Individualistic Explanations of Crime

Chapter 2

Why some of us do it? Why don’t we all do it?

Seeks an understanding of variation in the criminal behaviour of individualsUnderstanding why some people are more in

to it than othersUnderstanding how level of involvement may

vary over time, situations, & circumstancesSeeks a theoretical, research-based and

practical understanding

Why some of us do it? Why don’t we all do it?

Social location theories Psychopathology Personal distress Criminal motivations (cause crime) Weak controls (cause crime) It’s in our genes

Why some of us do it? Why don’t we all do it?

Victimization turns victims into offenders Patriarchy/Capitalism/A decadent society Being labelled a “criminal” The devil made me do it Your very own favourite theory……….

Psychological Definition

Does not exist per se Experts attempt to

identify psychological factors Early trauma Ways of learning Urge to commit acts for

pleasure or excitement Personality disorders

Biological Factors and Crime

“nature” view Actual makeup and individual psychology Crime is product of heredity

Reductionist & deterministic

“bad seed” or “biology is destiny” Implies heredity can make criminal behaviour unavoidable and

inevitable for some individuals

Several theories place cause of criminality firmly with the individual, physical appearance and playing down the role of social factors

Phrenology

Franz Gall Shapes & bumps reveal a

person’s character and mental capacity

Each section of brain was responsible for a different aspect of human functioning

External examinations

Phrenology’s Main Propositions

1. The brain is the organ of the mind

2. The brain is the aggregation of about 30 separate organs or faculties that function independently

3. The more active an organ, the larger its size

4. The relative size of the organs can be estimated by inspecting contours of the skull

5. The relative size of the organs can be increased or decreased through exercise and self-discipline

Suggests different gradations in severity of behaviour and that people can change

Cesare Lombroso: The Criminal Gene

ATAVISM (criminals represented a savage, earlier form of mankind; not fully developed) Argued that criminals were genetically

different from non-criminals Behaviour is expression of inferior desires

& decision-making

Could tell criminals by physical features Asymmetrical skull; narrow, sloping brow Flattened or crooked nose; prominent jaw Large ears; high cheekbones; fat lips Extra toes or fingers

The Criminal Gene? Not influential in study of deviance but introduced the

idea of causes beyond an individual’s control – criminals born into their behavioural pattern (challenged classical doctrine of punishment deterring crime)

Suggests humans are ready made & not much hope of change

Work was methodologically sloppy & biased (craniometry & anthropometry to measure bodies & categorize them into types that were linked to behaviour) Interested in statistics

Constitutional Theories

Physique and Crime William Sheldon concluded that a

relationship existed between one’s body type (somatotyping) and personalitySuggested 3 body types

Ectomorphs; endomorphs; mesomorphs

                                                                                  

Somatotyping

Constitutional Theories: Physique and Crime

Endomorphs – soft, round, fun loving, relaxed and sociable

Mesomorphs – muscular, athletic, active, bold, adventurous & aggressive

Ectomorphs – tall, thin, well developed brain, introverted, overly sensitive, restrained, and nervous

Are juvenile delinquents classified as mesomorphs more predisposed to a life of crime?

Do law enforcement officials hold a negative view of mesomorphs that could possibly influence the way they are dealt with (i.e. are they ‘picked on’ more)?

The Link between Mesomorphy and Delinquency

Attractiveness or Unattractiveness

Facial characteristics can present a significant advantage across situations and experiences

Attractiveness or ‘babyfaceness’ – crime connection?

Minor physical anomalies (MPAs) (correlation?) asymmetrical ears; webbed toes;

widely spaced eyes

Genetics & Antisocial Behaviour

Examines the role of heredity and environment, or “nature and nurture” in development.Family studies; Twin and adoption studiesMethodological problems; contrasting findings Influence behaviour indirectly

Some evidence for: Identical twins being more likely to exhibit similar patterns of

criminal behavior than fraternal twins

Adopted children exhibiting similar patterns of delinquency to their biological parents, rather than their adopted parents

Problem is that we cannot directly observe influence of heredity (genes) so need methodology to disentangle relative influence of heredity versus environment

Few studies of twins reared apart

Twin & Adoption Studies & Influence of Genes

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Chromosomal abnormalities XYY syndrome & more violent behaviour

Biochemistry – ANS, allergies, environmental conditions (lead, radiation), diet (food additives, vitamin deficiencies), alcohol. Higher testosterone levels

Neurology – brain injuries, conditions of the brain (ADHD); intelligence; temperament EEG

