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Teacher Education Quarterly, Fall 2011

Parents as “Help Labor”:Inner-City Teachers’ Na rratives

of Parent Involvement

By Mary Christianakis

Introduction Thisarticleexaminesteachers’perceptionsofparentinvolvementthroughthenarrativesof15raciallyandlinguisticallydiverseteacherswhoworkedtogetheratJeffersonElementary,1aninner-cityschoolinNorthernCaliforniacomposedmostlyofAfrican-American,Latino,andAsianstudents.Oneoverarchingresearchquestionframedthequalitativestudy:Howdoteachersataninner-cityelementaryschoolperceiveparentsandparentalinvolvement? Analyzingteachers’constructionsofparentalinvolvementallowsforadeeperunderstandingofhowteachersinunder-resourcedinner-cityschoolsseektoutilizeparents,aswellaswhatkindsofactivitiesteachersemphasizethatmaybedifferentfromwell-documentedparentinvolvementorvolunteerpracticesofmiddleclassschoolcommunities.Understandingteachers’perspectivesoftheirworkingrela-

Mary Christianakis is a professor of language, literacy, and culture with the Department of Critical Theory at Occidental College, Los Angeles, California.

tionshipswithparentsatunder-resourcedinner-cityschoolscanalsohelpilluminatepotentialcollabora-tionsaswell aspossible tensionsbetween teachersandworkingclassparents. What is more, given that credential programsthroughoutthecountryrequirethatteachercandidatesunderstandhowtoinvolveminorityfamiliesinschools(e.g.,California’sSB2042,CLAD),thepresentstudymayhelpteachereducatorsandtheirstudentsexplore

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how particular parent involvement models inform teacher-parent relationships,involvementpractices,andinteractionalpatterns,particularlyforthosewhoworkinurbansettings.Iffutureteachersaretoinvolveparentsinmeaningfulways,theymustcometounderstandhowtheperceptionsandpracticesofparentinvolvementaremediatedbyboththerealityofparents’livesandtheconstraintsofparticularschoolcontexts. Beforemovingontothefindings,Igroundthisdiscussioninabriefreviewofparentinvolvementresearch.Specifically,Idiscusstheresearchthatexploresinvolvementofminorityandlow-incomefamiliesinschools,aswellastheliteratureonschoolpartnershipsandschoolempowermentmodels.Followingtheliteraturereview,Idetailthemethodsusedtocollecttheinterviewdata.Thefindingsillus-tratehowtheteachersemployedneitherpartnershipnorempowermentmodels,butinstead,usedparentlabortoaccomplishtheirteachingwork.Finally,Idiscusstheimplicationsforteachereducation.

Literature Review Parentinvolvementinpoorinner-cityschoolseducatingminorityyouthisrela-tivelylowerandofadifferentqualitythanitisinWhitemiddleclassschools,afactthathasreceivedmuchattentionintheacademicliterature(Auerbach,2007;Lareau,1989;Lareau,2003).Researchexplainingwhyworkingclassminorityparentsarenotas“involved”astheirmiddle-classWhitecounterpartshasmovedbeyondtheculturaldeficitargumentspromulgatedbyColeman(1966)andMoynihan(1969),whichblamedminorityfamilycultures,claimingthattheseparentscaredlittleabouttheformaleducationoftheirchildren.Deficitapproacheshavebeenchallengedoverthelast40yearsbypointingoutthatEurocentricculturalinterpretationsoffamilieshavebeenprivilegedintheresearchliteratureonparentalinvolvement(seeAscher,1994;Auerbach,1995;Biddle,2001;DeGaetano,2007;Delgado-Gaitan,1992;Lightfoot,1978;Ramirez,2000;Scott-Jones,1995;Yosso2005).Morecon-temporaryandculturallyrelevantargumentsfocusonwhyandhowpoorminorityparents, insomecases,maycometofeel isolated, ignored,andunwelcomedinschools(Bempechat,1992;Cooper&Christie,2005;Lawson,2003;Rich,1987;Trotman,2001).Additionally,studiesdemonstratethatlongworkhours,thehold-ingofmultiplejobs,andotherfamilialresponsibilitiesconflictwiththehoursthaturbanschoolsmakeavailableforparentinvolvement(Coots,1998;Lareau,1987;1994;Peña,2000;Smalley&Reyes-Blanes,2001;Waanders,Méndez,&Downer,2007).Furthermore,localbarriersinpoorinnercitycommunities,suchasissuesofcommunitysafetyandavailabilityoftransportationandchildcare,continuetoposechallengestoparentinvolvement(Drummond&Stipek,2004). Thoughmuchresearchhasdispelledculturaldeficitmodelsofminorityfamiliesinpoorcommunities,scholarscontinuetofindapersistentandwidespreadbeliefamongsometeachersthatlow-incomeAfrican-AmericanandLatinoparentsdo

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notwanttobeinvolvedintheirchildren’seducation(Chrispeels&Rivero,2001;Chavkin,1993;DeGaetano,2007;García&Guerra,2004;Peña2000;Valdés,1996).Someresearchersarguethatsuchinterpretationscorrelatetotheincreasingnumbersofmiddle-classWhiteteachersinschoolswithhighminorityenrollment(Cooper&Jordan,2003).Aspossibleoutsiderstominoritycommunities,Whiteteachersmayhaveparticularexpectationsofparentinvolvementthatreflecttheirownsocioeconomicstatusandlifeexperiences(Graue,2005).GarcíaandGuerra(2004)findthatallteachers(Whiteandminority)usemiddleclassparentinvolve-mentpracticesasastandard.Consequently,poorandminoritychildrenandparentsaretreatedasthoughtheyhavethesameresourcesandlifeexperiencesasWhite,middleclassparents(Crozier,2001).Additionally,teachers’ownexperienceswithschoolsmayinfluencetheirperceptionsthatlowparentinvolvementinminoritycommunitiesindicatesade-valuingofeducation(Thompson,2003).Ineffect,bymakingWhitemiddleclassthestandardofcomparison,andbynotincludingethnicdiversityinthestructuresofschooling,someeducatorsperpetuateatacitstructuralclassismandracism. Scholarshipconductedoverthepast35yearshasshownconsistentlythatlevelsandtypesofparentinvolvementdependonthesocioeconomicstatusofparentsand teachers (Moles, 1993;Vaden-Kiernan&McManus, 2005), and that gapsinparentinvolvementreflectprofounddifferencesintheroleeducationplaysinthelivesofmanyworking-classandmiddle-classfamilies(Lareau,1987,2000;O’Connor,2001).Forexample,Lareau(1994)arguesthatparentsinsomeworkingclasscommunitiesshowdeferenceandrespectbyleavingtheintellectualworktotheteacher,whoistypicallyamemberofthemiddleclass;adeferencethatmiddleclassteachersmisinterpretaslowinvolvementandlackofsupport.Teachersoftenimposemiddleclassmodelsasnormativeparentparticipationandcriticizeparentswhodonotmeettheirexpectationsforinvolvement.Asaresult,teachersdonotinviteparentstobeinvolved(Bloom,2001).Teacherswhohavenarrowvisionsofparentinvolvement,negativeproclivitytowardparents,culturaldifferenceswithparents,andlackofteachertrainingreiteratenegativestereotypesoflow-incomeminorityparents(DeCastro-Ambrocetti&Cho,2005;Valdez,1996). Theacademicliteraturealsoindicatesthatparentinvolvementistiedtopar-ent-teacher relationshipsandcommunication,whichvariesacrosscultures.Forexample,someresearchfindsthatworkingclassLatinoparentsbelievetheteacherisresponsibleforinitiatingcommunication,whereasmanyteachersbelievethatparentsshouldinitiatecontact(Ramírez,2000).Additionally,teachersoftenunwit-tinglyconstructbarriersthathamperminorityparents’participationbynotcom-municatingregularlywithparents,notexplaininghomeworkpolicies,aswellasnotvaluingthehomelanguagesandculturesofthechildren(Quiocho&Daoud;2006;Valdés,1996).

