Industrial Revolution developed in 2 phases

First - technology applied to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to

approx 1840.

Transition phase - between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with

the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam-powered railways, boats and ships), the large-scale

manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories.

Second - chemical, metallurgical, 1860 to 1890, steel takes over from pig iron & wrought iron.

Agriculture

Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730

The threshing machine, invented by Andrew Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a flail, a

laborious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural labour.[58]:286 It took several decades to diffuse[59] and was the final straw for many farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots.

Farm laborers lived & worked on the farm. When the Thrashing machine liberated the workers they

could no longer live on the farm and migrated to the towns & cities looking for work.

The most obvious destination were the Cotton Mills & Work Houses.

Textile manufacture

History On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households. In the off

season the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using

the spinning wheel, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver.

Flying Shuttle The flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay, with a number of subsequent improvements including

an important one in 1747, doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning

and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John's son, Robert, invented

the drop box.[30]:821–22

Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a

more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham. Paul

and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey.

Carding Machine Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that

travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. In 1764 in the village of

Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which he patented in 1770. It was

the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles.[31]

The jenny worked in a similar manner to the

spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by

twisting.[32]

It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40-spindle model in

1792,[33]

and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable

for weft, not warp.[30]:825–27

Power Loom Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton

and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he

patented in 1785. In 1776 he patented a two-man operated loom which was more

conventional.[30]:834

Cartwright built two factories; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged

by his workers. Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage.

Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock's loom was improved by Richard

Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co.[34]

Jacquard Loom The Jacquard machine is a device fitted to a power loom that simplifies the process of

manufacturing textiles with such complex patterns as brocade, damask and matelassé.[3]

It was invented

by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804.[4]

The loom was controlled by a "chain of cards", a number

of punched cards, laced together into a continuous sequence.[5]

Multiple rows of holes were punched on

each card, with one complete card corresponding to one row of the design. Several such paper cards,

generally white in color, can be seen in the images below. Chains, like Bouchon's earlier use of paper

tape, allowed sequences of any length to be constructed, not limited by the size of a card.

A punch for Jacquard cards. Clem Rutter, Rochester, Kent. - I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby

publish it under the following license:Masson Mills:

Summary Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a

worker. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40.[21]

The cotton

gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.[15]

Large gains in productivity

also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.[22]

Background reading, Ned Ludd, Luddites, (http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Luddite)

Metallurgy Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron

and wrought iron production.[25]

Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces,[26][27]

resulting in

economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved

by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures. The puddling

process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge.[28]

The rolling

mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828) greatly increased

fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.

The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being

displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was

never successfully mechanised.

Hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, was the most important development

of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to

preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by

between one-third using coal or two-thirds using coke;[39]

however, the efficiency gains

continued as the technology improved.[40]

Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of

furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities

into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where

coking coal was unavailable or too expensive;[41]

however, by the end of the 19th century

transportation costs fell considerably.

Two decades before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production

of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as

for cutting edge tools and for springs.

Machinery

Machine tools filled a need created by textile machinery during the Industrial Revolution in

England in the middle to late 1700s.[7]

Until that time machinery was made mostly from wood,

often including gearing and shafts. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts,

which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron. Cast iron could be cast in molds for

larger parts, such as engine cylinders and gears, but was difficult to work with a file and could

not be hammered. Red hot wrought iron could be hammered into shapes. Room temperature

wrought iron was worked with a file and chisel and could be made into gears and other

complex parts; however, hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive

process.

James Watt was unable to have an accurately bored cylinder for his first steam engine, trying

for several years until John Wilkinson invented a suitable boring machine in 1774, boring

Boulton & Watt's first commercial engine in 1776.[7]

The advance in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by

Joseph Whitworth. That Maudslay had established the manufacture and use of master plane

gages in his shop (Maudslay & Field) located on Westminster Road south of the Thames River in

London about 1809, was attested to by James Nasmyth who was employed by Maudslay in

1829 and Nasmyth documented their use in his autobiography.

The process by which the master plane gages were produced dates back to antiquity but was

refined to an unprecedented degree in the Maudslay shop. The process begins with three

plates each given an identification (ex., 1,2 and 3). The first step is to rub plates 1 and 2

together with a marking medium (called bluing today) revealing the high spots which would be

removed by hand scraping with a steel scraper, until no irregularities were visible. This would

not produce absolutely true plane surfaces but a "ball and socket" fit, as this mechanical fit, like

two perfect planes, can slide over each other and reveal no high spots. Next, plate number 3

would be compared and scraped to conform to plate number 1. In this manner plates number 2

and 3 would be identical. Next plates number 2 and 3 would be checked against each other to

determine what condition existed, either both plates were "balls" or "sockets". These would

then be scraped until no high spots existed and then compared to plate number 1. After

repeating this process, comparing and scraping the three plates together, they would

automatically generate exact true plane surfaces accurate to within millionths of an inch.

