infectious diseases. general principles categories special techniques for diagnosing table 8-2 new...
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Infectious Diseases
General Principles
• Categories• Special techniques for diagnosing Table 8-2• New and emerging diseases Table 8-3• Agents of bioterrorism• Transmission and dissemination of microbes• How microorganisms cause disease• Immune evasion by microbes• Infections in immunosuppressed hosts• Spectrum of inflammatory responses to infection
Categories
• Prions• Viruses• Bacteria• Fungi• Protozoa• Helminths• Ectoparasites• Table 8-1 Classes of Human Pathogens and their
Lifestyles
Agents of Bioterrorism
• Category A– Highest risk– Readily disseminated or transmitted– High mortality– Major public health impact
• Category B– Moderately easy to disseminate– Moderate morbidity, low mortality– Require specific diagnosis– Require disease surveillance
• Category C– Emerging pathogens
Transmission and Dissemination of Microbes
• Routes of entry• Spread and dissemination• Release of microbes from the body• Sexually transmitted infections• Healthcare-associated infections
–”nosocomial”• Host defenses against infection- innate and
adaptive immune defenses
Routes of Entry of Microbes
• Microbes can enter by:– Inhalation– Ingestion– Sexual transmission– Insect or animal bites– Injection
Skin
• Dense, keratinized outer layer is natural barrier to infection
• Low pH and presence of fatty acids inhibit growth of microorganisms
• Most organisms enter through breaks in the skin
GI tract
• Most GI pathogens are transmitted by food or drink contaminated with fecal material
• Normal defenses– Acidic gastric secretions– Layer of viscous mucous covering the intestinal epithelium– Lytic pancreatic enzymes and bile detergents– Defensins =mucosal antimicrobial peptides– Normal flora– Secreted IgA antibodies from MALT – Infections via the GI tract our when local defenses are weakened
or the organisms develop strategies to overcome these defenses
Respiratory Tract
• Large number of organisms are inhaled daily often in dust or aerosol particles
• Distance they travel in inversely proportional to their size
• Microorganisms that invade the normal healthy respiratory tract have developed specific mechanisms to:– Overcome mucociliary defenses – Avoid destruction by alveolar macrophages
Urogenital Tract
• Almost always invaded from the exterior via the urethra
• Regular flushing of urine serves as a defense• Short urethra in females, obstruction, reflux• Lactobacilli in vagina
Spread and Dissemination of Microbes
• Proliferate locally at the site of infection• Penetrate the epithelial barrier• Spread to distant sites via– Lymphatics– Blood– Nerves
• Major manifestations may appear at sites different from the point of entry
• Placental-fetal route
Release of Microbes from the Body
• Person-to-person transmission– Respiratory– Fecal-oral– Sexual– Blood and blood products
• Animal to human– Direct contact– Consumption of animal products– Indirectly through an invertebrate vector
Sexually Transmitted Infections
• Infections with one STI-associated organism increases the risk for additional STIs
• The microbes that cause STIs can be spread from a pregnant woman to the fetus and cause severe damage to the fetus or child
How Microorganisms cause Disease
• Mechanisms of viral injury• Mechanisms of bacterial injury• Injurious effects of host immunity
Mechanisms of Viral Injury
• Directly damage cells by entering them and replicating at the host’s expense
• Tropism= predilection for viruses to infect certain cells• A major determinant of tissue tropism is the presence
of viral receptors on host cells• Direct cytopathic effects• Antiviral immune responses• Transformation of infected cells• Figure 8-5
Mechanisms of Bacterial Injury
• Bacterial virulence– Damage to host tissues depends on the ability of the