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Parent Involvement Models Inthemainstreamresearch,parentinvolvementisoftencreditedwithincreas-ing thepositivebehaviorandhighacademicachievementofchildren (Epstein,2001;Henderson&Berla,1994;Hoover-Dempsey&Sandler,1995).Inadditiontohighertestscores,increasedparentinvolvementislinkedtopositivesocialandemotionalbehaviors,motivation,socialcompetenceandpeerrelationships(Adams&Christenson,2000;Palenchar,Vondra,&Wilson,2001;Sanders,1998).Thereare also communicationbenefits for teachers andparents (Hoover-Dempsey&Sandler,1995;Trotman,2001)andthereisevidencethatgreaterparentalinvolve-mentincreasesteacherefficacy(García,2004).Parentinvolvementhasalsobeenfoundtoempowerminorityparents(Pérez,Drake,&CalabreseBarton,2005;Ab-dul-Adil&Farmer,2006)byorganizingthemandhelpingthemtovoicecollectiveopinionsandconcerns.Benefitsofparentinvolvement,however,arecontingentuponrelationshipsandsharedunderstandingsofwhatparentinvolvementmeansinthelocalcontext(Hoover-Dempsey&Sandler,1995). Whilethebenefitsofparentalinvolvementarewelldocumentedforstudents,parents,andteachers,definitionsandenactmentsofparentalinvolvementcontinuetovary.Parentinvolvementdefinitionsdrawupontwodistinctmodels:(1)thepar-ent-teacherpartnershipmodeland(2)theparentempowermentmodel.Partnershipmodelsseektoalignparentswithteachers,whileempowermentmodelsadvocatefordecision-makingopportunities.Missing from thesemodels is a substantiveacknowledgementandqualitativedescriptionofhowunder-resourcedinner-cityschoolingcontextsinfluencehowteachersperceivetheirrelationshipswithparentsanddefineparentalinvolvement.

Parent-teacher partnership models. Parent partnerships aim to “help allfamiliesestablishhomeenvironmentstosupportchildrenasstudents”(Ferrara&Ferrara,2005p.79).Partnershipmodelsarguethatwhenparentsandteachersworkaspartners,childrenhavebetterschoolingexperiences(e.g.,Epstein,2001;Fer-rara&Ferrara,2005;García,2004;Henderson,1987;Snow,Hemphill,&Barnes,1991;Strickland,2004).Epstein(2001)offersamodelthatoutlinessixcomponentsforhome-schoolpartnerships:(1)Parenting:toencourageandsupportlearningathome;(2)Communication:toexchangeinformationbetweenhomeandschool;(3)Volunteering: to recruitand trainparents tohelp inschool; (4)Learning at Home:totrainparentsforhomeworkandtocreatelearningenvironmentsathome;(5)Decision Making: toinvolveparentsinschoolgovernance,suchasthePTA,committees,andcouncils;and(6) Collaborating with Community: tocoordinateresourcesandworkfromcivicorganization&businessestostrengthenandbolsterschoollearning.Parentpartnershipmodelsaimtoalignhomepracticeswiththegoalsandworkofschooling. Asegalitarianasthenotionof“partnership”sounds,theparentpartnershipmodelscanbeproblematic.Thesemodelspresupposethatparentswanttochange

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theirhomelivestomirrorschoolpractices.Theyalsoassumethattheparentshavethetime,skills,andwillto“partner”withteachers.Bymakingassumptionsaboutparents,thesemodelsreinforceasymmetricalpowerbetweenteachersandparents(deCarvallo,2001).Additionally,typically,partnershipmodelsarebasedontheinvolvement practices of middle class parents (Epstein, 2001). Consequently,someparentinvolvementmodelsoperateona“deficithypothesis,”astheyseektochangehomepractices,whichareviewedasculturallyinferiortomiddleclasspractices,sothattheyalignwithschoollife(Auerbach,1989;Valdés,1996).Yet,teachersfeelcomfortablerelyingonsuchmodels(Graue,2005),inpartbecausetheirassumptionsandviewsofwhatisappropriateparentinvolvementbehaviorandcommunicationdrawfrommiddleclassvalues(Christopher,1996)relatedtoindividualism,upwardmobility,andvolunteerism.However,asLightfoot(1978)documented,sometimesparentsandteacherscanbe“worldsapart”intheirper-spectivesaboutwhatgoodparentalinvolvementmeans.

