples of only a re-stricted number of cases. Group C de-scribed by an experimental method and

included examples of all possible cases.It appears that we do have a choice ofmethods. If you had the same choiceanother time, which method would youuse to describe the magnet?

Pupil: I would use the experimental methodinvolving examples of all cases.

Teacher: Why?

Pupil 1: Because I could distinguish betweenmagnets and non-magnets quickly.

Teacher: Then you value efficiency. Does any oneelse have a reason for selecting methodC?

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22School Science and Mathematics

Pupil 2: Well, if I was describing a magnet, Iwould want my description to be usefulto someone else.

responsibility for ex-tending and refiningbehavior adds thegreater excitementand stimulationattending the re-sponsibility for ex-tending and refiningprocess itself.

Here the pupils areguided to revisit theinitial hypotheses,conceptual schemesand assumptions insearch for alterna-tives to each. Theteacher intends thatpupils recognize that"mobility" is neces-sary in the process ofsearch and that theinquirer is not satis-fied with resolvedissues but tends toseek out and ques-tion anew.

Teacher: Then you value reliability.

Teacher: We have looked at magnets in severalways, are there other ways we can lookat a magnet?

Pupil: As an object that gets hot.

Teacher: What could we hypothesize?

Pupil: That the magnet w^ll expand.

Pupil: That the molecules will become moreactive.

Teacher: Are we assuming, then, that the absorp-tion of heat energy by the magnet willnot effect the magnetic properties of theobject?

In this unfinished example the continued accrual of scientificknowledge by the pupil is contingent upon the promotion of inquirywhere the commitment is to inquiry and not to the by-products, thesubject matter and the related skills of inquiry. More specifically,the continued accrual of scientific knowledge is contingent upon thepromotion of inquiry by the pupil where the excitement of problemat-ic situations and hypotheses testing is the stimulus to devise otherand often increasingly difficult problematic situations.

In summary, then, to teach for inquiry, in any instance, requires anattempt to locate the character of the process itself, keeping in mindthat this science character is essentially one which continues beyondany substantive type of inquiry and is kept on a continued line ofmeaning by the pervasive quality, or the "excitement," of the processitself.

SHOCK ABSORBER PATENTED FOR SOFT MOON LANDINGA spider-like shock absorber for soft landings on the moon received a patent

from the U. S. Patent Office. The invention has been selected for use on the firstexploratory unmanned lunar mission. Also applicable for manned missions, theassembly is one of several designs contemplated for the Apollo lunar flight.

Earlier shock absorbers were developed with unyielding metal. If the spacecraftwere to slide at all its landing gear could dig into the soft lunar surface and topplethe vehicle. However, the new pad, made of crushable metal, will skid over dustyground and crumple upon impact.