bacteria to:• Adhere to host cells – adhesins, pili• Invade cells and tissues• Deliver toxins
– Virulence genes– Pathogenicity islands– Plasmids and bacteriophages– Quorum sensing– Biofilms
Bacterial Toxins
• Endotoxin – LPS of Gram negatives• Exotoxins– Enzymes– Toxins that alter intracellular signaling or
regulatory pathways– Neurotoxins– Superantigens
Immune Evasion by Microbes
• Replication in sites that are inaccessible to the host immune response
• Varying the antigens they express:– High mutation rate– Genetic reassortment– Genetic rearrangement– Large diversity of serotypes
Immune Evasion by Microbes
• Methods for evading the innate immune defenses
• Produce molecules that inhibit innate immunity
• Produce factors that decrease recognition of infected cells by CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells
Spectrum of Inflammatory Responses to Infection
• Suppurative (purulent) inflammation• Mononuclear and granulomatous
inflammation• Cytopathic-Cytoproliferative reaction• Tissue necrosis• Chronic inflammation and scarring
Viral Infections
• Acute (transient) infections• Chronic (latent) infections• Chronic productive infections – Hepatitis B
Virus• Transforming infections
Acute Transient Infections
• Measles • Mumps• Poliovirus• West Nile virus• Viral hemorrhagic fevers
Measles
• Rubeola• Important cause of death in malnourished
children• ssRNA virus – paramyxovirus family• Croup, pneumonia, diarrhea with protein-losing
enteropathy, keratitis with scarring and blindness, encephalitis, hemorrhagic measles
• Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)• Rash, Koplik spots, Warthin-Finkeldy cells
Mumps
• Paramyxovirus family• Parotitis, orchitis, pancreatitis, encephalitis
Poliovirus
• Enterovirus• Fecal-oral route of spread• Most infections are asymptomatic• Spinal poliomyelitis• Bulbar poliomyelitis
West Nile Virus
• Arbovirus• Mosquitos – birds• Most infections are asymptomatic• Meningitis and/or encephalitis -1/150
clinically apparent cases
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers
• Four different RNA viruses• Systemic infections• Animal or insect vector
Chronic Latent Infections
• ds-DNA viruses• Herpes simplex Virus• Varicella-Zoster Virus• Cytomegalovirus
Herpes Simplex Virus
• Fever Blisters or cold sores• Gingivostomatitis• Genital herpes• Corneal lesions- keratitis• Encephalitis• Kaposi varicelliform eruption• Eczema herpeticum• Esophagitis• Bronchopneumonia• Hepatitis
Varicella-Zoster
• Chickenpox – acute – Crops of lesions from dew drop on a rose petal to
vesicle to crusted lesion • Shingles – reactivation of latent– Ramsey hunt syndrome –geniculate nucleus– Dermatomal– Pain as well as rash
CMV
• Asymptomatic• Mononucleosis-like syndrome• Devastating systemic infection in neonates and
immunocompromised hosts• Transmission– Transplacental– Neonatal– Saliva– Venereal– Iatrogenic
Transforming Infections
• Epstein-Barr Virus– Figure 8-16 – outcome of EBV infection– X-linked lymphoproliferation syndrome (Duncan
disease)– Diagnosis• Lymphocytosis with atypical lymphocytes• Postive heterophile antibody reaction (monospot)• Specific antibodies to EBV antigens
Bacterial Infections
• Gram-positive bacteria• Gram-negative bacteria• Mycobacteria• Spirochetes• Anaerobic bacteria• Obligate intracellular bacteria
Gram-Positive
• Staphococcal infections• Streptococal and Enterococcal infections• Diphtheria• Listeriosis• Anthrax• Nocardia
Staphylococcal Infections
• Staph. Aureus– Pyogenic infections
• Skin lesions – impetigo, furuncle, carbuncle, hidradenitis, paronchyia, felons, staph scalded skin syndrome (Ritter disease)
• Abscesses• Sepsis• Osteomyelitis• Pneumonia• Endocarditis
– Multitude of virulence factors– MRSA– Superantigens
• Food poisoning• Toxic shock syndrome
Streptococcal Infections
• S. pyogenes (Group A)– Pharyngitis, scarlet fever, erysipelas, impetigo, rheumatic heart
disease, TSS, glomerulonephritis• S. agalactiae (Group B)