Parent empowerment models. Liketheparentpartnershipmodels,theparentempowermentmodelsaimtoimproveparentinvolvement.Unlikethepartnershipmodels,however,theparentempowermentmodelsseektominimizeasymmetricalpoweremployedbyschools,anticipatemisunderstandings,andbuildonchildren’shomecultures,thushelpingparentstoparticipateinschooldecision-making(Fine,1993).Inthisway,empowermentmodelsmovebeyondpartnershipsthatonlyac-complishschoolgoalsbysupportingparentstoinfluencepolicies,practices,andpowerstructures(Hulsebosch&Logan,1998).Schoolcommunitiesthatuseem-powermentmodelsconstructparentinvolvementbasedonlocalneedswithinthecommunitybyinvolvingtheparentsinmultiplelevelsofdecision-making,andbyinvitingthemtodefinetheirowninvolvementateachlevelofdecision-making. Empowermentmodelsattempttoworkwithparentsinwaysthatgivethemnumerousopportunitiestoparticipateincreatingaschoolenvironmentwherechil-drencanlearn,play,andfeelsafe.Researchfindsthatsuchapproachescanyieldpositiveoutcomes.Inner-cityAfrican-Americanparentsparticipateinprogramsthatemphasizeempowerment,outreach,andnon-traditional,indigenousresourcesfromthecommunity(Abdul-Adil&Farmer,2006).Additionally,Moll(1994)findsthatteachersinworkingclass,Spanish-speaking,Latinocommunitiescanlearnfromanddrawuponthecommunity’s“fundsofknowledge,”whichinvolvethecollectivestrengthandwisdomofneighbors,friends,andfamily.Byincorporatingthesefundsintoclassroomexperiences,teacherscaninvolveparentsmore,andtheparentsmightfeelmoreconnectedtotheschoolcommunity. Nonetheless,enactingparentempowermentiscomplicated.Itrequiresahighdegreeofsocialinteractionandnetworking(Sheldon,2002)andmaynecessitateon-sitecommunityliaisonstohelpparentsadvocatefortheirchildren(Clark&Dorris,2006).Empowermentalsorequiresparentstousetheircapital(e.g.,time,social)tomediateschoolspaces(e.g.,conferences,events,meetings)(CalabreseBarton,

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Drake,Perez,&St.Louis,2004).However,asempowermentmodelsacknowledge,someschoolofficialsmaynotbeopentotheparents’criticalinvolvement(Perez,Drake,&CalabreseBarton,2005;Quiocho&Daoud,2006).

Boththepartnershipandempowermentmodelsofferpossibilitiesforparentinvolvement.Partnershipmodelsrecommendthatschoolsshapeandinfluencehomepracticesandrelyoncollaborationbetweenparentsandteachers.Empowermentmodels,ontheotherhand,askthatparentsnotonlycollaboratetomeetschoolneeds,butalsodefinetheircommunityneedsbyactingasstakeholdersthatshapeschoolpractices,policiesandpedagogies.Proponentsofbothmodelsarguethatsuchapproachescreatesolidarityandjointpurposebetweenparentsandteachers.Nonetheless,neithermodelaccountsforthepossibilitythatschoolresources(es-peciallyinunder-resourcedschools)andparents’livesmaymediateteacher-parentrelationshipsandtheirperceptionsofoneanother.Inthisstudy,Iwasinterestedinexamininghowteachersworkinginaninner-schoolsettingconceptualizedparentinvolvement.Iwasespeciallyinterestedintheextenttowhichtheirviewsonparentinvolvementwerereflectedintheliteratureonparentinvolvement.

Methods The data presented in this article are part of a larger qualitative study onteacher-parentrelationshipsatJeffersonElementary,aninnercityschoolintheEastSanFranciscoBay.Tounderstandteachers’perceptionsofparentinvolvementatJefferson,Iaudiorecordedinterviewswith15teachersatlunchandafterschooloveraperiodofsixmonths.

Jefferson Elementary School Atthetimeofthestudy,Jeffersonhadover750studentsattendingkindergartenthroughfifthgrade.Theschoolwas98%studentsofcolor:82%AfricanAmerican,8%Latino,and8%Asian.Ninetypercentofthestudentsreceivedfreeorreducedlunch,anindicationthatthechildrenwerefrompoor,working-classfamilies.Jef-fersonhousedatransitionalbilingualprogramfromkindergartenthroughfifth.TheCaliforniaDepartmentofEducationhadidentifiedJeffersonasanunderperform-ingschoolbecauseofitsAcademicPerformanceIndex(API)scoreofone.From2000-2003,thestateofCaliforniathreatenedtointerveneifJeffersoncouldnotmeetaverageyearlyprogress(AYP)goals.

Jefferson Teachers and Interviewing TheJeffersonElementaryteachingfacultywasraciallydiverse.Therewere25teachersonstaff.EightwereAfricanAmerican,13wereWhite,twowereAsian-American,andtwowereLatino.Nineteenhadtaughtatleastfiveyearsandsixhadtaughtfewerthanfiveyears.ThreeofthenewerteacherswereTeachForAmerica(TFA)participantsintheirfirstorsecondyearofteaching.OnlyoneoftheTFA

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participantschosetobeinthestudy.Ofalltheteachers,onlytwolivedwithina10-blockradius;bothwereAfricanAmerican.Tenoftheteachersdidnotwanttoparticipateinthestudy,inpart,becauseofthetenseschoolenvironmentcreatedbyhighstakestestingandthepossibilitythattheStateofCaliforniawouldtakeoverJefferson. Duringthesix-monthperiod,threeone-hourinterviewswereconductedwitheachofthe15teachers(seeTable1).Semi-structuredandopen-endedinterviewquestionsguidedthein-depthconversationsaboutparentinvolvementatJeffersonElementarySchool.Theinterviewsbeganwithageneraldiscussionoftheschoolcontext,theteacher’sexperiencelevel,andthegeneraltemperamentofthestudentsineachparticularteacher’sclass.Afterthegeneraldiscussion,teachersrespondedtothefollowingquestions:(1)Whatisparentinvolvement?(2)Whatdoespar-ent involvement look like at Jefferson Elementary? and (3)What does parentinvolvementlooklikeinyourclassroom?Follow-upquestionsemergedaftereachresponsetotheinitialinterviewquestionsandvariedacrossteachers.Subsequentinterviewsprobedteachersaboutspecificparentsandchildrendiscussedduringthefirstinterviews.

Coding and Data Analysis Iemployedthematiccodingstrategies(Miles&Huberman,1994)toanalyzethenarrative interview transcriptions.From the thematic codingof the teachernarratives, theemicexpressionof help emergedas thedominant theme.Othernarrativesofparentinvolvementwerelinkedtonarrativesaboutinschoolandathomeparentparticipation.Afterthematiccoding,Iemployedaxialcodingtoex-

Table 1

Pseudonym Race Experience GradeLevel

Ms. Johnston White 2 years (TFA) 4th gradeMs. Peters White 8 years 1st; Bilingual/Reading; RecoveryMrs. Washington African American 30 years 3rd gradeMrs. Lau Asian 23 years KindergartenMrs. Rodriguez Latina 15 years 2nd gradeMs. Williams African American 28 years 4th gradeMs. Adams White 12 years KindergartenMr. Chang Asian 9 years 1st gradeMr. Espinoza Latino 10 years 3rd/4th ShelteredMr. Smith African American 18 years 2nd gradeMs. Dessorne White 12 years 1st/2ndMrs. Newsom White 24 years KindergartenMs. Chandler White 13 years 1st ShelteredMs. Rogers White 22 years 3rd gradeMrs. Martin White 23 years 4th grade

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aminethedataacrosseticthemesinordertoidentifycontexts,causes,actions,andinteractionsrelatedtoparenthelp(Strauss&Corbin,1998).Throughtheprocessofaxialcoding,Idifferentiatedhelp at schoolfromhelp at home.

