Sustainability indicators and monitoring

Draft version, 10 February 2004European Regional Network on Sustainable Development

Indicators for Sustainable Development

Paper for discussion

Cardiff, 23-24 March 2004

by

Johanna Alkan Olsson, Tuija Hilding-Rydevik, Hallgeir Aalbu and Karin Bradley

Table of Contents21Introduction

32What is sustainable development?

32.1 Dimensions of sustainable development

52.2 Different interpretations of sustainable development

72.3 The operationalisation of SD is context dependent

83What is an indicator for sustainable development?

103.1 Methodologies for measuring sustainable development

103.2 Methodologies for measuring sustainable regional development

114Accounting for the why, who and how

124.1 The why

124.2 The who

124.3 The how

155What constitutes a good indicator for sustainable development?

196The use of SDI from a regional perspective

22References and further reading

26Annex 1: Eurostat sustainable development indicators

1 Introduction

This draft paper is produced for the European Regional Network on Sustainable Development, as part of the preparations for a seminar in Cardiff in March 2004. At this seminar, members of the network will supplement the paper with experiences from their regions. A number of questions for the regions are therefore presented in the final section of this paper.

Concerns about the environment and development are not new. More recently a global debate has formed around the strategies needed to address the challenges posed by these concerns. This debate has its roots in the environmental movement and the post-World War II discussion on development. These two discussions merged in the late 1980s into the debate on sustainable development (SD).

The European Commission has shown increasing interest in SD, not only in the context of environmental policies but in the context of all policy decisions, be they economic, social or environmental. The policy context of SD can be traced back to 1992, and the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union. This treaty added further environmental objectives into the original objectives of the Treaty of Rome. In 1993 the adoption of the Fifth Action Programme on The Environment strengthened the position of SD in EU policies. The treaty of Amsterdam in 1998 went further by adopting the threefold definition of sustainable development and stating that the Unions financial instruments should work, simultaneously and in the long-term, towards economic growth, social cohesion and the protection of the environment. After the adoption of a Sustainable Development Strategy at the European Council on Gothenburg (July 2001), SD has become a core concern in all EU policy-making. As a result of this development the reform of the EU Structural Fund programmes has seen SD criteria being added to the standards of evaluation (European Commission, 1999). This means that if sustainable development were not already an issue in regional development it will definitely become one in the near future.

Central to the work of achieving sustainable development is the ability to evaluate the SD potential of different policies and projects, as well as to identify the trends that are, or are not, sustainable, trends that pose severe or irreversible threats to our future quality of life. Sustainable development indicators (SDI) are the most frequently used tools in this context, both as a way of measuring and evaluating any positive or negative development towards sustainable development, and as a way of communicating this information (Bell and Morse, 2003, European Commission, 2001). Consequently, measuring and monitoring SD in the form of indicators has become an important part of the EU Structural Funds process. Likewise, for the European Regional Network on Sustainable Development a central theme is to develop indicators and monitor sustainable development at the regional level.

Sustainability indicators have been in worldwide use for some time locally, regionally, nationally, and in international organisations such as the UN system. As such, useful information can be drawn form these experiences. The SDI literature is however a veritable jungle of different approaches and numerous case studies. The use of SDI as an evaluative tool is still very much in its infancy (MacGillivray, 1995, Bell and Morse, 2003) resulting in more questions than answers. What should be measured and what could be excluded? What are the most effective indicators? How should they be organised? Which data sources are available? What shall be done when there is lack of data? And how can the indicators be communicated?

The aim of this paper is to discuss different aspects of the design and use of SDIs, in order to spur a discussion on their use at the regional level. The paper is a review of the current literature and practice on the design and use of SDI. It contains, in addition to this introduction, five sections. To be able to discuss SDI, it is crucial to critically discuss the meaning and understandings of SD. The second section therefore contains a discussion on the concept and different interpretations of sustainable development. The third section discusses the features and content of SDI as well as different types of SDI, focusing in particular on the EU initiatives in relation to regional SDI. As the initial purpose of a project is central to what type of SDI that ought to be used, the fourth section addresses three essential questions here phrased as the why, who and how of an SDI project. The fifth section discusses what could be considered to be a good indicator for sustainable development. The sixth and final section concludes the major points focusing on the specific problems and possibilities facing the regional use of SDI.

2 What is sustainable development?

2.1 Dimensions of sustainable development

The word sustainable is used frequently and in many different combinations, sustainable development, sustainable growth, sustainable community, sustainable industry, sustainable economy, agriculture etc. But what does it actually mean?

Sustainable development (SD) was used for the first time in the 1980 IUCN report, World Conservation Strategy: Living resources for sustainable development. The perhaps most commonly quoted definition within todays extensive SD literature is the popularisation and definition of the concept made by the World Commission on Environment and Development published in 1987 in the report Our Common Future also called the Brundtland Report:Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the worlds poor to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environments ability to meet present and future needs (WCED, 1987:43)

In 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio, established SD as a common goal of human development for the roughly 160 countries that attended the meeting, which then became manifest in the action programme Agenda 21. Since 1992 SD has become a widely used concept and goal in international, national, regional and local politics.

The roots of the sustainable development concept can be found in the emerging environmental consciousness of the 1960s and in the identification of the link between economic development and environmental degradation and pollution. This development was closely related to the replacement of the optimism about the creation of a modern technological utopia with a new understanding of the forces contributing to the worlds problems.

Like other development approaches, sustainable development is about the improvement of the human condition, yet unlike many of the others it does not only emphasise economic growth, but it stresses the importance of a balance between economic growth and environmental protection. The general understanding of SD compromise two dimensions: the notion of development (to make better) and sustainability (to maintain). SD is classically explained as the balancing between environmental, economic and social aspects of development (Goodland and Daly, 1996). These three aspects are frequently defined as the three pillars of SD.

One important difference from other macro theories of development is the underlying philosophy that what is done now to improve the quality of life of people should not degrade the environment (in its widest bio-physical and socio-economic sense) and resources such that future generations are put at a disadvantage. The emphasis on the worlds poor also implies a link between environmental concerns and economic- and social development over both space and time. If earlier development theories focussed on the economy, the use of SD has thus far, in politics, practice and research emphasised its environmental dimension. Today the concept of SD has broadened its perspective, with more emphasis now being put also on the social dimension (European Commission, 2002).

Another important aspect of sustainable development is that it is seen as a participatory process. Sustainable development is not assumed to be imposed by a small minority of technocrats or policy-makers from above. This idea is embodied in Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development where it is stated that; Environmental Issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens. Part of the emphasis in creating sustainable development has consequently been to include stakeholders in the determination of what needs to be done and how (Guy and Kibert, 1998).

