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Influence of the distance in a roundhouse kick’s execution time andimpact force in Taekwondo

Coral Falco a,�, Octavio Alvarez b,c, Isabel Castillo c, Isaac Estevan a, Julio Martos d, Fernando Mugarra d,Antonio Iradi e

a Catholic University of Valencia, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, c/Guillem de Castro, 94, 46003 Valencia, Spainb Centro de Medicina del Deporte de Cheste (Cheste Sport Medicine Center), Consell Valencia de l’Esport, Carretera Cheste-Valencia s/n, 46380 Cheste (Valencia), Spainc University of Valencia, Faculty of Psychology, Avda. Blasco Ibanez, 21, 46010 Valencia, Spaind University of Valencia, Faculty of Physics, Avda. Doctor Moliner, 50, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spaine University of Valencia, Faculty of Medicine, Avda. Blasco Ibanez, 15, 46010 Valencia, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Accepted 28 October 2008

Keywords:

Biomechanics

Taekwondo

Execution time

Impact force

Competition distance

a b s t r a c t

Taekwondo, originally a Korean martial art, is well known for its kicks. One of the most frequently used

kicks in competition is Bandal Chagui or roundhouse kick. Excellence in Taekwondo relies on the ability

to make contact with the opponent’s trunk or face with enough force in as little time as possible, while

at the same time avoiding being hit. Thus, the distance between contestants is an important variable to

be taken into consideration. Thirty-one Taekwondo athletes in two different groups (expert and novice,

according to experience in competition) took part in this study. The purpose of this study was to

examine both impact force and execution time in a Bandal Chagui or roundhouse kick, and to explore

the effect of execution distance in these two variables. A new model was developed in order to measure

the force exerted by the body on a load. A force platform and a contact platform were used to measure

these variables. The results showed that there are no significant differences in terms of impact force in

relation to execution distance in expert competitors. Significant and positive correlations between body

mass and impact force (po.01) seem to mean that novice competitors use their body mass to generate

high impact forces. Significant differences were found in competitive experience and execution time for

the three different distances of kicking considered in the study. Standing at a certain further distance

from the opponent should be an advantage for competitors who are used to kick from a further distance

in their training.

& 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Taekwondo is a martial art that has been an official Olympicsport since the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Taekwondo is a fullcontact combat and one of the kicks most used in competition is aBandal Chagui or roundhouse kick (Lee, 1983, 1998; Nien et al.,2004; Roh and Watkinson, 2002). The roundhouse kick,a multiplanar skill, starts with the kicking leg travelling in anarc towards the front with the knee in a chambered position. Theknee is extended in a snapping movement, striking the opponentwith metatarsal part of the foot extended.

One of the main strengths of this particular type of kicks is thatthey can be easily adjusted according to the target distance duringa competition. Although a long kick is more difficult to performthan a normal or short kick, it can be useful to score points in anunexpected attack (Kim et al., 2008). These authors studied the

rotational range of movement of different parts of the bodydepending on the distance in a roundhouse kick. Carefulobservations during Taekwondo matches suggest that Taekwondoplayers spend quite some time in well-defined relative distancesfrom each other, which allows to perceive how to better reach thetarget, or to try finding the optimal attack distance defined by Leeand Huang (2006), such as the horizontal displacement startingfrom the attack leg’s heel in ready position, until the foot finallycontacts the target. Distance control means slipping away from ortowards the opponent with an impeccable timing. Therefore,competition distance, the first variable in this study, relates to thetime we need to reach the opponent and score. Boey and Xie(2002) presented, but did not explain, some data on the kick’stechnical performance parameters, such as trajectory distance.Short distance means less execution time but also less time torespond to the opponent’s action. Long distance means more timeto respond to the opponent’s action but more time for kickexecution. However, as far as we know, little research has beencarried out on execution time in a roundhouse kick, which is thesecond variable in this study, although it is actually one of the

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Journal of Biomechanics

0021-9290/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.10.041

� Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 6158 99 718.

E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Falco).