Findings Whiletheresearchdiscussedearlierprovidestwomodelsforparentinvolvement(partnershiporempowerment),fortheteachersatJeffersonneithermodelsufficientlycapturedtheirapproachtoparentinvolvement.AtJefferson,parentinvolvementwasconceptualizedmainlyas“helping.”Whenaskedaboutparentinvolvement,all15Jeffersonteachersusedtheword“help”todescribeparentinvolvement.Indoingso,theypositionedthemselvesassupervisorsandtheparentsasthe helpers. Theteacher’sconceptualizationof“help”mustbeunderstoodwithinthecon-textoftheirunder-resourcedclassrooms.MostoftheteachersatJeffersondidnothaveteacher’saides,nordidtheyhavestate-mandatedparaprofessionalstohelpdifferentiateinstructionandsupportspecialeducationstudents.Asaresult,theuseoftheterm“help”todescribeparentinvolvementsuggeststhatteachersviewedtheparentsasassistants,ratherthanaspartnerswhocouldcomplementtheirworkandviceversa.Suchconceptualizationsofparenthelpstandinsharpcontrasttoparentpartnershipmodelsemployedinmiddleclasscommunities,wherehelpingteachersisjustoneofmanyaspectsofproductivepartnerships(Epstein,2001). Thefindingssectiondetailshow,basedontheirdefinitionofparentalinvolvementas“help,”teachersassignedtheparentsdutiesthatbothfreedthem—theteachers—toaccomplishotherteachinggoalsandlessenedtheirteachingload.Teachernarrativesidentifiedparentinvolvementas”help”intwodomains:atschoolandathome.At-schoolhelprangedfromworkingwithstudentstoassistingtheteacherasfollows:

ubeingavailabletotheteacherduringtheday;

u participatinginclassroomactivitiesandspecialprojects;

u completingassignedtaskswithchildren;

u communicatingwiththeteacherregularlystaplingandphotocopyingpapers;and

u organizingandcleaningupmaterials.

GiventhatJeffersonhousedaSpanishbilingualprogram,helpalsoinvolvedcallingonuponSpanish-speakingparentstotranslatewrittenmaterialsandcon-versationsduringparentconferences. Home “help” focused on support work classroom assignments, includingexplaininghomework,readingwiththechildren,providingaquietplacetowork,andsupportforoutofschoolactivities;forexample,takingandchaperoningthechildrenonoutingstothelibraryandmuseums.Throughtheanalysisofdataon

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bothatschoolandathomehelp,Inowturntotheresponsetomymainresearchquestion:Howdoteachersataninner-cityelementaryschoolperceiveparentsandparentalinvolvement?Teachersinthisschooltendedtoviewparentsahelp laborandparentinvolvementasinschoolandathomehelp. Throughout thefindings section, I use the termhelp labor to refer to twokindsofuncompensatedworkcarriedoutbyparentsinordertomaketheteach-ers’worklesslaborious:(1)teacher-determinedandteacher-assignedworkthataccomplishestheday-to-daycurricularandclericalgoalsoftheteachersandtheschool;and(2)teacher-expectedinstructionandacademicenrichmentactivitiesthatfosterstudents’learningoutsideofschool.Likevolunteerwork,help laborisuncompensated.Unlikevolunteerworkatschools,whichisoptionalandmaynotnecessarilyincludeactivitiesthatsupplementteachers’work,help laborisworkthatisessentialforteacherstoaccomplishcurriculargoals.Atschool,help laborincludedworkthatwasworthyofpay;thatis,workthatatotherschoolsistypicallydonebyteacherassistantsorparaprofessionalstaff.Consequently,Idifferentiatehelp laborfromunpaidlaborandvolunteerworktohighlightthathelp,anemictermthatemergedfromthedata,signifiesarelationship,whereasunpaidlaborstressescompensation. The termhelp labor emphasizes thework parents performed so that theirunder-resourcedschoolcouldmeetdailyinstructionalgoals.Whileparentpartner-shipmodelsadvocateforparentstoassistintheclassroom(Epstein,2001),theydosoincontextswithvariedopportunitiesforparticipation.Suchmodelsapproachparentinvolvementasaugmentingclassroomwork,notasreplacementlabor.ThefollowingsectionexploreshowandwhytheteachersatJeffersonequatedparentinvolvementwithhelp labor.

Parent Involvement as Help Labor at School Teachersidentifiedvariouskindsofhelpasparentinvolvementatschool,allofwhich required theparents tobeavailable,generous,andflexiblewith theirtime—common expectations in White middle class and wealthy communities(Lareau,1989).Conversely,JeffersonElementaryparents,allworkingclass,heldmultiplejobsthatpaidhourlywagesandthus,likeotherlow-incomeparents,mostofthemcouldnotvolunteerinthewaystheirchildren’steachersexpected(Peña,2000;Waanders,Méndez,&Downer,2007). Oneofthesalientnarrativesofin-classhelpemphasizedtheparents’avail-abilityandaccessibilityduringtheschoolday.Accordingtoalloftheteachers,parentsdemonstratedsupportbystayingincontactandcommunicatingregularly.Mr.Smith,describedonehelpfulparentasfollows:

…Gerard’smomissupportive.Shechecksonhimalot.Shecallsmeathome.Shehaseventakentimeoffofworktohelpintheclassroom.Shecametotheoratoricalfestivaltosupportthekidsandchaperone.IfIcouldcloneparents,Iwouldcertainlycloneher.