The traditional method of producing the surface gages used an abrasive powder rubbed

between the plates to remove the high spots, but it was Whitworth who contributed the

refinement of replacing the grinding with hand scraping. Sometime after 1825 Whitworth went

to work for Maudslay and it was there that Whitworth perfected the hand scraping of master

surface plane gages. In his paper presented to the British Association for the Advancement of

Science at Glasgow in 1840, Whitworth pointed out the inherent inaccuracy of grinding due to

no control and thus unequal distribution of the abrasive material between the plates which

would produce uneven removal of material from the plates.

With the creation of master plane gages of such high accuracy, all critical components of

machine tools (i.e., guiding surfaces such as machine ways) could then be compared against

them and scraped to the desired accuracy.[7]

The first machine tools offered for sale (i.e.,

commercially available) were constructed by Matthew Murray in England around

1800.[8]

Others, such as Henry Maudslay, James Nasmyth, and Joseph Whitworth, soon

followed the path of expanding their entrepreneurship from manufactured end products

and millwright work into the realm of building machine tools for sale.

Important early machine tools included the slide rest lathe, screw-cutting lathe, turret

lathe, milling machine, pattern tracing lathe, shaper, and metal planer, which were all in use

before 1840.[9]

With these machine tools the decades-old objective of

producing interchangeable parts was finally realized. An important early example of

something now taken for granted was the standardization of screw fasteners such as nuts and

bolts. Before about the beginning of the 19th century, these were used in pairs, and even

screws of the same machine were generally not interchangeable.[10]

Methods were developed

to cut screw thread to a greater precision than that of the feed screw in the lathe being used.

This led to the bar length standards of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Second Industrial Revolution

Main article: Second Industrial Revolution

Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz, Germany, 1868

Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are

said to characterise a "Second Industrial Revolution", beginning around 1850, although a

method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry

Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large

quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was

modified to produce more uniform quality.[30][144]

Bessemer steel was being displaced by

the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century.

This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the chemical

industries, petroleum (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the automotive

industry, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United

States and Germany.

The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of

coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.

A new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries. The

introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of

coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s.

By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations

with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard

Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world's stock markets.

CHRONOLOGY of WOODWORKING BREAKTHROUGHS

1776 Jmaes Watt - secondary condensing steam engine

1800 Planing Machine & Circular Cutting saw patented

1808 William Newberry patented the Band Saw

(Which was of no use untill Swedish Steel was available in 1870)

1814 Large Circular Saw introducd to USA

1840 John Dresser patented the first lathe type veneer cutting machine

1846 First practical cylindrical Planing Machine Built

1860 Circular Saw now in general use

1866 First double end tennoner patented

1869 First practical Large Log bandsaw mill built

1875 First practical Veneer Mill Slicer introduced in USA

1881 Double sided surfacer patented in USA, power driven top & bottom feeder

1885 Band Saw mill with 9ft wheels put into service

1890 Silicon Carbide Abrasive developed experimentally

1896 First electric driven band mill put in service

( 100 H.P. Motor, 4" blade, 9ft wheels)

1908 Ball bearings used in woodworking machinery

Developments in steel manufacturing slowly replaced the wrought iron in metalwork

machinery. The developments slowly applied to woodworking equipment, by 1850 many shops

had some type of circular saw to cut wood and a belt powered lathe.

Introduced in some shops around 1850 in UK

This model was developed for the manufacture of sluice troughs for the Alaskan gold rush 1890

Typical factory style workshop was now 5 times more productive than traditional workshop.

Which caused a bottleneck at the finishing stage.

WOOD FINISHING AROUND 1850 to 1880

• SHELLAC BASED

• VARNISH BASED

• FRENCH POLISH, MID to LATE VICTORIAN PERIOD, EXPENSIVE.

SHELLAC METHOD

• Shellac & Alcohol mixed with Rosin and Beeswax to reduce the cost.

• Rosin, commonly called Greek Pitch, from pine sap. Boiled at 100 to 160F to evaporate

off the Turpentine.

• 3 coats applied warm, then sanded.

• Final coat rubbed on then finished with Beeswax.

• Typical duration 3 weeks start to finish. Note that Wax is dissolved in Turpentine and is

a drying finish, (as opposed to Reactive or Coalescing - water based), and is affected by

temperature and humidity.