Sustainable development may thus be seen as incorporating three different aspects:

Balanced development (trade-offs between social, environmental and economic interests should be taken into consideration).

Equity and shared responsibility extended over time and space

Participation

SD is often presented in visual terms. Figure 1 is one such illustration, showing the relationship between the environment, society and the economy as three circles within circles, indicating how this linkage could be understood. The economy is here assumed to exist within society because all parts of the human economy require interaction among people. However, society is more than just the economy. Friends and families, music and art, religion and ethics are important elements of society, but they are not primarily based on exchanging goods and services. Society in turn, exists entirely within the environment. Our basic requirements of air food and water come from the environment, as do the energy and raw materials for housing, transportation and the products we depend upon. The environment surrounds society because our need for food, water, raw materials and air society can never be larger than the environment.

Figure 1 One illustration of the possible relation between the environmental, economic and social development. Here the environment is assumed to define the limits for economic and social development. Other interpretations of the relation between nature and the economic system do however exist, as described in section 2.2.

On attempting to put SD into action it is too general, and of little actual utility, to talk of the balancing of these three pillars. To make SD more concrete, several writers have transformed these pillars into different types of capitals to be able to more easily illustrate the linkages and trade-offs between them (Bossel, 1999). A frequent classification is four types of capital, namely, manufactured capital, natural capital, human capital and social capital (Daly, 1990, European Commission, 2002)

Manufactured capital

Manufactured (or human-made) capital is what we traditionally consider to be capital: produced assets that are used to produce other goods and services. Some examples are machines, tools, buildings and infrastructure.

Natural capital Natural capital is sometimes sub-divided into, natural resources, ecological or ecosystem services and aesthetic capital (Hart, 1999). The natural resources are fish, timber, water, energy and mineral services. The ecosystem services are for example air and water filtration and decomposition and the aesthetic capital is understood the beauty of the nature surrounding us. This type of capital has become important, partly due to that tourism has become an increasingly important economic sector.

Human capital

Human capital generally refers to the health, well -being, and the productive potential of individual people. Types of human capital include mental and physical health, education, motivation, and work skills. These elements not only contribute to a happy, healthy society, but also improve the opportunities for economic development through a productive workforce.

Social capital

Social capital, like human capital, is related to human well being, but on a societal rather than an individual level. It consists of the social networks that support an efficient, cohesive society, and facilitate social and intellectual interactions among it members. Social capital refers to those stocks of social trust, norms and networks that people can draw upon to solve common problems and to create social cohesion. Examples of social capital include neighbourhood associations, civic organisations and co-operatives. The political and legal structures, which promote political stability, democracy, governmental efficiency, and social justice, are also a part of stock of social capital.

2.2 Different interpretations of sustainable development

The definition of sustainable development or the categorisation of different aspects of SD may seem to be simple and straightforward. Some scientists have even made more or less successful attempts to derive a common understanding of SD using natural science as a base. However, when asking scientists the question, how much pollution can nature withstand, the answer is not straightforward, but instead rather depends upon which scientific discipline, geographical scale and time perspective is adopted. Although a desire for the improvement of the human condition and a concern for future generations rests at the heart of SD, the details of what this balancing between economical, environmental and social aspects implies in practice has been open to much debate. The major reason is that there are disagreements between different groups of people as to how to strike a balance between the economy, the environment and society. The chosen perspective is critical here, and as soon as more than one person is included then, by definition interpretations multiply. What is one persons definition of SD is anothers despoliation, degradation and exploitation, as is the case for natural resource extraction at the global level (Dahl, 1997). To understand sustainable development it is important to understand these differing interpretations. Several attempts have been made to categorise these differences (Dahl, 1997, Allenby et al, 1998). These categorisations include a number of basic questions: What assumptions are made concerning the relationship between humankind and nature does nature have a value in itself (intrinsic value) or only in relation to human interest? These basic and often unconscious and tacit assumptions have direct implications for the choice of SD policy and action (Stenmark, 2002). How much pollution can nature withstand? What does equity and shared responsibility mean? What should be the time scope and the geographical boundaries of responsibility? What is understood as sound economic growth? What is the role of the economy in SD? To what extent should the public be involved in decision-making? And finally, and perhaps the most basic question of all: what is seen as the good life?

The interpretation of SD is in some instances based on, for example, totally different basic ethical assumptions or basic assumptions on the nature of the economic system. Some stress the ability of growth and a free market system to solve the problems, other stress the importance of equality between people, yet other groups stress the importance of equity between all living beings. In the SD literature, it is common to distinguish between weak and strong sustainability (Bell and Morse, 1999). Weak sustainability is based on the idea that welfare is not generally dependent on a specific form of capital and can in most cases be maintained by substituting manufactured capital for natural. Strong sustainability on the other hand derives from a different perception where it is not so evident to substitute manufactured capital for natural. The arguments of the position of strong sustainability relate to environmental characteristics such as irreversibility and uncertainty.

There are also differing interpretations as to the societal mechanisms causing unsustainable development and thus what ought to be changed. Two main poles can be identified (Falkheden, 2000). The first looks upon environmental problems as societal problems. In this approach, referred to as ecological modernisation, it is assumed that economic growth and environmental management can be made compatible through the integration of ecological considerations into established institutional arrangement and ways of thinking (Hajer, 1995). The other pole assumes that environmental problems are the result of profound cultural problems that can only be changed through more radical changes in our economic systems and in the conditions of production, distribution and exchange. It is assumed here that changes in our perceptions of reality and in our perceptions of our relation to nature are needed (Falkheden, 2000). This line of thought questions some of the main elements of the western paradigm of development.

One of the more profound lines of thought concerns economic growth and development and how this relates to SD (Friman, 2002). In recent years economists have tackled this issue somewhat differently. The different lines of thought environmental economics and ecological economics also illustrate the two poles described above. Environmental economics builds upon mainstream neoclassical theory and generally views GDP-growth (Gross Domestic Product) and SD as compatible. But this compatibility depends upon what kind of production and consumption is promoted or allowed. Growth is perceived as a prerequisite for prosperity but it is also acknowledged that growth has negative environmental impacts. In order for GDP-growth to be sustainable, accurate pricing is needed. There also seems to be an agreement among environmental economists that there is no reason to believe that environmental policies will affect long-term economic growth (Goldin and Winters, 1995 in Friman, 2002). Ecological economics criticise the assumptions above and their protagonists' claim that it is not enough to take the external effects into consideration and otherwise continue as usual. If cost internalisation were implemented fully the visibility of environmental problems would increase and the incentives for diminishing them would also increase (Friman, 2002). But these strong forces, i.e. powerful producer- and consumer interests, aim at the maximisation of profits and at keeping prices low. Thus the process of economic growth is in itself creating vested interests opposing the internalisation of environmental costs (Booth, 1997 in Friman, 2002).