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Gerard’smotherwasbothaccessibleandavailabletohelpMr.Smiththroughouttheschooldaywithartprojects,sciencecenters,andhomeworkgrading.Ms.Pe-ters,abilingualteacher,describedhowMs.EstradahelpedhereveryMondaybytranslatingherweeklynewsletter.WhileMs.Peterswasbilingual,shewantedtomakesurethattheweeklynewsletterwasgrammaticallycorrectandwritteninanappropriatestyleforparents.Asacontrasttoaccessibleparents,teachersdescribedunavailableparentsas“lackinginterest”and“indifferent.” AccordingtoJeffersonteachers,on-siteavailabilityandproactivecommunica-tionhelpedpreventstudentfailureandthatpreventionhelpedtheteachersaccomplishtheirwork.Proactiveparentstooktheinitiativetoaskaboutschooltestsandtopreparetheirchildrenathome“beforetheirchild[ren]failed.”Fromtheteachers’perspective,itwastheparents’responsibilitytoensurethatthechildwasperformingwellandabletoaccessinstructionalresourcesatschool.Asaresult,Mrs.Martinpraisedaparentwhowould“stopintoverifyherson’shomeworkassignments,becausehis[theson’s]handwritingwassosloppy.”Similarly,Mr.Changexpressedtheteachers’viewofhelpfulparentswhenhedescribedastudent’smother:

Mr. Chang:Demondre’smomisgreat.Iwouldhavetosaythatsheisthebiggestparentadvocate forherchild.She is themost involved inmyclassroom.Shecomesineveryday.Shetriestoanticipateproblemswithherchildbeforetheyhappen.Forinstance,shewantedhimtositontheleftsideofthedesk,becauseheisleft-handedandshedoesn’twanthimhittingotherstudents.Shecameinthefirstdayofschoolandtoldmethis.Shealsodidn’twanthimtositnexttoacertainchildthatsheknewfromthecommunity,soshehadmechangehisseatearlyintheyear.

Interviewer:Doyoueverinitiatecontact?

Mr. Chang:Idon’treallyhavetobecausesheisinmyclassroomeveryday,sosheknowswhatisgoingonwithherkid—hisstrengthsandhisweaknesses.

Across all 15 teachers,proactivecommunicationon thepartof theparent andavailabilitybothonthecampusandviathephonehelpedrelieveteachersoftheresponsibilitytomaintainhomecommunicationandsignaledtotheteachersthateducationwasaparentalpriority.Conversely,theteachersviewedaparent’sinacces-sibilityorabsenceasanindicatorofhisorherapathyordisdainforschooling. Anothersalientnarrativeofin-classhelpdescribedthoseparentswhovolun-teeredtheirtimeandlaborasteachers’aids.Thirteenofthe15teachersdescribedonetotwoparentswhomtheyrelieduponforinstructionallaborintheclassroom.Instructional labor included teacher-assigned work, such as one-on-one tutor-ingwith specialneeds students, “runninga center,” conductingassessments inEnglishandSpanish,andhelpingwithspecialholidayprojects.Theparentswhocarriedoutinstructionallaborbecameexemplarsusedtocriticizethelackofin-classinstructionalhelpfromotherparents.Teachersmadenomentionofthefactthat“takingoffwork”toprovidelaboratschoolwasnotanavailableoptiontoall

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parents,especiallythoseemployedinhourlywage(notsalaried)positionswithlessflexibilitythanoccupationscommoninmiddleclasscommunities(Waanders,Méndez,&Downer,2007). Helpingspecialneedsstudentswasanothercommonuseofparentalhelp labor.Accordingtotheteachers,theschooldistrictwassupposedtoprovideatrainedinstructionalassistantforspecialneedsstudents;butduetothelowpayofthosepositions,theschooldistrictcouldnotattractemployees,andfewclasseshadaides.All15teachersstruggledwithproperlyassistingtheirspecialneedsstudentsand,asaresult,theyreliedonparentstohelpthesestudentsfocus,whiletheytaughtthemainlesson.Mrs.Lau,aKindergartenteacher,explainedhowoneparent,Ms.Fellows,helpedhermanageboysthatwere“kindofwild”duringclasstime:

Whenwearedoingcenter time,Ms.FellowswillfollowDonteandD’Andre,andI’lltakemytwootherboys.WhenMs.Fellowsdoesn’tcome,itischaos.Allittakesisonestudent.

Similarly,Mr.Espinoza,whotaughtathird-fourthgradeclass,alsoexpressedhisrelianceonanin-classparenthelperto“dealwith”aboyhedescribedas“emo-tionallydisturbed”:

Idon’tknowwhatIwoulddowithoutWanda’smom.Thatwomanisamazing.Sheworksthenightshiftatthehospitalandthenbringsherdaughtertoschoolrightafterworkandstayshalfoftheday.Thosearesomelonghours.IthinkshejustwantstospendtimewithWanda,eventhoughshedoesn’tgetachancetoworkwithherthatoften.IhavehersittingwithBruce.He’semotionallydisturbed.Letmetellyou.Evenhismomtoldmethatshewantstoputhiminaninstitution.Wanda’smomisrealpatientwithhim.

Byassigningparents,suchasWanda’smotherandMs.Fellows,toworkwithstu-dentswhohavespecializedneeds,teachersdirectedparentsasthoughtheywerepaidparaprofessionals. All15teachersalsoreliedonatleastoneparenttoactasanassistantteacheroraidduringsmallgroupwork.Theteachersassignedthefollowinghelp labortoparentswhoassistedthem:“runningthecomputers,”leadingareadinggroup,run-ningamathcenteractivity,readingtochildren,andmanagingholidaycrafts.HereishowMr.Chandescribedhowoneparent,Ms.K,helpedathisliteracycenters.

HavingMs.Kinmyroomislikehavinganotherteacher.Shecomesinformymorningreadinggroups.She’lltakefivestudents,andI’lltakefive.Ittakesmeabouttwominutestobringheruptospeedeveryday.Intheafternoons,whenIdon’thaveherthere,Ihavetoteachalltenstudentsonmyown,soIcan’tdosmallguidedreadinggroupsaseasily,becauseit’shardtokeeptrackofthekids.

LikeMr.Chan,Ms.Dessorneusedparentlabortoaccomplishherobjectivesandwork.Moretothepoint,theparentread-aloudtimeshehadsetupattheendoftheschooldayallowedhertofocusonindividualstudentsandtheirhomework:

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Ms. Dessorne:Thisyear,Ihaveaboutfiveparentswhocometoreadaloudtotheclassintheafternoons.Ihadtorunalittletrainingforthemsothattheywouldstopandaskquestionsofthekidsalongtheway.SometimesIinterruptwithques-tionsalongtheway.Theydon’tmind.IdidthissothatIwouldhaveachancetocommentonhomeworkassignments.