Journal of Biomechanics 42 (2009) 242–248


factors relevant to score when kicking the opponent, and refers tohow fast the athlete can kick efficiently (Tsai et al., 2004). Pieterand Heijmans (2003) measured the total duration of the basicroundhouse kick in American female elite Taekwondo athletes,which resulted in some 0.68 s. For Sung et al. (1987) the same kickin Korean elite male athletes took 0.65 s. Boey and Xie (2002)found that movement times in Taekwondo athletes were about0.35 s for male and 0.30 s for female. Nien et al. (2004) describedmovement times for two different groups in 0.36 and 0.32 s. Tanget al. (2007) found movement times of about 0.6 s. Finally,Hermann et al. (2008), for the same kick in Taekwondo athletesfrom the German National team, found performance times ofsome 0.3 s.

Scoring occurs when those blows (kicks) are performedaccurately and forcefully towards the opponent’s frontal uppertrunk or head (Vieten et al., 2007), while avoiding leaving oneselfopen to a counterstrike (Pearson, 1997). From a biomechanicalperspective, Taekwondo skills may be analyzed in actions relativeto force, time and space (Adrian and Cooper, 1995), the variables ofthis study. In this sense, impact force, the third variable in thisstudy, was measured by Balius (1993) who found forces of about2103 N, Pieter and Pieter (1995) up to 620 N for four different kicksagainst a water-filled bag with a built-in force sensor unit. Conkelet al. (1988) used piezoelectric film and measured impact forcesup to 470 N for the same kick. In contrast, Sidthilaw (1997) usingthree accelerometers recorded peak forces of up to 14,000 N forThai boxing roundhouse kicks. Nien et al. (2004) used a tri-axialaccelerometer to measure fighting reaction time and attackingforce. Pearson (1997) reported mean impact force of nearly 292 Nwith a maximum reaching 382 N. Li et al. (2005) found forcesabout 2940 N for males and 2401 N for females in a roundhousekick.

Thus, the overall purpose of this study was twofold. First, toexamine the impact force and execution time in a Bandal Chaguior roundhouse kick. And second, to explore whether the executiondistance affects on impact force and execution time.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

A sample of 31 Taekwondo players aged from 16 to 31 years (M ¼ 21.57;

S.D. ¼ 4.75) were selected to participate in the study, divided into two groups

according to their competitive experience: group 1 (n ¼ 15 expert athletes) and

group 2 (n ¼ 16 novice athletes). All of them had been practicing Taekwondo for at

least 4 years and gave informed consent to the work. In order to be considered an

expert or elite athlete, each Taekwondo player should have won, at least, a medal

in a Spanish University Taekwondo Championship or in a Spanish Taekwondo

Championship. Within the expert group we found 4 Spanish University

Champions, 3 participants at the Bangkok Universiade ’07, 2 Spanish Champions,

1 European Champion and World Cup Champion, and 1 Silver medal in a World

Championship and European Championship.

2.2. Procedure

After a warm up, all the athletes were asked to use the instep of their foot to

kick a freestanding boxing mannequin that can be adjusted to three different

heights, 160, 173 and 188 cm measured from floor level. The base was designed to

be filled with water to ensure its stability. The body, heavy dense foam padded

torso, itself was 70 cm in height, had a force platform adapted in its trunk.

In order to carry out the present study, a new model was developed to measure

the parameters relating to the mechanical variables relevant to kick performance:

distance, time and force. To measure the force exerted by the body on a load, a

force platform, made with two circular wooden plates of 25 cm diameter, had been

placed with five piezoresistant pressure sensors (A201 model by FLEXIFORCE

Company) in a pentagonal structure on the mannequin.

Five sensors were chosen, taking into consideration that the force of the kick

would be distributed more homogeneously on the area of the hit. Conditioning and

testing the sensors before calibration was essential in achieving accurate results

and was required for new sensors. This helped lessen the effects of drift and

hysteresis. In order to condition the sensors, 110% of the test weight was placed on

the sensor, thus allowing its stabilization. (This process was repeated five times.

This way, the interface between the sensor and the test subject material was the

same during conditioning, calibration and the test.)

Calibration is the method by which the voltage obtained in the tensor

amplifier, which is connected to the sensor, relates to the force that is acting on the

sensor, expressed in kilos force or in Newtons. The slight variance between sensors

is corrected by calibration. When performed in an environment similar to that of

the test, calibration helped to improve repetition and to neutralize the drift.