The environmentally based Kuznets Curve has been used by environmental economists to prove the relationship between a decrease in environmental stress and high income levels. The inverted U curve implies that environmental stress is initially an impact of growth. At a certain income level, however, the curve turns downwards and thus environmental stress gradually decreases. This is interpreted as illustrating the possibility that countries or regions could grow out of their environmental problems. Both environmental and ecological economists have however together stated that caution should be applied in drawing conclusions from the findings behind the Kuznets Curve (Arrow et al, 1995): While they do indicate that economic growth may be associated with improvements in some environmental indicators, they imply neither that economic growth is sufficient to induce environmental improvement in general, nor that the environmental effects of growth may be ignored, nor indeed, that the Earths resource base is capable of supporting indefinite economic growth. In fact, if this base were to be irreversibly degraded, economic activity itself could be at risk. One of Frimans conclusions from his discussion of the different lines of economic thought in relation to SD is that there is agreement that [the] environmental effects of growth must not be ignored independent of the economic line of thought referred to above. When discussing different interpretations of SD in relation to varying lines of economic thought, the concept of sustainable growth needs to be mentioned. Recently this concept has entered the SD discussions. There are however a number of different views prevalent amongst economists as to whether this concept is an oxymoron or not. Friman (2002) concludes that the interpretation of sustainable growth as a prospect or as an oxymoron will depend upon two things: the conception of the nature of the economic system and whether or not growth and development are given distinct definitions. If the economic system is viewed as a subsystem and growth is defined as a quantitative change of the physical dimensions of the economic system, while development is defined as a qualitative change, the concept of sustainable growth becomes inherently contradictory. If development and growth are however seen as concepts that cover the same phenomenon (but refer to different contexts) and the economic system is not viewed as a subsystem (but rather as a free-floating system in relation to the system Earth) sustainable growth becomes a necessary and prosperous concept, if SD is taken seriously (Friman, 2002). 2.3 The operationalisation of SD is context dependent

It has been argued that the attractiveness of the concept of sustainable development lies in its elusiveness (Redclifts 1987:4; ORiordan 1988). The elusiveness of the concept of sustainable development has been functional when the main concern is to drive through a broad consensus or to attain a minimum commitment to some broad understanding of change. However, its utility has been shown to diminish when trying to operationalise the concept with a view to undertaking more exact macro-economic, political or social changes. This problem was one of the most important challenges discussed at the 10 years after Rio UN conference, in Johannesburg in 2002.

In the SD literature of today it becomes ever clearer that to understand and to operationalise sustainable development, it is crucial to move away from literary or scientific definitions and towards a process that recognises the diversity of perspectives (Meppem and Gill, 1998). The details of what compromises SD should be understood as something highly context specific, as it would be illogical to expect the same conditions to apply everywhere. The interpretation and operationalisation of the broad understanding and definition of SD into sustainable regional development therefore has to be done in the specific context of each individual region. It also needs to be based on explicit standpoints concerning the unsustainable development patterns in the region and a vision, goal of where the regional development is aiming at from an SD point of view.

3 What is an indicator for sustainable development?

There are many tools and methodologies designed to measure and communicate progress towards SD. One of the most popular tools is indicators and indices, an index being an amalgam of more than one indicator. A sustainable development indicator (SDI) can generally be understood as a quantitative tool that analyses changes, while measuring and communicating progress towards the sustainable use and management of economic, social, institutional and environmental resources. An indicator is something that points to an issue or condition. Its purpose is to show how well a system is working towards the defined goals. An indicator can also be used in an evaluation, assessing if a development project takes into consideration aspects of SD. Indicators are normally seen as something quantifiable and in that sense an indicator is not the same thing as an indication. This does not mean that there can be no qualitative indicators. The choice between quantitative and qualitative indicators depends mainly on the purpose of the indicators, though quantifiable indicators are more frequently used (Gallopin 1997).

Traditional measures such as unemployment rates, economic growth rates, the percentage of the population below the poverty line, rates of homelessness, crime, asthma or figures on volunteer working, political involvement, air pollution, water quality and the level of toxins in fish, illustrate only partial changes in one discrete part of society without bringing to our attention the many linkages that exist between such diverse issues. When society, the economy and the environment are seen as separate and unrelated parts there is a risk that the problems identified within each sphere also are viewed in an isolated manner. Such a piecemeal approach has several unwanted side effects. For example, the solution to one problem may make another problem worse. Thus, creating affordable housing may be good, but when the new housing is built in areas far from workplaces, the result is increased traffic and pollution. A piecemeal approach may also create opposing groups. Moreover it tends to focus on short-term benefits without monitoring long-term effects. For example Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures the amount of money being spent, the higher the GDP the better the overall economic well-being. However, GDP only reflects the amount of economic activity and can rise when the overall community health is being impaired. Chambers et al (2000) have argued that the next generation of indicator-producers most likely will focus more specifically on the assumptions lying behind them and move from being librarians who organise information in categories into being plumbers who focus on how the different categories are interconnected and what the trade-offs among them may be.

Instead of having this one-problem, one-indicator approach, SDI should thus aim to develop a framework that tries to bring the economic, social and environmental aspects of society together, emphasising the links between them. Understanding the three parts and the linkages between them is thus the key to developing and using sustainable indicators. For example, highways or other types of infrastructure result in more commuting and better regional integration, which in turn leads to a more dynamic work force and less unemployment, but also to more environmental pollution. An indicator that would be able to measure the trade-offs between infrastructural construction and environmental pollution would thus be highly interesting from the perspective of SD.

Sustainable indicators should therefore point to areas where the linkages between the economy, the environment and society are weakest. They should also reflect the fact that the economy, society and the environment are tightly interconnected. Figure 2 is one such example of how regional SD could be conceptualised as a web of interactions between different aspects of the three pillars of SD.

The natural resources, either locally provided or imported in the form of raw materials or energy, provide the material for production on which industry and jobs depend. The number of jobs affects the poverty rate, while the poverty rate is related to crime. Air quality, water quality and materials used for production have an effect on health. Health problems, whether due to general air quality problems such as exposure to toxic materials, have an effect on worker productivity and thus contribute to the rising costs of health insurances. SDIs thus require an integrated view of the world, in relation to the different aspects of SD as well as in relation to time and scale and to who is involved.