Withouttheparentalhelp,Ms.Dessorneandotherteachersfeltthattheirhomeworkfeedbackwouldnotbetimelyand,thus,not asusefultostudentsandparents. Teachernarrativesalsodescribedhowhelpfulparentsregularlyvolunteeredtheir time to accomplish classroom clerical and organizational duties, such asphotocopying,stapling,organizingmaterials,andtherecordingofgrades.Elevenof the15teachersrecruitedparentvolunteers tohelpwithclericalduties.Mrs.Washington,forexample,sharedthatshehasaparentvolunteerputtogetherherweeklyhomeworkpacketseveryFridayafternoon:

She’sasweetheart.Sheworksthelunchshiftat[arestaurant]downtown,soshehasaboutanhourtohelpmebeforegoingtoworkandsometimesshe’llpassgradesintomygradebook.

Perhapsthemostcommonstorieswerethosereferencingparents’absencefromtheschoolsite,andtheirlackofassistanceor“help”intheclassroom.Narrativesofparentabsencewerelinkedconsistentlywithparentworkstatus.All13teach-erswhoidentifiedsomenon-workingparentsas“welfaremothers,”forexample,thoughtthattheseparentsshouldspendtheirtimeinschool.ThisisevidencedinMs.Williamscomment:

WellIhaveaparentthisyearwhodoesn’twork.Shehasthreechildreninthisschool,andwebarelyseeheruphere.WhenItoldhertocomehelpoutinthechildren’sclassroomsothatherchildrencoulddobetterinschool,shesaidshedidn’twanttobecauseshewouldmisshersoapoperas.Shedon’tspendnotimewithherkidsathomeneither.Shehastheolderchildrenteachingtheyoungeroneshowtoread.

Ms.Williamsequatedtheparent’slackofclassroomhelpwithalackofinterestineducation.AccordingtoMs.Williams,aslongasthemotherwasunemployed,sheneededtobehelpingMs.Williamsandherchildintheclassroomandherchildathome.AnotherteacherechoedMs.Williams’sentiment:

Welliftheycometotheschool,Imaygivethemsetsofpaperstograde.Theyshouldbedoingsomethingbecauseiftheyain’tworkingajob,theyatleastcanworkinschool.

Parent Involvement as Help Labor at Home Accordingtotheteachers’narratives,parentsdemonstratedparentalinvolve-mentbyhelping,practicing,reinforcing,andsupportingschoollearningathome.Giventhattheteacherswereunderpressuretoimprovestandardizedtestscores,

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literacyandmathematicswereacurricularfocus,notonlyinclass,butalsowithhomework.Specificactivitiestheteachersidentifiedashelpfulparentinvolvementathomeincludedengaginginliteracyactivities,suchasreadingliterature,goingtothelibrary,andpracticingphonics.Helpalsoincludedworkingonarithmetic,usingflashcards,payingfor tutoring,notallowingvideogames,andreinforcingappropriateschoolbehavior.Conversely,teachersviewedlackofhomeworkhelp,lackofliteracypractice,andtheexpressionofnegativecommentsaboutschool-ingandteachersasevidenceforlackofparentinvolvement.Whenparentsdidnotdohelp laborathome,teacherssawthemasworkingagainstschoolgoalsoftestachievementinliteracyandmathematics. All15teachersmentionedhomeliteracyasakeyindicatorofparentinvolve-mentathome.Parentswhopracticedliteracyathomeassistedtheteacherinac-complishingteachinggoals.Onekindergartenteacher,Mrs.Lau,describedhowhomeliteracypractice,evenbeforeschoolenrollment,indicatedparentalsupportofschoolgoals:

Mrs. Lau:Youcanalwaystelliftheparentsvalueschoolandiftheyspendtimehelpingthechildrenlearn.

Interviewer:Howcanyoutell?

Mrs. Lau:Well, thechildrencometokindergartenand theyknowtheir lettersandtheyknowtheirnumberstoo.It’samazing.Theyalsoknowstories.Ihaveonelittlegirlinmyclass,Celeste.Sheknowsallherlettersandsounds--andsheknewthembeforeshestartedschool.Hermomspendsalotoftimewithher.Shereallyvaluesschoolandlearning.

Interviewer:Howdoyouknowthatshespendsalotoftimewithher?

Mrs. Lau:Well,shetoldme,butyoujustknow.She’sgreat.ShetakesCelestetothelibraryeverysooftenandCelestebringsinbooksformetoreadtotheclass.Itmakesmyjobsomucheasier.

Celeste’smotheractedasateacherathomebyteachingherdaughterallofthelet-tersandtheirsounds.Herfocusonliteracyamountedtohelp laborfortheschool,whichwasseekingtoraisestudents’testscores.Asaresult,Mrs.Laufoundherparental involvement in literacy tobemorevaluable than thatofotherparentswho“waste[d]timeplayingvideogameswiththeirkids”orwere“lettingthemrunaroundatthe[local]mall.” Anotherwaythatteachersperceivedhelpfulparentinvolvementwasthroughtheactivereinforcementofskillsandknowledgeintroducedatschool.Suchre-inforcementfunctionedasextended laborfor theclassroomteacher.Tenof theteachersidentifiedpracticewithspellingandvocabularywords,andeightteachersdiscussedhelpwithmathfactsasindicatorsofparentinvolvement.Ms.Rogers,athirdgradeteacher,explainedwhysheviewedoneparentas“sosupportiveandhelpful”:

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Ms. Rogers:Kevon’smomis“ontheball.”She’sgotawholepracticeroutineathome.ShecametomeafterschoolthefirstweekandaskedmehowIdospellingandmathtests.IexplainedtoherthatIgiveweeklyspellingwordsandwehaveamathtestattheendofeveryunit.IsendthespellingwordshomeintheMondaypacket.Ialsotoldherthatwewouldbeworkingonourmultiplicationtables.

Interviewer:Sohowwasshehelpful?

Ms. Rogers:Wellthensheaskedmeifshecouldtakehomesomeofthosesentencestripstocutupasflashcards.Everyweek,shewritesthewordsontheflashcardsandhasKevonpracticethemwithhisgrandmaandolderbrother.Shekeepscomingbackformoresentencestrips.Shecolor-codedthemultiplicationtables.

Interviewer:DoyouseeadifferencebetweenKevonandtheotherkids?

Ms. Rogers:Mostdefinitely.Thatkidissosmart.Keisha,hismom,toldsomeoftheothermom’swhatshewasdoing,sonowthere’sawholelittlegroupofthemaskingforsentencestrips.Ihavehadtoraidthefirstgradeteachers’supplycloset.