Calibrating the sensor allowed to choose force units and to adjust the sensitivity

based on a known load which helped achieve the best resolution. When the

sensitivity of the sensor is increased, the maximum force range essentially

shortens, which results in a greater resolution. The calibration of the force

platform was carried out following the manufacturer’s recommendations, that is,

sensor-by-sensor first, and then, all the five sensors together. Then, in order to

determine the actual force range that matched the sensor output range, a linear

interpolation was done between zero load and the known calibration loads. In

order to provide with a constant drive voltage as well as an output voltage

proportional to the applied force, we started placing 2 kg by 2 kg until reaching

20 kg, and then 10 kg by 10 kg until 110 kg, the weight being centred on the

pressure sensor. The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliability was .985

(interclass coefficient 0.66–0.98). The range of the parameters used to measure

and stabilize the system’s sensitivity is shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

Two trials were carried out for each of the three different distances (6 trials per

athlete), which were recorded considering the subjects’ leg length (distance 2 or

medium distance) and, respectively, 1/3 up the leg (distance 3 or large distance)

and 1/3 down the leg (distance 1 or short distance). The target area was adjusted to

the subjects’ abdomen height. Fig. 3 shows the experimental setup with the three

distances and the mannequin with the force platform on it. The athlete was placed

in front of the mannequin with the supporting leg at the corresponding trial

distance and the kicking leg on the contact platform in attack position. Time starts

when the athlete raises the foot of the kicking leg from the contact platform. Time

stops when the athlete’s foot makes impact with the force platform while reaching

the maximum impact force. Indicators describing the best stroke were analyzed:

that is, maximal stroke force Fmax (N) and time of getting maximal stroke force

tFmax ðsÞ.

Execution distance, execution time and impact force were registered in a HP

computer. Weight and height (see Table 1) were measured on a calibrated digital

scale (SECA, Vogel & Halke, GmbH & Co, Hamburg, Germany). Visual Basic 6.0 was

used to develop software capable of analyzing the data captured by the system.

The software developed was suitable for martial arts as it had been specifically

designed for measuring efficient technical performances in martial arts. That is,

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Fig. 1. Signal from sensor’s amplifiers (V) and applied force (N and kg) obtained in

the calibration process.

C. Falco et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 42 (2009) 242–248 243


following Nien et al. (2004), we developed a device capable of measuring fighting

impact force and movement time, which are the main factors in martial arts

together with reaction time. The block diagram of the sensor’s system, amplifiers,

A/D-microcontroller and start platform is shown in Fig. 4. An example of force

curves measurement is shown in Fig. 5. Statistical analyses were carried out by

SPPS 15.0 computer package (University of Valencia licenses).

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1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

N

0 1 2 3 4 5SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR C (V)

1200

1000

800

600

400

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N

0 1 2 3 4 5SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR D (V)

1200

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N

0 1 2 3 4 5SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR C (V)

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N

0 1 2 3 4 5SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR E (V)

1200

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N

0 1 2 3 4SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR D (V)

Y(N) = 214.44 X(V) - 10.40 R = 0.9992SENSITIVITY = 4.2 N

SENSOR’s SYSTEM SENSITIVITY





Fig. 2. Sensors system calibration and system sensitivity.

C. Falco et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 42 (2009) 242–248244


3. Results

The preliminary analysis (Kolmogorov–Smirnov) showed anormal distribution of all the considered variables. Statisticaldescriptive (mean and standard deviation, minimum and max-imum) are shown in Table 1. Weight variables were between 46and 98 kg (M ¼ 69.97; S.D. ¼ 13.76 for expert competitors;M ¼ 68.12; S.D. ¼ 13.01 for novice competitors); maximum im-pact force was 3482 N (M ¼ 1994.03; S.D. ¼ 537.37 for expertcompetitors; M ¼ 1477.90; S.D. ¼ 679.23 for novice competitors);minimum execution time was 0.174 s (M ¼ 0.25; S.D. ¼ 0.06for expert competitors and M ¼ 0.32; S.D. ¼ 0.10 for novicecompetitors).

One-factor ANOVA was used to establish differences dependingon competition experience, and Scheffe for multiple comparisons.Results depending on the competition experience (expert andnovice competitors) showed significant differences in all thevariables of the study. That is maximum impact force (F ¼ 32.74,po0.001) and execution time (F ¼ 27.52, po0.001). Segmented bycompetition experience, significant differences were found for

execution time as function of its execution distance for expertcompetitors (F ¼ 17.68, po0.001) and novice competitors(F ¼ 15.30, po0.001), respectively; that is for distance 1 and 3,and 2 and 3 with Scheffe post-hoc test.