Figure 2 An example of the interaction between different aspects of the three pillars of SD.3.1 Methodologies for measuring sustainable development

As we have already noted, the definition of sustainable development fundamentally depends upon in which context it is being used, and not least by who is defining it. The creation of SD indicators is something essentially delicate. Nevertheless, a number of tools and methodologies have been designed to help gauge progress towards SD, but given the disparity of views already described here there is no textbook providing a methodology that is generally accepted and applicable across regions (Mitchell, 1996).

The UN list of indicators arising out of the Rio conference is perhaps the most prominent example. In 1995 the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) adopted a Work Programme on indicators and related methodology (UNCSD, 1996). 59 indicators and methodology sheets are available today. In the EU system, Eurostat and the European Environment Agency (EEA) have used these 59 UN indicators as the basis for the EU SDI list of 63 indicators (Directorate-General for the Environment, 2000, European Commission, 2001) (see Annex 1).

There are also several types of general indexes available. One example of a general index is the Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW). In order to get a more complete picture of what economic progress is, the ISEW subtracts from the Gross Domestic Product consequences of economic activity that have negative environmental impacts and adds to the GDP the value of significant activities such as unpaid domestic labour, which is based in the average domestic pay rate. The ISEW accounts for air pollution by estimating the cost of damage per ton of five key air pollutants. It accounts for the depletion of resources by estimating the cost to replace a barrel of oil with the same amount of energy from a renewable source. It estimates the cost of climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions per ton of emissions. The cost of ozone depletion is also calculated per ton of the ozone depleting substance produced. Additionally, adjustments are made to reflect concerns about unequal income distribution. Some health expenses are considered as not contributing to welfare, as are some educational expenses. It is a highly ambitious index but as with GDP the ISEW bundles together a tremendous amount of information thus leading to a lack of transparency.

3.2 Methodologies for measuring sustainable regional development

Regions are today seen as having an increasingly important role in sustainable development. This focus is justified firstly by the important role of regions as intermediaries between the national and local levels and secondly by the growing consensus that SD is an essential criterion within future regional development (Clement et al, 2003).

Although sustainable regional development (SRD) represents a relatively new field, substantial knowledge and expertise in SRD already exists within an emerging body of literature (EC, 1998, ENSURE, 2000, Schleicher-Tappeser et al, 1999). In parallel with the EU activity in this field, the theoretical and practical development of SRD has been supported by a series of multidisciplinary conferences and international workshops as well as by the creation of European networks for sustainable regional development (Clement et al, 2003). The process has pointed at the differentiated experience between countries and regions. In the case studies of SRD projects referred to by Clement et al, it has been found that the greater commonalities correspond to the difficulties encountered, whereas the more positive characteristics are differentiated between projects. One major common difficulty was the time and energy spent on persuading others of the value of such an SD approach as well as on agreeing upon a common understanding of SRD.

Despite the difficulties experienced in coming to a common understanding of SRD in the numerous case studies undertaken, the integration of SD into the evaluation criteria of development projects funded by the Structural Funds has been a big step towards attaining a communal methodology. The key document attempting to rationalise SRD is the EU Thematic Evaluation on the Contribution of the EU Structural Funds to Sustainable Development (EC, 2002). This report provides tools and methodologies to assist regions, Member States and the EU in assessing the sustainability of development plans and enhancing the sustainability of Structural Funds programmes in the 2000-2006 period. It is also intended to act as a guide in the preparation of Structural Funds policies beyond 2006. As we discussed in section two, the conceptualisation of SD as three pillars (the economy, society and the environment) can be translated into four types of capital. The EU system uses the four capital approach to develop a discussion on the trade-offs between them. The report contains a sustainability assessment matrix specifying criteria against which to evaluate policies, programmes or projects. Finally, a project pipeline checklist provides questions for programme managers and monitoring committees designed to generate projects that contribute more efficiently to SD.

4 Accounting for the why, who and how

One important risk with using indicators is that people easily lose sight of the ultimate goal (i.e. Where do we want to be? Or go?) and instead become occupied with what they want to measure and how. This means that the routine measurement of indicators might be relegated to a data collection branch of an agency that generates tables of numbers that no one ends up using (Rigby et al 2000). Evaluations of SDI projects have shown that participants are often more interested in taking part in an exercise to define SDIs than preparing the goals and targets of a strategic plan that is legally binding (Brugman 1997). It is therefore crucial to create an infrastructure around the indicators. There are several reasons for this. First of all it is easier to collect data than to use the data in such a way that it may precipitate change. Moreover, the link between indicators and policy change is not obvious and several factors influence this link negatively such as the lack of involvement from decision-makers in the initial setting of indicators, or a lack of desire among the more technically-oriented SD researchers to fully engage with the socio-political domain in which decision-making operates (Clement, 2001). Moreover in the creation of a set of indicators one result may be the creation of conflicting demands on the institutional structures, which may be difficult to handle. For example national SD goals may be in conflict with local or regional goals.

Even though an SDI project is able to come up with a set of indicators that will satisfy many of the criteria and questions listed in the coming section (section 5), this does not imply that these indicators will lead to the desired goal. The reason for this is that indicators can never be the goal per se but may, if used in a structure, serve as a tool to gauge a process of sustainable development.

A central part in creating the necessary infrastructure is to account for the why, who and how, where the why concerns the purpose of the SDI project and the who concerns who is going to be involved in and use the indicators. The how is related to how the indicator is designed. Below these three questions will be addressed.

4.1 The whyIndicators for SD are useful for different reasons in different places. For a healthy, vibrant community, indicators may help ensure that negative trends are halted and dealt with before they become a severe problem. For communities with economic, social, or environmental problems, indicators can point the way to a better future. In all communities or regions, indicators can generate discussion among different people and stakeholders and help in a process of defining a shared vision of the future of the community. Indicators can be used for different purposes; three categories relevant for the regional level can be identified (Clement, 2001 and EC, 2002).

1) SDIs can be used to evaluate the SD of a region. The aim is to better understand the development process, and in particular the interaction between different dimensions of SD as well as following up on performance in relation to predefined targets. The baseline situation in the region has to be described quantitatively, and these indicators will later be instrumental for an ex-post evaluation of the impact of the SD programme.