Keisha’sunderstandingofherchild’sneedsandherwillingnesstocraftinstruc-tionalmaterialsinfluencedotherparentsandresultedinlessworkforMs.Rogers,wholinkedstudentperformanceandsuccesswithparentalsupportathome.Whenprobedabouthowshebelievedthatstudentgainswerearesultofparentinvolve-ment,sherespondedthatshecould“tell”whenparentswerenotinvolvedbecausetheydidnotsignandreturnthechildren’sgradedspellingtests.“Thosekids,”sheasserteddonotdoaswellonthespellingtestasstudentssuchasKevon,whosemotherhelpedathome. Thirteenofthe15teachersalsoidentifiedsupportiveandhelpfulparentsasthosewhoprovidedaquietworkspace,freeofinterruptionsordistractions.Mr.Smith,asecondgradeteacherrattledoffallofthekindsofdisruptionsthatmanyofhisstudentsencounteredandhowhardsomeparentsworkedtocreatehomelearningenvironmentsdespitetheinnercitychallenges:

Mr. Smith:JeffersonElementarySchool,asyoucansee,isnotinaquiet,cozylittlesuburb.There isa lotgoingon.Up thestreet theyholdpit-bullfightsatleastacoupleofdaysaweek.Thereareliquorstoreseveryotherblockandtheyattractalotofdrunksanddrugaddicts,prostitutestoo.Sothere’salotgoingoninthestreets.Parentsneedtocontendwithallofthat.That’swhyyouseebarsonthewindows.

Interviewer:Ok,buthowdothosedistractionsonthestreetfigureintohomeworktime?

Mr. Smith:Well,firstofall,youcanheareverything.It’snotquietandthecopsarenowheretobefoundwhenyouneedthem.Sotheparentshavetofindawaytoblockitout…especiallywhenthere’sgunshots.Andalso,somefamilieshavemultiplegenerationslivinginonehouse.Kiara,hermomandherolderbrotherliveinthegrandma’shouse,alongwithKiara’scousinsandauntie.I thinkit’schallengingtofindaquietspacetowork.

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Interviewer:Sowhatdoparentsdo?

Mr. Smith:Kiara’smomkeepsallofherschoolsuppliesinatubinherownbed-room.She’sanurse,andwhenshecomeshomefromwork,Kiaratoldmethattheytakeouttheboxoutanddohomeworktogetheronthebeduntilit’stimetogotosleep.Shedoesn’thaveadeskanda‘welllit’area,butshemakesitwork.Shelovesthatlittlegirl.

All15teachersassociatedparentalsupportwithpositivelearningenvironmentsathome,similarwhatisrecommendedinthemiddleclassliteratureonparentin-volvement.Onaverage,theteacherslaudedtwotothreeparentsineachclassformodelingtheirhomesaroundschoolpracticesandforovercomingchallengesofcrowdedhouseholds,disruptiveneighborhoods,andlongworkhours.Theteachersusedsuchparentsasparagonsofparentingtocastigatethoseparentswhocouldnotovercomeenvironmentallearningchallengesathome. Theteachersviewedtheparents’challengesinparallelwiththeirownchal-lengesasinner-cityschoolteacherstryingtomeetacademicdemandswithfewermaterial resources.When askedhow they knew that the children did not haveschoolmaterialsathome,sixoutofthe15teacherssaidthattheyknewbecausethestudentswouldstealcrayons,pencils,paperorbooksfromschool.Theotherninesaidthatthechildrenhadtoldthem.Noneoftheteachershadeverconductedhomevisits.Nevertheless,theteacherswereawareoffinancialchallenges,andstillpointedtothelackofmaterialsathomeasevidenceoflittleparentinvolvement. Accordingtotheteachers,helpfulandinvolvedparentswerethosethatrein-forcedandreiteratedclassroomrulesathomebypunishingchildrenforpoorschoolbehavior.Forexample,hereiswhatMr.Espinozadescribedassupportive:

Tiara’smomissupportive...IhavecalledheratworkacoupleoftimesduringthedaytotellherthatTiarawasmisbehavinginclass.Shecan’treallytalkallthatmuchatwork,soshewouldcallmeathomethatnightwithTiarastandingnexttoher.Thatonlyhadtohappenacoupleoftimes.Tiara’sfinenow.Yeah,there’salotoffollow-throughbetweenschoolandhome.

Mr.EspinozasawTiara’smomastheexecutorofhisdisciplinarypolicies;thus,thecontinuitybetweenschoolandhomehelpedsetclearexpectationsforTiara’sbehavior.Mr.Espinoza’snotionofsupportorhelpdefinedhowparentsshouldreinforceteacherrulesatschool,acommonfocusforteachers(e.g.,Lawson&Briar-Lawson,1997).Least supportiveparents, according tomanyof the teachers,undermined schoolrulesandtaughttheirchildrentodisrespectschoolingbycontradictingtheteacher’sdirectionsandbyarguingwiththeteacherinfrontofthechildren.

Analysis Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexaminehowteachersinoneinner-cityelemen-taryschoolconceptualizedparentsandparentinvolvement.Jeffersonelementary

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schoolwasanunder-resourcedinnercityschoolinwhichteachersoftenlackedthebenefitofparaprofessionalsandteachers’aides.Insuchacontext,parentalhelp laborbecameavaluableassettotheclassroomteacher.Whethertheyworkedwithspecialneedsstudents,readaloud,translatedschoolmaterials,ransmallgroups,orperformedclericalwork,teachersvaluedparentlaborthathelpedreducetheirownworkloadandcompensatedforresources,whichtheschooldistrictdidnotprovide.Duringschoolhours,theparents,ineffect,actedasregularteachingas-sistants,whiletheteacherspositionedthemselvesasmanagersdelegatingtaskstoemployees.Interestinglyenough,intheirnarratives,teachersdidnotdrawacon-nectionbetweentheirneedforparentalhelp laborwiththeabsenceofaidesandparaprofessionalstosupporttheirworkload. On-siteinvolvementduringinstructionprivilegedthoseparents,andthechil-drenofparents,whohadtheeconomicandtemporalcapacitytodohelp labor.Asaresult,teachersperceivedthoseparentsasbeingmoreinvolvedandsupportiveofclassroomgoals.Conversely,thoseunabletocarryouthelp laborintheclassroomwerenotdescribedas“helpful.”Instead,teachersdeemedsomeparentsas“welfaremothers,”andmadeassumptionsandjudgmentsabouthowtheyspenttheirdaytime.Unfortunately,asshownintheresearch(Bloom,2001),suchnegativeassumptionsofparentsbyteachersininnercityschoolsarecommonplace.Inaddition,noneoftheteachersmentionedthepossibilitythattheseworkingclassminorityparentsmaynotinitiatecontactoutofdeferencetotheteacher,asresearchershavefound(Lareau,1994;Ramírez,2000). Teachers valued help labor at home that supplemented and supported theclassroomcurriculum,so thatstudentscametoschoolprepared—knowingandunderstandingtheinformationevenbeforeinstruction—thuslesseningtheworkloadoftheteacher.Theteachernarrativesofparentinvolvementathomeshowhowteachersfavoredparentswhoreinforcedtheschoolcurriculumanddisciplinarypolicies.Intheteachers’eyes,parentswhosehelp laborfocusedonreading,writ-ing,mathematics,andschoolhomeworkempoweredtheteacherstodotheirownjobbotheffectivelyandefficiently. AtJefferson,enactmentsofparentinvolvementdrewuponsomeaspectsofparentpartnershipmodels(Epstein,2001),suchasvolunteeringinschool,butdidnotgivetheparentsthesameopportunitiestoengageinplanning,decision-making,andschoolleadership.TheteachersatJeffersondidnottalkaboutortreatparentsaspartnersorintellectualequals,asresearchhasshownisthecaseatmiddleclassschools(Lareau,2003).Theyalsodidnotcollaboratewiththeparentstosupporthomeorfamilygoals,asisimpliedbythetermpartnership.TheparentsatJef-fersonhadlittlesayaboutthekindofhelptheycouldorshouldprovide.Instead,teachersassignedparentstasksthattheythemselvesdeterminedwouldbehelpfultocompensatefortheirlackofteachers’aidesandparaprofessionals.Inthisway,parentsbecameindispensiblehelp laborfortheteachers. It seems that the parent involvement strategies employed by the teachers