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between thevariables of the study (weight, execution time and impact force)and execution distance. Significant and positive correlations(po0.01) were found between execution time and executiondistance for expert competitors (r ¼ 0.51). For novice competitorssignificant and positive correlations (po0.01) were foundbetween execution time and execution distance (r ¼ 0.42),execution time and weight (r ¼ 0.28) and between impact forceand weight (r ¼ 0.57).

A series of regression analysis was performed to test theexecution distance influence, in which the three kinetic variables(weight, impact force and execution time) were used asdependent variables. For the expert competitors group, regressionanalysis showed that execution distance significantly predictsexecution time (b ¼ 0.51 po0.01), explaining 25.6% of itsvariance. For the novice competitors group, regression analysisshowed that execution distance predicts significantly executiontime (b ¼ 0.42 po0.01), explaining 17.6% of its variance. In thesesame group, regression analysis showed that weight predictssignificantly execution time (b ¼ 0.28 po0.01), explaining 7.7% ofits variance. Equally, regression analysis showed that weightpredicts significantly impact force (b ¼ 0.57 po0.01), explaining32.6% of its variance.

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact force andexecution time in a Bandal Chagui or roundhouse kick, and toexplore whether the execution distance affects any of these twovariables. It was designed in order to measure the parametersrelating to the kinetic biomechanical variables relevant to kickperformance, that is, time, force and distance. Maybe the devicedoes not mimic the human body inertia, but considering that thepurpose of the study was to compare the differences amongdistances and the competition level of the athletes, it mightprovide the researchers with a model that could be reproducedusing the same system and material.

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Fig. 3. Experimental setup with the three distances.

Table 1Maximum impact force and execution time between expert and novice competitors in function of its execution distance.

L Competitors (n ¼ 15) Non competitors (n ¼ 16)

M S.D. Min Max M S.D. Min Max

Weight (kg) 69.97 13.76 53 98 68.12 13.01 46 91

Height (m) 1.74 0.12 1.57 1.93 1.72 0.10 1.52 1.89

Fmax (N) 1 2089.80� 634.70 1143 3482 1537.25 737.43 193 3339

2 1987.83� 466.10 1014 2804 1591.94 671.94 184 2839

3 1904.47� 498.30 1113 2830 1304.50 608.63 158 2552

T 1994.03� 537.37 1014 3482 1477.90 679.23 158 3339

Texec (s) 1 0.226� 0.06 0.174 0.501 0.285 0.088 0.208 0.493

2 0.239� 0.025 0.192 0.293 0.279 0.046 0.226 0.472

3 0.297� 0.053 0.221 0.464 0.387 0.114 0.263 0.666

T 0.254� 0.057 0.174 0.501 0.317 0.100 0.208 0.666

Note: n ¼ 15 for expert competitors, n ¼ 16 for novice competitors, M ¼Mean, S.D. ¼ standard deviation, L ¼ execution distance (1 ¼ closed; 2 ¼ medium; 3 ¼ large),

Fmax ¼ maximum impact force in Newtons (N), Texec ¼ execution time in seconds (s), weight in kilograms (kg). T ¼ mean of total trials.� Significant differences po0.001.



The internal consistency analysis provided with information ona reliable measurement mechanism that allowed analyzing,understanding and reproducing data from martial arts training.The results on execution time and impact force showed that themartial arts measuring device was able to discriminate thedifference between expert and novice competitors.

The study shows higher maximum impact forces for expertcompetitors than for novice competitors. The maximum impactforce differences between the two groups were significant. Also,expert competitors were more powerful in longer distances(M ¼ 1904.47; S.D. ¼ 537.37) than novice competitors in theclosest (M ¼ 1537.25; S.D. ¼ 737.43). As far as the executiondistance is concerned, no differences were found for the impactforce in expert competitors, but these differences becamesignificant for novice competitors. All this might suggest thatexecution distance does not have an influence on impact force ascompetition level increases.

On the other hand, significant and positive correlationsbetween body mass and impact force in novice competitors(po0.01) seem to suggest that these athletes use their body massto generate high impact forces instead of using it to reach the goal,due to the kinetic link principle. That is, for novice competitors,weight predicts significantly impact force (b ¼ 0.57 po0.01),explaining 32.6% of its variance. Also, Pieter and Pieter (1995) andPedzich et al. (2006) found that the correlations between theseparameters showed the athlete’s ability to increase the impactforce as a consequence of a greater body mass.