2) SDIs can be used as a help in deciding which specific regional development projects have the most potential to promote SD as well as supporting the evaluation of those projects funded. In the same way, indicators could serve as a tool for evaluating programmes such as the Structural Funds. Ideally, a list of indicators that are meaningful for project managers should be selected for the purpose of reporting. Evaluators will then use these indicators in their assessment of the degree of fulfilment of the goals of the programme.

3) SDIs may also be used in order to attract attention to certain conditions or trends and in order to directly influence the behaviour of people.

These three purposes are not mutually exclusive, though many indicator initiatives have mainly one of these in focus. The chosen purpose determines the need for resources as well as the design and presentation of the indicators. In this paper we are concerned with indicators for the development of the region, i.e. the first category mentioned above.

4.2 The whoTo be able to define an efficient indicator system it is also essential to address not only the purpose of the indicator but also the question of to whom the indicator will be communicated. Is it experts, the general public, school children, the private sector, the media or a more specific target group? As to the use of SDIs in evaluating projects financed by the Structural Funds, it is the Monitoring Committee that decides upon the indicators (EC, 2002).

4.3 The how

To answer the question of how to design and use an indicator it is crucial to first address the why and the who. Below, three aspects of the how will be discussed. The first relates to how to define what an indicator should measure, the second relates to data collection and the third to the actual communication of indicators. The work with SDI in sustainable regional development is an ongoing project and even though some general practical guidelines have been defined for SRD (EC, 2002), the how-question is still very relevant to pose as the attempt to operationalise these guidelines has just begun.

What should an indicator measure?

Two different approaches may be discerned here. In the first approach the indicator measures the closeness to a defined target, with the aim to get the indicator to equal the target. In the second approach a direction for the indicator is defined, with the aim to get all or some of the indicators to move in the desired direction.

The first, i.e. using a defined target, is the most commonly used approach (Mitchell et al, 1995, Tschirley 1997 and Woodhouse 2000). This approach allows decision-makers to assess the gap or distance between the actual state and the desired reference condition. This desired reference condition could either be based on historical conditions, scientific data or for example the viewpoints of stakeholders. What level of deviation from the reference condition that should be considered acceptable could vary from zero to all sorts of compromises arising out of an essentially political process.

In the second approach, status is presented in relative terms. In this case, the motivation for change is to perform better over time or to perform better relative to other regions.These two approaches to what an indicator should measure are closely linked to so-called conceptual frameworks for SDI. (Bell and Morse 2003). Such frameworks facilitate the transformation of data into relevant information as they define what an indicator should measure and what the basis of the measurement should be. The most commonly used framework is the so-called driving force-pressure-state model (DPS). Driving forces are the demand for food, water and revenue, understood as the causes of a certain effect. Pressure is understood as human activities designed to alter these driving forces. The state is the result or the difference between these driving forces and pressures. This approach provides indicators that mainly target policy-makers or decision-makers. Both the European Union (Eurostat and EEA) and the United Nations apply this framework as a basis for selecting their indicators on SD (European Commission, 2001 and UNCSD, 1996). Even though this approach is conceptually convenient and indeed popular, it does however exhibit a number of problems. One problem is that it reflects a sort of political end-of-pipe thinking that militates against more proactive responses encouraging short-term curative policies. Moreover, it has difficulty in capturing multiple causality and the interactions existing between indicators (Bell and Morse, 20003).

Another type of framework is the basic satisfaction framework. This framework rests on an analysis of what is deemed to be a basic necessity for SD as described by Bossel (1999). Indicators are selected on the basis of their ability to address a set of questions covering different aspects of sustainable development such as existence, effectiveness, security, adaptability and coexistence. The major problem with this framework is its apparent subjectivity and the fact that there is no immediate link between the indicator and the action. A version of this type of framework is used instead of comparing each indicator to some kind of general criteria in order to relate them to a defined set of goals (Meter, 1999). Such a matrix focuses on whether the indicators are linked to the issues that are important to a community or region. This type of matrix is useful for showing whether the indicator measures the goals of SD that are actually important for a particular community. The major difficulty with this system is that it makes comparisons between different communities difficult.

Yet another example of how indicators can be organised into a system is to make clear what can be done within the current time period and what should be left for future action. Such a framework highlights the longer-term aspects of sustainability. SD could in such a system be seen in terms of available capital (natural, human, social, physical and financial) and in a vulnerability context (trends, shocks and stresses) in which these assets exist (Woodhouse et al, 2000). The major problem with this framework is the difficulty in evaluating both the available and future capital.

Data collection

One difficulty with developing indicators for SD is that some of the needed data has not been collected previously. This has led many SDI projects into choosing traditional data sources and measures as a basis for SD indicators. There are at least two advantages with using traditional sources. Firstly, the data is readily available and can be used for comparisons. Secondly, traditional indicators can be combined to create sustainability indicators. However, there is a danger that traditional data sources and traditional indicators will lead to the same solutions that created an unsustainable community in the first place. It may for example be tempting to keep measuring the number of jobs, while measuring the number of jobs that pay a liveable wage will lead to more sustainable solutions.

As an important step in the development of a system of SDI it is thus crucial to find out what data exists for the specific geographical level and what should be done when data is missing. As all data management is costly it is crucial to consider whether the benefits from data collection and processing exceed the costs. However, this might be difficult to assess since the costs of data collection and processing are more easily determined compared to the benefits of the indicators. Nevertheless, the development of SDIs could be seen as a process, where new data is constantly collected, while in the meantime, old data may be used and if possible, in new ways. Communication

The how-question relates to the initial purpose of the indicators, are they for example created with the intention of being a tool for policy-makers aiming to improve the policy process, are they to serve as a way of sharing approaches between different stakeholders as suggested by Kline (2000), or are they to be used as an evaluation tool of a project?

The communication of SDI to end-users may take a number of forms: internet, printed mass media, television, radio, leaflets, technical reports, conferences and workshops. Depending on who the end-users are, both the form and means of presentation will most likely differ. It may for example be such that in order to be useful or understandable to different stakeholders indicators have to be translated into new forms, such as financial cost-benefit analysis, or aggregated, before they are communicated.

Organising the indicators can help to evaluate the effectiveness of the entire set of indicators. Indicators can be presented in many different ways, as numbers or translated into visual forms. One of the simplest ways is to make a list based on the main focus of each indicator. This way of organising indicators in a report is cheap and easily understood by many people. A more complicated but increasingly popular way of presenting the information is to present the value of indicators on a map format, with a geographical information system (GIS). With GIS the values of the indicators can be overlaid on a map and related to a range of other variables. This may also be allied with the use of computer-based-models to generate the predicted values of indicators on various policy scenarios such as in the UK sustainability atlas (Lindley, 2001). As such, it provides possibilities for exploring different options for the future, which is an important concern for SD.