Psychological Theories Range of explanations

Within the individual to how a person makes sense of and deals with the world

Psychoanalytic: Freud Concerned with causes for behaviour where no

physical or chemical reason could be determined Every mental process had a meaning – drives or

impulses that propel actions compel person to do things to satisfy impulse

Immediate gratification Sublimation (acting out) Attachment theory (maternal deprivation)

Means of satisfying impulses become more sophisticated & socially acceptable

Defining Personality & Traits

Personality: a person’s general style of interacting with the world

Trait: a characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking and feeling

Eysenck’s Theory of Personality & Crime

Interaction between environment and individual nervous system (determined by physiology of brains) Descendant of Lombroso’s theory

Certain personality types were predetermined to be inclined towards crime Extraverted personality = low cortical arousal = need to

energize their brain with excitement (stealing) Introverted personality = high cortical arousal = less likely to be

involved in crime

Problem is assumption that categories are stable traits (ignores social structure & context in which action takes place)

Eysenck’s Model of Personality

Extraversion-Introversion Dimension Introversion

Retiring (shy) Reserved (quite) Likes solitary activities Does not attend parties More reactive to external stimuli Lower pain tolerance More easily conditioned

Most people fall within the middle -

ambiversion

Extraversion

Outgoing & talkative Wants many friends Enjoys parties Dislikes solitary activities Dominates social situations Sensation seeking Restless in boring situations

Neuroticism Dimension Ranges from normal, fairly calm & collected Autonomic arousal – “activation” Problem with sympathetic hyperactivity Reacts intensely to stress (overreact)

Sensitive limbic systems Moody; touchy; sensitive to put downs; anxious;

complainer

Criminal behaviour associated with neurotic extraverts (driven)

Psychoticism Dimension

No proposed neurophysiological mechanism Similar to psychopathy

a certain recklessness a disregard for common sense or conventions a degree in inappropriate emotional expression “tough mindedness” – temperament or character? aggressive, cold and impersonal behaviour, disregard for

danger, troublesome behaviour, dislike of others, attraction to the unusual

associated with criminal tendencies (hostility)

Evidence for Eysenck’s Theory

Highly influential

Relationship between neuroticism and antisocial behaviour: not fully supported

Extraversion: inconsistent results; no strong support

Psychoticism: some support, little research

Cognition and Crime

Cognitive styles in general How people individuals think about people and their

actions

Different cognitive styles? Concrete thinking, failure to empathize with others; lack of

trust; irresponsible decision-making, victim-role

Cognition and Crime

Locus of control Internal locus of control

External locus of control

Cognition and Crime

Attributional Processes Hostile attribution bias

Interpret others’ actions as hostile Lack of empathy (own perspective)

Social skills trainingRestorative justice model

Neutralization Excuses or rationalizations

Poverty, denial of injury, denial of victim, appeal to higher loyalties

Techniques of Neutralization

Deny responsibility Deny injury Deny victim

Condemn condemners

Appeal to higher loyalty

“I had to do it.” “I had no choice.” “They have insurance. “ “What’s 1 CD

to a store like Wal Mart?” “They had it coming.” “ She shouldn’t

have talked back to me.”

“Everyone is on the take.”

“Only cowards back down.”

“I have to feed my family.”

Cognition and Crime

Self-control Impulsive

Problem-solving and decision-making Opposing views

Cognitive scripts Script – how people should behave in certain

situations (inner narrative)

Cognition and CrimeMoral Development - Kohlberg

Level 1: Pre-conventional Stage1: Punishment and obedience orientation Stage 2: Individualism and purpose

Level 2: Conventional Stage 1: Good boy/girl orientation Stage 2: Society – maintaing orientation

Level 3: Post-conventional Stage 1: Community rights vs. personal rights Stage 2: Universal ethical principle orientation

Cognition and Crime

Behaviour is result of individual, internal factors E.g., issue of poverty

Not concerned with why higher rate of crime in groups who are poor

Focus on causes such as lower intelligence scores Standard research methods - statistical

Summary of Biological Factors and Theories

Genetics

Twin studiesAdoption studies

Environmental risk factors

Birth complicationsExposure to drugsBrain developmentNeuropsychological factors

Physique

Body shapeAttractivenessMinor Physical Abnormalities

Eysenck’s theory

ExtraversionNeuroticismPsychoticism

Interaction of Heredity and Environment Remember: neither genetics nor biology

“cause” crime Certain biological or genetic elements may

predispose some people to commit antisocial acts

Individualistic explanations not the whole story