FRENCH POLISH METHOD

• surface prepared with oil, usually linseed oil to enhance the grain,

• first two coats used pumice powder with oil and shellac

• typically allowed the oil to dry out in 3 or 4 days

• next 8 coats applied in one day

• allowed to cure for a couple of days before restarting further layers

• typical application takes upto 30 layers, approx 2 weeks to complete

• finish buffing with wax

Note shops would be un-heated as the pure 100% alcohol fumes would readily ignite. This was

a typical problem for most shops and the cold shops slowed down the finishing process. Note,

Linseed Oil & Tung Oil are Reactive finishes that change chemically when cured, (Oxygenation

causes polymers), can take several days to cure at room temperature and longer in cold winter

months.

VARNISH BASED FINISHING

Linseed oil varnishes became more widely available in the middle of the 19th century. These

coatings penetrated into the surface of the wood to provide some added hardness, while

forming a film over the furniture's surface to protect it from scratching, abrasion and indoor

moisture. In addition to the linseed oil, a typical formula might have included amber, copal or

sandarac to add hardness to the film, plus a turpentine or alcohol solvent to keep the material

fluid during application. These varnishes imparted a clear finish with a slightly yellow or

reddish-orange cast.

Charles Francois Gand (1787–1845) Recipe for Varnish

Take five ounces of Greek pitch [galipot] or if you cannot find this, raw pine resin or some resin

of Boulogne [Burgundy pitch]. Take also five ounces of the resin of Tyre or colophony, again if

you cannot procure this you may use common resin [larch turpentine]. Melt these two together

over a low heat in a sound, well-glazed earthenware pot. When these two substances are well

incorporated together and melted, put into it four ounces of good clarified walnut or linseed

oil. Mix everything together for around a half an hour then leave the whole to cook until it has

just started to thicken. If a drop of this varnish is touched between the fingers it will form

strings when it is done. When the varnish has cooled a little more you may pass it through a

new cloth into a larger well-glazed or faience jar. After this is done [transfer and] close it up in a

thick-walled glass bottle or vessel that will not be permeable to the varnish. Then you may

stopper it up. Kept like this the varnish will be good for 20 years and there will be nothing else

that is better.

Note, modern boiled linseed oil is cooked in a reducing atmosphere, no oxygen. Boiled Linseed

Oil will dry in 24 hours, natural linseed oil (from Flax seed) will take weeks to months to cure at

room temperature. Varnish production was highly flammable and normally performed outside

of the woodshop by a 3rd party. Varnish was produced in Batches and quality often

inconsistent. The larger commercial shops produced their own Varnish, typically linseed oil;

turpentine & pitch.

Application VARNISH BASED FINISHING

• brush on 3 coats of Varnish

• allow each coat to dry, 3 to 10 days.

• burnish last coat and apply wax

Typical duration 2 to 4 weeks depending on shop temperature.

Productivity in the workshop increased rapidly as new machines were introduced. Shops were

no longer manned entirely by skilled Apprenticed tradesmen, the tradesmen now supervised

machine operators. Stock preparation now took hours instead of days. By 1860 productivity

over the last 30 years was up by 5x.

However; the products and technology for finishing furniture had not progressed over the last

100 years. Not until 1887 did the scientist form a National Paint, Oil & Varnish Society.

1850s Shellac compounded with wood flour was patented in the USA (S. Peck, J. Critchlow) and

moulded into union cases, picture frames, etc.

1855 Bois durci was patented by Francois Lepage, being hard dark mouldings of albumen or blood with

wood flour capable of durable fine replication under heat and pressure.

1880 Phonograph records (Berliner) based on shellac compounds were introduced and continued until

PVC was used in the 1950s.

1845 Gutta Percha, natural latex,

Gutta-percha refers to trees of the genus Palaquium and the rigid natural latex produced from

the sap of these trees, particularly from Palaquium gutta but also Isonandra gutta and Dichopsis gutta.[1]

The word gutta-percha comes from the plant's name in Malay, getah perca, which translates as

"percha latex".

1846-68 Alexander Parkes followed Schonbein’s earlier work with detailed studies of nitro-cellulose as a

thermoplastic base material. A great stride forward was made with Parkesine moulded from doughs to

resemble ivory or horn. New products in controlled volume outputs became possible. Over 20 patents

were filed. Parkesine was introduced at the 1862 London Exhibition.

1869-70 John Wesley Hyatt (USA) patented Celluloid – a camphor modified cellulose nitrate – a readily

mouldable material for billiard balls, spectacle frames, photographic film, etc.

http://www.tangram.co.uk/TI-Polymer-Timeline.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_finishing

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cfurn/hd_cfurn.htm