Developing a set of indicators for a sustainable community or region requires the balancing of many different needs within the community. Most indicator projects start up with a brainstorming session mapping out the most important issues for SD. A brainstorming session might produce hundreds of indicators and deciding which to keep can thus be difficult. The suggested number of indicators varies a great deal depending on which geographical level the target of these indicators are aimed at. In the literature, the figure of 20 indicators often appears as a compromise between manageability and depth of information, however often there is little real explanation as to why this figure should be favoured over others. As mentioned previously, the UN system uses 59 core SDI and EU 63 (see Annex 1).

Another central issue related to the communication of indicators concerns the decision whether to aggregate indicators into a single index or to keep them separate, i.e. to find a good balance of simplicity and complexity. There are many options between these two extremes, and all manners of indicator diagrams have been suggested as ways of presenting the information to users. One solution is to thus keep the indicators entirely separate, but listed and presented together within a single table or diagram (visual integration). Visual integration is basically a means by which individual and often quite different indicators can be presented together to provide a comprehensive picture of SD.

At the other end of the spectrum, is the strategy to aggregate the different indicators into a single index of SD (numerical integration). This type of organisation is seen as particularly important in terms of presenting the information to the public and decision-makers who, it is assumed, do not need to be aware of the details, but only the broad message as to what is actually happening. Numerous writers and practitioners have discussed the advantages or drawbacks of integrating a suite of indicators into a single index (Gallopin, 1997, Stirling, 1999 and Morse et al, 2001). A fundamental risk with a single index is the lack of transparency it entails at the communication level.

5 What constitutes a good indicator for sustainable development?The term indicator has a certain technical feel to it. It invokes numbers and statistics that are mainly used and understood by specialists and technocrats. It is certainly true that for SD indicators there has been, and still is, an emphasis on selecting indicators deemed to be relevant largely by applying a list of indicator rules defined by technicians (Bossel, 1999, Bell and Morse, 2003). Such lists of technical criteria are common in the SD literature and they stress for example that an indicator should be:

Specific: Indicators must relate to the desired outcome, i.e. fit the purpose for measuring.

Measurable: Indicators should preferably be open to measurement in a quantitative manner.

Pedagogical: Indicators should be practical and designed for those who are going to use them.

Sensitive: Indicators must readily change as circumstances change.

Reliable: The information that an indicator is providing must be reliable. Data upon which the indicator is based must therefore be collected using a systematic method.

Based on accessible data: In order to create good indicators it is important that the necessary information is available or can be gathered on a regular basis and while there is still time to act. Cost-effective: The cost of accumulating necessary data should not exceed the benefits of using the indicator.

Relevant and Usable: Indicators should show what is needed to know. This includes the need for a clear definition of the objective that the indicators are meant to achieve. It also means that it is important to focus on those issues that a region, or a regional development project, can control or influence, or that is of specific importance to the project.Taking into consideration previous discussions on SD, the technical and rather dry criteria above are clearly not sufficient to evaluate whether an indicator is a good SD indicator or not. Other criteria more closely related to the essence of SD must be used as a complement. Such criteria could for example be to question to what extent an indicator takes into account the linkages between the different capitals of sustainable development? (See section 2.) To what extent an indicator is sensitive to stakeholder participation in the SRD process? Or to what extent it accommodates responsibility across geographical areas and time scales?

As SD is a rather complex matter, the following section will present a list of 12 questions as a tool to promote SD-type thinking and help to include as many aspects of SD as possible (adapted from Hart 1999, Bell and Morse 2003 and Bell & Morse 1999).

A good indicator does not mean that it is possible to answer a definitive yes to all questions but in the daily life of a programme for regional development, the main task would be to identify projects that, in total, can contribute to all three pillars (and four capitals) and can in particular, avoid granting funds to projects that are beneficial for only one or two aspects while effectively contradicting the others. The same is true for the use of SDI at any geographical level, as well as for small and large development projects. It is however crucial to take into consideration the fact that each project is unique and therefore such examples should only be seen as that, i.e. as examples of a way of thinking.1. Does the indicator address the wise long-term use of natural resources renewable and non-renewable, local or from distant sources which the region relies on?

It is important to check if the indicators take into consideration a wise long-term use of the ecosystems or natural resources upon which the region is dependent. One region may depend on forestry for resources and jobs. An indicator that measures the rate of timber harvest relative to the renewable harvest rate would consequently be relevant. In a region that relies on metals for its main industries, an indicator of the cyclical use of its non-renewable resources would thus be appropriate, for example the percentage of energy-use that is renewable. Another example could be a region dependent on fishery, where an appropriate indicator could be measuring the harvest relatively, i.e. the renewable harvest or the fish catches by selected overexploited species. In a region where farming is the dominant economic sector it is relevant to measure the percentage of agricultural land that is sustainably managed. Another example could be an indicator that takes into consideration the level of nitrogen in drinking water, or the level of eutrophication in lakes, rivers or the sea, depending on where a region is geographically situated.

2. Does the indicator address the wise use of aesthetic qualities the beauty and life-affirming qualities of the natural and cultural environment that are important to the region?

This question addresses the wise use of the aesthetic qualities of a region. For a coastal community that relies on tourism for part of its economy an example of such an indicator could be measures of the number of tourists that can be served by the area without damaging its natural beauty. Another example could be the area of green space per person in the region. Aesthetic qualities also include the cultural environment, buildings, monuments and the man-made nature (see also question 6).

3. Does the indicator address the use of the regions human capital the skills, abilities, health and education of the people in the region?

This question addresses the importance of evaluating the use of a regions human capital, the skills, abilities, health and education of its people. Indicators that measure population development and migration rates are but two examples. Other examples could be rates of graduation form secondary education or educational dropout, or the awareness of environmental problems.

4. Does the indicator address the use of a regions social capital the connection between people, the relationships of friends, families, neighbourhoods, social groups, business, governments and their ability to cooperate, work together and interact in positive and meaningful ways?

This questions draws attention to the importance of evaluating a communitys social capital. One way to do this is to measure the ability of the community to work together. Examples of indicators are the voting rate, the amount of volunteerism, or the number of public-private partnerships in the region.

5. Does the indicator address the wise use of a regions manufactured capital the human made materials (buildings, parks, communication infrastructure, and information) that are needed for quality of life and the regions ability to maintain and enhance those materials with existing resources?