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mirroredthoseofWhitemiddleclasscommunities,whereschoolscanoftenrelyonfinanciallystable,stay-at-homeparents(usuallymothers)tocarryoutclericaldutiesandinstructionallaborintheclassroom,ifneedbe(Graue,2005;Lareau,2000;Moles1993).Whatismore,theteachersreflectedverylittleonhowtheythemselvescouldbroadentheirownconceptionsofparentinvolvement.Theydidnotmention,forexample,howclassroomlearningmightbuildonlearningpracticesalreadyoperantinthechildren’shouseholdsorhowlearningandschoolworkmightsupporthomeandfamilyculturalpractices,asrecommendedbyempowermentmodels(Moll,1994;Valdés,1996).PerhapsiftheteachersatJeffersondidnothavetoemphasizetestingsomuch,oriftheyhadtheresourcestheyneeded,includ-ingteachers’aidesandparaprofessionals,theymayhaveconsideredestablishingteacher-parentrelationshipswhosepurposewentbeyondsimplymeetingthebasiccurriculardemandsmandatedbytheschooldistrict.

Implications WhilethisqualitativeinterviewstudyislimitedtooneinnercityCaliforniaschool, thenarrativedataprovidesmanyuseful insightsforurbanteachersandteachereducators.First, it is important for teachers tobecognizantof the factworkingclassparentsoftenholdpositionsthatdonotallowfordaysoffwithoutwageloss.Second,incommunitieswhereparentsfacemanychallenges,teachersshouldavoidusingexceptionallyinvolvedparents,suchasWanda’smotherwhovolunteeredattheschoolafterworkinganightshiftatthehospital,asthestandardof parental involvement. Using some parents as exemplars not only discountsthechallengesofparentinginpoorcommunities,butultimatelymaysetupun-reasonableexpectationsforparentswithlimitedaccesstofinancialandfamilialresources,suchaschildcare,thatfacilitateinvolvement.Anadditionaldangerofnormalizingexceptionalparentsisthatthosewhodonotmeasureupmayappeartobeuninterestedintheirchildrenandapatheticabouteducation,wheninfactthatmaynotbethecase.Finally,theheavyrelianceonparentsashelp labormasksthelackofresourcesavailabletoteachers.Ratherthanusingparentssimplytomeetcurriculardemands,teachersshouldgiveseriousthoughttohowtheycancometogetherwithparentsinordertojointlyaccomplishsustainedchange.Forexample,insteadofrelyingonparentstoassistthemwithspecialeducationstudents,teachersatJeffersoncouldhaveworkedwithparentstopressurethedistrictintoprovid-ingtrainedparaprofessionals.Thisisnottosaythatteachersshoulddiscouragenecessaryparentalhelp.Instead,itisacallforurbanteacherstoconsiderparentalinvolvementasabroadrangeofactivitiesthatgobeyondhelp labor. Inordertoestablishbroad,democraticparentalinvolvement,bothpreserviceand in-service teacher educationmustplacegreater emphasisonhow teacherscannegotiate their relationshipswithparents fromvarioussocialbackgrounds.Courseworkondiverse families andchildrenmayhelp teachersgainanadded

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appreciationforsocioeconomic,cultural,andlinguisticdiversity,aswellasdispelnegativeassumptionsaboutminorityandlow-incomeparents’lives,thuspavingthewayforhealthycommunicationbetweenteachersandparents(DeCastro-Ambrosetti&Cho,2005).Whatismore,teachereducatorsshouldworkwithteacherstoexam-inelocalmeaningsofinvolvementandpossibilitiesalongsideparents,ratherthanimplementing“howto”programsforparentsorin spite ofthem.Localconstructionsofparentinvolvement,standinoppositionto“parentpartnership”models(Epstein,2001),whichincorrectlyassumethatteachersandparentshavethesamedecisionmakingpower(Lareau&Horvat,1999).Teachereducationcourseworkshouldalsoexploreparentalinvolvementmodelsthatillustratesharedgovernancewithparents,sothatparentsarenotonlyhelp labor,butalsoinvesteddecision-makers. Ratherthanrelyingonparentsashelp labor,educatorsshouldconsiderorganiz-ingwithparentssoastodevelopuniquecollaborationsthatcanprovidelow-incomeparents and schools with necessary educational resources.To do this, schoolsthemselvesneedtochangetheparticipatorystructurestheyofferlow-incomepar-entsofcolor(Auerbach,2007;Brandon,2007).Additionally,middleclassmodelsthatconstructtheroleofparentsas“supporters,helpers,andfundraisers”arenotreflectiveofdemocraticprinciplesandthus,shouldbereplacedbyapproachesinwhichparentsareparticipatingas“decisionmakers,partners,andcollaborators”(Smrekar&Cohen-Vogel,2001,p.87).Bybroadeningtheiroperativedefinitionsofparentinvolvementandwork,teachersandparentscanpressureurbanschooldistrictstoprovidetheproperresourcesforinclassinstruction.Indoingso,bothparentsandteacherscanbuildcollaborativeandreciprocalalliances,thatintheend,forefrontchildren’slearning.

Note1Ihaveusedpseudonymsfortheschool,principal,teachers,parents,andstudentsin

allcasesthroughoutthisarticle.

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