– Neonatal sepsis, chorioamnionitis• S. pneumoniae
– Lobar pneumonia• S. mutans
– Dental decay• Enterococci
– Endocarditis and UTIs
Diphtheria
• Skin lesions in infected wounds• Formation of a tough pharyngeal
membrane• Toxin-mediated damage to heart, nerves
and other organs
Listeria
• Food-borne illnesses• Pregnant woman, neonates, elderly, and
immunosuppressed• Meningitis
Anthrax
• Cutaneous• Inhalational• Gastrointestinal• Exposure to animals or animal products such
as hides and wool• Spores can be ground into a fine powder
making a potent biologic weapon
Nocardia
• Similar to molds – branching filaments• Opportunistic infections in
immunocompromised hosts
Gram-Negative
• Neisserial Infections• Whooping Cough• Pseudomonas Infections• Plague• Chancroid• Granuloma Inguinale
Neisserial Infections
• Gram-negative diplococci, coffee bean, chocolate agar• N.meningitidis – meningitis, common colonizer of the
oropharynx, complement important in immune response• N. gonorrhoeae – STD, 2nd after chlamydia, urethritis in
men, often asymptomatic in women PID infertility and ectopic pregnancy
• Antigenic variation allows escape from the immune response– Multiple serotypes – Pili proteins and OPA proteins
Whooping Cough• Gram-negative coccobacillius• Bordetella pertussis• Highly contagious• Violent paroxysms of coughing• Inspiratory “whoop”• Laryngotracheobronchitis• Severe cases – bronchial mucosal erosion, hyperemia, copious
mucopurulent exudate• Striking peripheral lymphocytosis• Hypercellularity and enlargement of the mucosal lymph follicles
and peribronchial lymph nodes• No pneumonia unless superinfected
Pseudomonas Infection
• Opportunistic gram-negative bacillus• Cystic fibrosis, severe burns, neutropenia• Pili, adherence proteins, endotoxin,
exotoxin, , enzymes, iron-containing compounds
• Necrotizing pneumonia, vasculitis• Ecthyma gangrenosum• DIC
Plague
• Yersinia pestis• Gram-negative intracellular bacterium• Fleas rodents humans• Yop virulon - kills host phagocytes• Plague– Bubonic plague– Pneumonic plague– Septicemic plague
Chancroid
• Soft chancre• Hemophilus ducreyi• Tropics – one of the most common causes
of genital ulcers in Africa and Southeast Asia
Granuloma Inguinale
• Klebsiella granulomatis• Chronic inflammatory disease• Tropics• Extensive scarring and lymph obstruction• Psuedoepitheliomatous hyperplasia
Mycobacteria
• Tuberculosis• Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare Complex• Leprosy
Tuberculosis
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis• TB flourishes where there is poverty, crowding, and
chronic debilitating illness. HIV• Differentiate infection from disease• Most primary TB is asymptomatic• Pathogenesis – Figure 8-27• Clinical Features – Figure 8-28• Fever, night sweats, hemoptysis• Ghon complex, Pott disease, intestinal TB –
unpasteruerized milk
Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare Complex
• MAC• AIDS, CD4+ counts < 60/mm3
• Fever, night sweats, weight loss• Abundant acid-fast organisms within
macrophages• Lungs, lymph nodes, liver, spleen
Leprosy
• Hansen disease• M. leprae• Skin, peripheral nerves –replicates in cool
tissues• Disabling deformities• T-helper cell response determines tuberculoid
vs lepromatous leprosy
Spirochetes
• Syphilis• Relapsing fever• Lyme Disease
Syphilis
• Treponema pallidum• Silver stain, dark-field, immunofluorescence to
identify, not Gram stain• Cannot grow in culture• Three stages + congenital – Figure 8-37• Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction• Pathogenesis – proliferative endarteritis• Serologic testing– Nontreponemal – VDRL and RPR, False positives– Antitreponemal – fluorescent antibody
Relapsing Fever
• Lice and tick transmitted• Borrelia recurrentis
Lyme Disease
• Borrelia burgdorferi• Ixodes deer tick• Three stages – Figure 8-40• Pathogenesis – immune response and
accompanying inflammation