The manufactured capital is a product of natural capital and social capital, because raw materials come from somewhere, and human skills, abilities and cooperation are needed to produce manufactured objects. Examples of indicators taking into consideration a regions manufactured capital could be the amount of money spent on public transport or on waste management (particularly important after the EU directive banning household waste deposition).

An indicator could also take into consideration several SD capitals simultaneously. For example an indicator measuring the number of new housing units that use sustainably produced building materials that are affordable with an average family income take into consideration the natural, manufactured and social capitals at the same time. 6. Does the indicator provide a long-term view of the region?

This question aims to draw the focus onto the long-term view of the region. One way to test whether an indicator provides a long-term view is to consider what the indicator trend would show after 20 years, and whether that would be consistent with, or relevant to, a sustainable region. However, a time perspective of 20 years is often difficult as for example regional programmes generally only last for 4-7 years.

However, the long-term view is important when defining indicators. Adopting a time perspective when evaluating the natural resource use and the ecosystem services could be one way to incorporate this aspect into an SDI.

7. Does the indicator address the issue of economic, social or biological diversity in the region?

It is believed that an economic, social or environmental system that is diverse usually withstands stress better than a homogenous system. A community that relies mainly on a single type of industry is therefore seen to be less stable and less sustainable compared to one whose economy is diversified. A monoculture forest is less able to withstand diseases and environmental stress than a forest that has diverse types of trees and plants. It is important to note that the terms economic diversity, social diversity, cultural diversity and biological diversity should not be interpreted as an indicator of sustainable development. They are issues, areas or categories for which indicators can be developed, but they are not indicators. Examples of indicators of diversity include the number of different industries in the community, the number of jobs at different wage levels, and the number of birds in the annual bird count.

8. Does the indicator address the issue of equity or fairness either between current residents of the region (intra-generational equity) or between current and future residents (inter-generational equity)?

This question addresses the issue of equity. Indicators measuring either intra-generational equity (equity among people living now) or inter-generational equity (equity between todays generation and future generations) are relevant here. One measure of intra-generational equity is the difference in income of the 20 % of the population at the top of the income scale and the 20 % of the population at the bottom of the scale. A measure of inter-generational equity is the utilisation of land or key natural resources and the possibilities for future generations to have access to these resources.

9. Does the indicator measure a link between the dimensions of SD (economy, society and environment) in a region?

This question addresses the extent to which the linkages between a communitys economy, environment and society are taken into consideration when creating a set of SDI. This is a theme that is relevant for all questions and should not only be taken into account in a special set of indicators.

One example of an indicator that links economic and social aspects would be the number of jobs paying a living wage. An example of an indicator that links the economy and the environment is the number of tourists that can come to a region without the local environment being negatively impacted. Such an indicator could be the number of people that the water treatment plants can handle. Moreover, the percentage of households using crops that do not require maintenance in the form of fertilisers and pesticides is an indicator that links the environment with social behaviour. Measuring car density at rush hours would be another indicator that links environmental and social aspects.

10. Does the indicator measure development that takes place at the expense of another region or community or at the expense of global sustainability?

Any development that indicates that we are going to be better off by making someone else worse off is not sustainable. This does not mean that one region cannot be better than another. An already established type of indicator that focuses in particular on comparing sustainability between different areas is the ecological footprint (EF). An EF describes a spatial unit (e.g. community, region or country) in relation to its impact in terms of the land area required to support it. This is distinct from the physical footprint, the physical land area occupied by the spatial unit. The EF is usually expressed quantitatively as a plot of land area required to maintain the unit. The larger the EF the greater the resources required to maintain the units existence (Bell and Morse, 2003, Wackernagel and Rees 1996, Wackernagel et al, 1999, Chambers et al, 2000). The EF can be a simple and visually striking device to show inequality between geographical areas at different scales. There are however several problems with using EF as a measure for SD. It is for example possible to interpret EF in terms of competitive ability; those with large footprints can be seen as more competitive and hence successful (Bell and Morse, 2003). Despite these drawbacks an EF is a striking indication as to whether one regions wealth exists at the expense of another region, or of global sustainability. EF ensures that the boundary of a system is widened beyond the physical limit of a spatial unit, while also allowing a discussion about global sustainability to take place in terms of spatial units that people can readily engage in (Lewan, 2002).

11. Does the creation and use of the indicators include involvement of the stakeholders in the region?

The participation of stakeholders is one important aspect of sustainable development. In case studies on SRD it has been shown that the most successful projects were those where the actors on the local level was involved form the outset, while top-down approaches were seen as generally being less successful (Clement, 2001). Participation could entail many things, ranging form an active involvement in the creation process to a more passive acceptance. The SD literature is full of case studies and methods of how to engage stakeholders, which for example can take form in focus groups, citizens juries, study circles, community conventions, consensus conferences, and planning cells to name a few (Bell and Morse, 2003).

Including this question in the checklist may serve as a show-stopper as it is crucial for every SDI project to consider, before starting and while working, who is going to participate in this process and what should be their roles.

12. Are the indicators formulated in a form that is proactive?

Sustainable development includes the idea of development, i.e. change. It is consequently important that the indicators serve as a warning with regard to undesirable trends and changes rather than plainly measuring an existing state. Several studies have shown that SDIs are often not designed well enough to promote change (Astleithner, 2003).

6 The use of SDI from a regional perspective

As the impacts of global commitments to operationalise sustainable development become more tangible it is apparent that SD has become a permanent feature of governmental action and interaction. In the European context, the recent EU thematic Evaluation on the Contribution of the Structural Funds to Sustainable Development (2002) represents a significant step in the maturing of SRD. With this EU guidance available to direct regional programme design and evaluation, there is now the expectation that SRD will be considered in policy formulation, and that it will feature increasingly in policy appraisal.

In the context of regional development, sustainable development indicators are used for two main purposes:

To monitor the development of the region. Target groups are regional planners, state and regional authorities, businesses, NGOs and the general public. European policies, and the regulations guiding the use of Structural Funds in particular, have provided incentives for assessing regional development paths. The principles of Sustainable development should now be included in the regional analysis that precedes the implementation of a programme.

For project selection and monitoring of regional programmes. Programme implementation has a number of formal obligations to follow, and one of them is to use transparent indicators for the selection of projects as well as for the monitoring of their progress. The main target groups for these indicators are therefore project managers, programme managers and monitoring committees. Sustainability assessments of projects give excellent opportunities for learning and for improved assessments of costs and benefits related to the projects or measures.

To link these two levels of indicators is difficult. Ideally, programme level indicators and indicators on the development of the region in question should be the same, or at least be linked in a way that make it possible to aggregate the overall results from the results delivered by the projects supported. This is however only rarely the case, since the data sources as well as the rationales often will be different at the two levels.