Our results are consistent with Balius (1993) and Li et al.(2005). Nevertheless, Pieter and Pieter (1995), Conkel et al. (1988),Nien et al. (2004) and Pearson (1997) also reported impact forcesthat are lower than in our results. Despite variations in datacollection techniques, it is generally evident that a roundhousekick performed by elite athletes can generate largest impactforces.

Expert competitors are faster than novice competitors in alldistances and as execution distance increases, so do theirdifferences for each distance. Expert competitors’ mean executiontime in short distance was 0.23 s, 0.24 s for the medium distanceand 0.30 s for the largest distance while for novice competitors itwas 0.28, 0.28 and 0.39 s for the short, medium and large distance,respectively. Although expert as novice competitors showedsignificant differences in execution time between large and short,and large and medium, it means a difference of 0.07 s for expertcompetitors between the short and the large distance and almost0.10 s for novice competitors. In this line, expert competitors inlarge distance are almost faster than novice competitors in theshort distance.

On the other hand, reaction time needed to start a counter-attack movement or to avoid the attack reported by Vieten et al.(2007) was 341 ms. Nien et al. (2004) also reported reaction timesof 363 and 329 ms for two different groups. All this taken intoconsideration, it seems to suggest that standing further away fromthe opponent should be an advantage for competitors who areused to kick from a further distance in their training.

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Fig. 4. Sensor’s system, amplifiers, A/D-microcontroller and start platform.



Perhaps, due to the range of definitions and methods used, it isdifficult to find consistencies in research on the impact force ofmartial arts kicks. Authors have often neglected to clarify whetherthey were measuring peak, average, or some other form of‘‘impact force’’. Another possible reason for the differences is thevariation in the kicking technique. Subjects using the ball of thefoot may have performed the kick at slightly less than maximaleffort for fear of injuring their toes on the bag. The nature of thetarget may have also been a factor. In some cases, comparisonsmay lead us to confusion due to existing differences regarding thenature of the target where subjects kick. All the studies mentionedabove used targets that were larger than the ones used for thepresent study. Stroke forces of the same techniques, presented inliterature, are characterised by repeated differentiation of values.This is definitely due to the researchers’ use of measurementequipment of different rigidity level. The size, inertia andelasticity of the target have an influence on the measurement ofthe impact force. As the accuracy requirement increases, adecrease in impact force would be expected. The equipment usedto register the data has an influence on the value of the obtainedimpact force, which must be then considered valid and reliable.Video data, accelerometers and piezoelectric film, are all indirectmeasures of the impact force; hence a force platform seems to bethe best form of equipment to collect such data.

A limitation of the study was the use of a mannequin thatmimics the human body with its inertia. Although it is the best inthe market, and is capable of simulating the human movement,using a more rigid target could have injured the athletes, whichwas out of question. Another limitation of the study was theathlete’s motivation. The obvious fact that subjects were moremotivated to get a high maximum impact force because of the

immediate feedback provided by the software, than to get aminimum execution/movement time may have interfered withthe results of the study as far as execution/movement time isconcerned.

Despite these limitations, it is undeniable that the systemallows coaches to obtain, in a quick and simple manner,quantitative parameters that can be compared and used duringthe athlete’s technical training and that may end up becomingfundamental variables when considering goals and results. Duringthe training, the athletes verbalized that they were feelinguncomfortable hitting from the long distance, but the resultsshow that it is possible to hit with the same impact force from thethree distances without significant differences. In martial arts ingeneral, and in Taekwondo in particular, where the distance is afundamental variable during the combat, knowing its relationshipwith the other variables could be a good way to plan the training.Obviously, in the pursuit of excellence, further research is requiredin order to define the goals in terms of execution time, impactforce and how they relate to reaction time, as well as how bothattention and motivation influence Taekwondo kicks in a realcombat, which will help to understand how the variablesinfluence in moments of high performance.

Conflict of interest statement

All of us (authors) declare that we do not have any financial orpersonal relationships with other people or organisations thatcould inappropriately influence our work.

Acknowledgment

This investigation has been supported by Valencia UniversitySport Service.

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Fig. 5. Measure of a force curve. On the top the mean of the 5 s. On the bottom the

signal of each sensor.



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