ingrid schoon institute of education, university of london in collaboration with andy ross, peter...
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Ingrid SchoonInstitute of Education, University of London
In collaboration with
Andy Ross, Peter Martin, and Steven Hope
Gender differentiation in transitions to work and family-related roles
ESRC Gender Equality Network (GeNet) International Conference
City University
London, 28 March 2008
Transitions and Career Trajectories
Transitions: • leaving ft education
• entry to paid employment
• step into committed relationship
• parenthood
Career trajectories: dynamic context in which transitions take place
Transitions in Context: A Life course approach
Embeddedness of human development in a changing socio-historical context
Social change and its influence on timing and sequencing of transitions
Reciprocal interactions between individual and context
Linked lives: transgenerational approach Development as life long process:
accumulation of experiences
Gender and context
Life course as personal construction Selective processes Interests and goals Role expectations and demands
Lives in Context
Two British Birth Cohort Studies born 12 years apart in 1958 and 1970 :• From ‘Golden Age’ to ‘Crisis Decades’
• Changing labour market
• Expansion of the education system
• Increasing participation of women in the labour market
Two National British Birth CohortsAge of Cohort Members by Historical Events
1958 1960 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
1958 National Child Development Study (NCDS): n=17,415
Birth Age 7 Age 11 Age 16 Age 23 Age 33 Age 42 46 50
1970 British Cohort Study (BCS70): n=16,571
Birth Age 5 Age 10 Age 16 Age 26 Age 30 34 38
Era of liberalisation
Revival of Feminist movement
End of baby boom
Oil crisis
New technologies
Onset of recession
Collapse of housing market
Second wave of recession
Onset of recovery
Boom Economy Recession Economy Knowledge Economy
Transitions in Times of Social Change
De-standardisation• prolonged education
• delayed step into financial independence
• delayed step into family formation Individualisation Differentiation
• slow versus fast transitions
• gender differences
Timing of Transitions
Focus on Key Transitions:• Entry into full-time Employment
• Step into Parenthood
Employment & Parenthood (Men only)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
BCS70 fathers
BCS70 in F/Temployment
NCDS fathers
NCDS in F/Temployment
Employment & Parenthood (Women only)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
BCS70 mothers
BCS70 in F/Temployment
NCDS mothers
NCDS in F/Temployment
Changing Transitions
Extended education Delayed step into parenthood Increasing female attachment to labour
market Persistent gender differences:
• Timing of transitions
• Interdependence of transitions
Differentiation of transitions: Slow versus fast track transitions
Fast track: leaving school by age 16 Intermediate: leaving school between 17
and 18 Slow track: leaving school after age 19
(academic track)
Fast versus slow track transition
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Fast track Intermediate Academic
% in each track
NCDS men NCDS women BCS70 men Bcs70 women
Antecedents to transition pathways
Socio-economic family background Gender Socialisation experiences Individual characteristics (capabilities,
goals, motivation) Socio-historical context
Predictors for staying on in ft education (academic track)
Socio-economic Family Background
Own Characteristics
R2
NCDS men 0.20 0.22 0.42
NCDS women 0.25 0.18 0.43
BCS70 men 0.21 0.27 0.48
BCS70 women 0.19 0.22 0.41
Socio-economic family background: Parental social class, mothers education, mothers age at first birth
Own characteristics: exam at age 16, school engagement, job aspirations
(Hierarchical Regression Model: Nagelkerke R2 change and overall R2 )
Increasing Individualisation?
Greater importance of individual characteristics in shaping transitions
Or Changing norms and expectations?
• General increase in further education
• Increasing importance of academic credentials
• Increasing participation of women in continued education
Developmental-Contextual Model
of Career Development Aims to uncover processes by which the family
and the larger societal context influence individual commitment and pursuit of a career
Takes developmental perspective (considering timing and biographical experiences)
Examines multiple pathways shaping career development in men and women
Replication of model in two birth cohorts Testing for gender and cohort differences in
pathway coefficients
Developmental-Contextual Model of Career Development
Birth
Age 16
Age 30/33
Parental Social Class
Material Hardship
Parental Educational Expectations
School Motivation
Job aspirations Exam Score
Age at first birth
Own occupational status
Family background
Individual agency factors
Parenthood histories
Adult occupational attainment
Proximal family
environment
Schoon, Martin & Ross, 2007
Age 16-29
Findings
Persisting social inequalities Influence of social background is mediated
via socialisation experiences in the family Career development takes place within a life
planning framework Early transitions influence later outcomes
→Time inequality as major social divide
The role of school engagement
Possible leverage for intervention Is influenced by socialisation
experiences Reflects role choices and connection
between person and activity Influences timing of transitions
School engagement
A multidimensional construct:• Emotion (reactions to school)
• Cognition (planning and goal setting)
• Behaviour (involvement and effort)
(Fedricks et al. 2004)
Often used interchangeably with motivation (why we do what we do), although concept emphasis more what people do
Transgenerational Model of Status Attainment
Life course model:• Considers both social structure and individual
factors in shaping careers
• Accounts for the context in which individual agency takes place
• Considers importance of timing of transitions and age-specific developmental tasks
Transgenerational Model of Status Attainment
Academic Capability
Family Social Status
School Engagement
Transition behaviour
Own Social Status
Childhood Adolescence Adulthood
Measures Family Social Status:
• parental social class, parental education Academic capability/IQ
• NCDS: General Ability Test
• BCS70: British Ability Scales (BAS) School engagement:
• School motivation, educational aspirations, occupational aspirations
Transition behaviour: • Age leaving school, timing of parenthood
Own social status: • own social class, highest qualifications
Transgenerational Model of Status Attainment (Women only: NCDS/BCS70)
Academic Capability
Family Social Status
School Engagement
Timing of Transitions
Own Social Status
Childhood Age 16 Ages 16-29 Age 30/33
.52/.60
.28/.23.07/.05ns
.21/.23
.01ns/.06.44/.44 .27/.20
.72/.82 .56/.53
Model Fit: NCDS: CFI=0.998; rmsea=0.032 / BCS70: CFI=0.996; rmsea=0.033
Transgenerational Model of Status Attainment (Men only: NCDS/BCS70)
Academic Capability
Family Social Status
School Engagement
Timing of Transitions
Own Social Status
Childhood Age 16 Ages 16-29 Age 30/33
.48/.59
.32/.19.05/.05ns
.27/.22
.08/.11.48/.58 .20/.15
.80/.84 .57/.58
Model Fit: NCDS: CFI=0.999; rmsea=0.020 / BCS70: CFI=0.998; rmsea=0.021
School engagement and long-term outcomes
School engagement significantly predicts timing of transition behaviour
School engagement, ability, and social background are significant determinants of careers
Cognitive ability and social class operate in part via school engagement in influencing transition behaviour
School Engagement
Primacy of socio-cultural influences over individual ability in predicting school engagement, especially among men
→ suggests malleability→ possible role of social values and/or family support
→ alternative expectation theory
→ possible role of school environment
Role of ability
more strongly related to adult social status than to transition behaviour
Effects of cognitive ability increase with age
Effects of social background decrease with age
Time inequality
Social status is traditionally measured in employment focused and financial terms
Time inequality as a major social divide:• Timing of life course transitions is significantly
influenced by social background
• Timing of transitions is a particular issue for women
Conclusion
Need for models that move beyond static snapshots to dynamic understanding of transitions and careers
Interventions aiming to prevent early school drop-out and early parenthood should address school engagement as an important leverage for shaping transition behaviours
Acknowledge multiple temporal perspectives Support opportunities for career path
flexibilities