Anaerobic Bacteria
• Abscesses• Clostridial Infections
Abscesses caused by Anaerobes
• Usually mixed anaerobic and facultative aerobic bacteria• Commensal bacteria from adjacent sites are the
usual causes, part of normal flora• Head and neck – Prevotella and Porphyromonas, with
S.aureus and S.pyogenes• Fusobacterium necrophorum –Lemierre syndrome• Abdominal – Peptostreptococcus and Clostridium,
Bacteriodes fragilis and E. coli• Genital- Prevotella with E. coli and S. Agalactiae
Clostridial Infections
• Spores, found in soil, do not grow in the presence of oxygen, virulence=toxins
• C. tetani – Tetanus, neurotoxin• C. botulinum – neurotoxin, canned foods• C. difficile –overgrowth in intestine after antibiotic use,
pseudomembranous colitis• C. perfringens, C. septicum et al
– Gas gangrene– Uterine myonecrosis– Mild food poisoning– Small bowel infection with ischemia or neutropenia
Obligate Intracellular Bacteria
• Chlamydial Infections– C. trachomatis
• Serotypes define type of infection• Most common sexually transmitted bacterial disease in the world.• Urethritis• Lymphogranuloma venereum
• Rickettsial Infections– Vector-borne typhus and spotted fevers– Lice, chiggers, ticks– Ehrlichiosis inclusions– Severe manifestations are primarily due to vascular
leakage secondary to endothelial cell damage
Fungal Infections
• Yeasts and molds• Mycoses– Superficial and cutaneous– Subcutaneous– Endemic– Opportunistic
• Candidiasis• Cryptococcosis• Aspergillosis• Zygomycosis (Mucormycosis)
Candidiasis
• Candida – usually a benign commensal• Pseudohyphae and budding yeast• Vaginitis, diaper rash, thrush• Esophagitis –AIDS• Invasive – immunosuppressed– Renal abscesses– Endocarditis – IV drug users– Myocardial abscesses– Brain microabscesses. meningitis
Crytococcosis
• C. neoformans• Meningoencephalitis• Opportunistic – high-dose steroids• Soil, bird droppings, inhaled• Yeast, no hyphae, intense red-staining with
Periodic acid-Schiff or mucicarmine, thick gelatinous capsule
Aspergillosis
• Mold, air-borne, fruiting bodies with septate filaments branching at acute angles
• Allergies in other wise healthy people ( allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis)
• Severe sinusitis, pneumonia, invasive disease in immunosuppressed
• Colonizing aspergilliosis• Invasive aspergilliosis• Aflatoxin
Zygomycosis (Mucormycosis)
• Bread mold• Opportunistic• Neutropenia, steroid use, DM, iron overload,
burns, trauma• Rhinocerebral mucormycosis
Parasitic Infections• Protozoa
– Malaria– Babesiosis – deer ticks, fever and hemolytic anemia– Leishmaniasis– African Trypanosomiasis – “Sleeping sickness”, tsetse flies– Chagas Disease – “kissing bugs” , acute myocarditis or chronic cardiomyopathy
• Metazoa– Strongyloidiasis- larvae in soil,autoinfection– Tapeworms – undercooked meats or fish– Trichinosis – pork, skeletal muscle– Schistosomiasis – freshwater snails,hepatic cirrhosis, colon fibrosis, cystitis,
squamous cell carcinoma of bladder– Lymphatic filariasis- mosquitos, elephantiasis– Onchocerciasis- black flies, river blindness
Malaria• Plasmodium• Anopheles mosquito• Life cycle – sporozoites merozoites trophozoites schizonts
gametocytes or more merozoites• Hypnozoites – relapses• Host resistance
– Inherited alterations in red cells– Repeated or prolonged exposure
• Severe malaria = P. falciparum– Leading cause of death in children under five years of age inn subSaharan Africa– High levels of parasitemia, severe anemia, cerebral symptoms, renal failure,
pulmonary edema, death– Ischemia due to poor perfusion causes the main mamifestations of cerebral malaria– High levels of cytokines
Leishmaniasis• Sandflies, macrophages• Different species in Old World and New World• Visceral
– Hepatosplenomegaly– Pancytopenia, fever, weight loss
• Cutaneous– Ulcers
• Mucocutaneous– Nasopharyngeal areas, disfiguring
• Diffuse cutaneous– Rare form– Single nodule spreads to entire body