Another challenge is to describe and measure inter-linkages between indicators at the regional level: do we have a situation where an improvement of one indicator implies negative results on another? Or are we able to identify projects that have positive impacts on all dimensions of sustainable regional development at the same time? The lists of indicators provided in Annex 1 are not very helpful in this respect, especially as the issues and challenges will be different in each region.

When a region is the focus, the use of indicators that indicate problems that the region cannot influence are not very useful, as the SDI must be linked to the possibility of change. A major problem of using indicators is the lack of data, as data collection is mainly done at the national level. To adapt to this fact it is important to be both innovative and flexible and to be clear on the whys and the whos of every specific programme, as every process of defining a system of SD indicators implies a delicate balance between scientific validity, political acceptability, and technical feasibility. As such, creating an efficient system of indicators does not only mean creating a set of indicators that can balance the different aspects of a community (i.e. the environment, society and the economy), it also means balancing practical every day political problems (validity, acceptability and feasibility).

The SD literature has much to say about the methods of selecting indicators, participation, the advantage of specific indicators, methods of presentation etc, however little is said about the practical use of these tools. The reason for this probably relates to the fact that the specific context is crucial for the use of SDI. Even if there are ready-made sets of indicators, such as the EU list of indicators and the checklists developed for the evaluation of projects financed by the Structural Funds, they need to be adapted to a specific region or programme.

A common experience in several case studies aiming to promote SRD has been that the initial hope of reaching common criteria and indicators for SD has proven to be difficult (Clement, 2001). The different interpretations of SD created difficulties in understanding each other, especially with regard to the relative importance of environmental, economic and social objectives. However, instead of seeing these differences as a problem they can serve as a means to understanding the diverse scope of SD after having defined a broad framework. There are no simple answers to what sustainable development is, and there are no perfect sustainability indicators. In this context it is central to remember that an indicator has been selected for the purpose of indicating something and not to provide a complete picture. One way to avoid the risk of becoming too occupied in the measuring and definition of indicators, and thus forgetting their ultimate goal, could be to see the use of indicators as a process. Such a learning process would start with a vision of SD and a set of indicators that generate greater participation and interest in SD, which in turn leads to a new vision of SD and a new set of indicators.

In order for the final paper to become more useful for the members of the European Network on Sustainable Development we would like you to respond to the following questions:

1. For how long, and for what purpose, has your region worked with indicators for sustainable development? Do you use indicators in your current regional development programmes that cover all three dimensions of sustainable development?

2. How have you defined sustainable development in your region? How did you come to this definition? Are all four "capitals" covered? (See section 2.)

3. Who have been involved in the process of identifying indicators and setting targets? National-regional-local level actors? Representatives from different sectors (environmental, economic, social, cultural sectors)? Programme managers or a wide range of stakeholders including NGOs, businesses etc?

4. Have you been able to identify good indicators for sustainable regional development? If so, what is good about them? Is the needed data accessible at the regional level? Are there indicators for project selection and monitoring in place - and do you get the necessary information from project managers?

5. Do you have examples from your region of measures or projects where economic, social and/or environmental goals are in conflict with each other? Do you have examples of projects that positively impact two or more dimensions of sustainable development at the same time?

6. In what ways are the sustainable development indicators used? Do the indicator scores and information feed back into the design of new programmes, projects or initiatives? Are the indicator scores communicated to a wider audience?

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Annex 1: Eurostat sustainable development indicatorsSOCIAL DIMENSION

ThemeSub -themeIndicator

EquityPovertyPopulation living below poverty line

Measures of income inequality

Unemployment rate

Youth unemployment rate

Social benefits per capita

Gender equalityFemale to male wage ratio

Child welfareChild welfare

HealthNutrition statusNutritional status of population

IllnessesMortality due to selected key illnesses

MortalityInfant mortality

Life expectancy at birth

SanitationPopulation connected to sanitation system

Healthcare deliveryNational health expenditure

Immunisation against childhood diseases

EducationEducational levelLevels of educational attainment

LiteracyLow qualification levels

HousingLiving conditionsNumbers of rooms per capita

Household composition

SecurityCrimeReported crimes

PopulationPopulation changePopulation growth rate

Population density

Net migration rate

ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSION

AtmosphereClimate changePer capita emissions of greenhouse gases

Ozone layer depletionConsumption of ozone depleting substances

Air qualityAir pollutants in urban areas

LandAgricultureAgricultural area and organic farming

Nitrogen balances

Use of agricultural pesticides

ForestsTotal forest area

Wood harvesting ratio

UrbanisationGrowth of built up area

Ocean, sea and coastsCostal zoneEutrophication of costs and marine waters

FisheriesFish catches by selected over-exploited species

Fresh waterWater quantityIntensity of water use

Water qualityBOD concentrations in selected rivers

Quality of bathing waters

BiodiversityEcosystemProtected area as a % of total area

SpeciesNumber of threatened species

ECONOMIC DIMENSION

Economic structureEconomic performancePer capita GDP

Investment share in GDP

Value added by main sector

Inflation rate

Trade

Net current account

EU and international markets

Financial statusPublic debt

Aid to developing countries

Consumption and production patternsMaterial consumptionMaterial consumption

Energy usePer capita gross inland energy consumption

Renewable energy sources

Intensity of energy use

Waste generation and managementGeneration and disposal of municipal waste

Generation of industrial waste

Generation and disposal of hazardous waste

Generation and disposal of radioactive waste

Recycling of waste: paper and glass

Waste treatment and disposal facilities

TransportationPassenger transport by mode

Freight transport by mode

Environmental protectionEnvironmental protection expenditures

INSTITUTIONAL DIMENSION

Institutional capacityInformation accessInternet access

Communication structureCommunication Infrastructure

Science and technologyExpenditure on research and development

Nature disaster preparedness and responseRisks to human and natural capital

Source: Eurostat (2001): UNCSD Sustaiable development indicators

Investment Capital

Education

Water Quality

Health

Air Quality

Natural Resourcesaabd

Jobs

Crime

Poverty

Materials for Production

Culture

Concept from Hettne 1983 in Falkheden 2000.

Friman 2002, p 187, argues that in conventional economic language growth is used for high-income nations and development for low-income nations. He also points out however that surprisingly few of the economists, that discuss SD actually define the concepts of growth and development.

See http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/sei/sustainability/livelyhoods/index for linkages to different types of indicator systems and indexes related to the three pillars of sustainable development.

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