india achieved independence from the british o1.docx

8/20/2019 India achieved independence from the British o1.docx

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India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within

the ommonwealth of !ations with "eorge #Ias $ing, represented in the country %y a governor&

general'(7) *till, following this, the onstituent Assem%ly of India, under the leadership of Dr' B' +'

Am%ed$ar , undertoo$ the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country'

he onstitution of India was eventually enacted on -. !ovem%er 1949 and came into force on

-. /anuary 1950,()2-. ma$ing India a repu%lic'(9)29 he offices of monarch and governor&general

were replaced %y the new office of 3resident of India, with +aendra 3rasad as the first

incum%ent'(9)21

he constitution of the +epu%lic of India Articles 56,79 1118 gave the 3resident the

responsi%ility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law'

(10) Invaria%ly, any action ta$en %y the eecutive or legislature entities of the constitution shall

%ecome law only after 3resident:s assent' he president shall not accept any actions of the

eecutive or legislature which are unconstitutional' he president is the foremost, mostempowered and prompt defender of the constitution article .08, who has preemptive power for

ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the eecutive or legislature' he role of the udiciary in

upholding the constitution of India is the second line of defense in nullifying any unconstitutional

actions of the eecutive and legislative entities of the Indian ;nion'

Powers and duties(edit)Duties(edit)

he primary duty of the 3resident is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the lawof India as made part of his oath Article .0 of Indian constitution8' (10) he 3resident is the

common head of all independent constitutional entities' All his actions, recommendations Article

6, Article 111, etc'8 and supervisory powers Article 7 c, Article 10, Article 111, etc'8 over the

eecutive and legislative entities of India shall %e used in accordance to uphold the constitution'

(11) here is no %ar on the actions of the 3resident to contest in the court of law' (1-)(16)

Legislative powers(edit)

inister , provided the given advice is in accordance with the constitution' Article 146 gave power

to the president to consult the *upreme ourt a%out the constitutional validity of any issue'

he 3resident inaugurates 3arliament %y addressing it after the general elections and also at the

%eginning of the first session each year? this is mentioned in Article 718' he 3residential

address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government'(14)2145

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diahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-SharmaB.k.2007-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Chowdhury-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_Day_(India)


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All %ills passed %y the 3arliament can %ecome laws only after receiving the assent of the

3resident' After a %ill is presented to him, the 3resident shall declare either that he assents to the

Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it' As a third option, he can return a %ill to 3arliament, if it

is not a money %ill or a constitutional amendment %ill, for reconsideration' @hen, after

reconsideration, the %ill is passed and presented to the 3resident, with or without amendments,

the 3resident cannot withhold his assent from it' he 3resident can also withhold his assent to a

%ill when it is initially presented to him rather than return it to 3arliament8 there%y eercising

a poc$et veto'(16)

@hen either of the two =ouses of the 3arliament of India is not in session, and if the government

feels the need for an immediate procedure, the 3resident can promulgate ordinances which have

the same force and effect as laws passed %y 3arliament' hese are in the nature of interim or

temporary legislation and their continuance is su%ect to parliamentary approval' rdinances

remain valid for no more than si wee$s from the date the 3arliament is convened unless

approved %y it earlier '(15) ;nder article 1-6, 3resident as the upholder of the constitution shall %e

satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised %y the central ca%inet and he is

confident that the government commands maority support in the 3arliament needed for the

passing of the ordinance into an act and 3arliament can %e summoned to deli%erate on the

passing of the ordinance as soon as possi%le' he promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of

3arliament when in force and it is the responsi%ility of the 3resident to withdraw the ordinance as

soon as the reasons for promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applica%le' Bringing laws in

the form of ordinances has %ecome a routine matter %y the government and 3resident, %ut the

provisions made in Article 1-6 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediateaction is inevita%le when the etant constitutional provisions are inadeuate' he 3resident

should ta$e moral responsi%ility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved %y

the 3arliament' he 3resident is lia%le for prosecution for his wrong deeds' (16)

Executive powers(edit)

As per Article 56, the eecutive power of the country is vested in the 3resident and is eercised

%y 3resident either directly or through officers su%ordinate to him in accordance with the

onstitution' ;nion ca%inet with 3rime >inister as its head, should aid and advice the 3resident

in performing his functions' As per Article 74 -8, the council of ministers or 3rime >inister are not

accounta%le legally to the advise tendered to the 3resident %ut it is the sole responsi%ility of the

3resident to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing his duties'

Appointment powers(edit)

he 3resident appoints, as 3rime >inister , the person most li$ely to command the support of the

maority in the inisters remains in power at the :pleasure: of the 3resident'

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he 3resident appoints 1- mem%ers of the +aya *a%ha from amongst persons who have

special $nowledge or practical eperience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art

and social service'

he 3resident is responsi%le for ma$ing a wide variety of appointments' hese include2 (1.)27-

• "overnors of *tates

• he hief /ustice, other udges of the *upreme ourt and =igh ourts of India

• he hief >inister of the !ational capital territory of Delhi Article -69 AA 5 of the

constitution8

• he Attorney "eneral

• he omptroller and Auditor "eneral

• he hief Clection ommissioner and other Clection ommissioners

• he hairman and other >em%ers of the ;nion 3u%lic *ervice ommission

• #ice hancellor of the central university and academic staff of the central university

through his nominee

• Am%assadors and =igh ommissioners to other countries only through the list of names

given %y the 3rime >inister8'(17)(1)24

Financial powers(edit)

• A money %ill can %e introduced in the 3arliament only with the 3residents

recommendation'

• he 3resident lays the Annual Einancial *tatement, i'e' the ;nion %udget, %efore the

3arliament'

• he 3resident can ta$e advances out of the ontingency Eund of India to meet

unforeseen epenses'

• he 3resident constitutes a Einance commission after every five years to recommend the

distri%ution of the taes %etween the centre and the *tates' (19)(-0)24

Judicial powers(edit)

he 3resident appoints the hief /ustice of the ;nion /udiciary and other udges on the advice of

the hief /ustice' =e dismisses the udges if and only if the two =ouses of the 3arliament passresolutions to that effect %y a two&thirds maority of the mem%ers present' (-1)

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According to Article 146 of Indian onstitution, if the 3resident considers a uestion of law or a

matter of pu%lic importance has arisen, he can as$ for the advisory opinion of the*upreme ourt'

Diplomatic powers(edit)

All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on %ehalf of the3resident'(--)21 =owever, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out %y the 3rime

>inister along with his a%inet especially the Eoreign >inister 8' Also, such treaties are su%ect to

the approval of the 3arliament' he 3resident represents India in international forums and affairs

where such a function is chiefly ceremonial' he 3resident may also send and receive diplomats,

i'e' the officers from the Indian Eoreign *ervice'(14)2146 he 3resident is the first citiFen of the

country'(17)

Military powers(edit)

he 3resident is the *upreme ommander of the Indian Armed Eorces' he 3resident candeclare war or conclude peace,(17) on the advice of the ;nion ouncil of >inisters headed %y the

3rime >inister' All important treaties and contracts are made in the 3resident:s name' (-6) =e also

appoints the chiefs of the service %ranches of the armed forces'

Pardoning Powers(edit)

See also: Presidential pardon

As mentioned in Article 7- of the Indian onstitution, the 3resident is empowered with the

powers to grant pardons in the following situations2(17)

• 3unishment is for an offence against ;nion ilitary ourt

• *entence is that of death (-6)

he decisions involving pardoning and other rights %y the 3resident are independent of the

opinion of the 3rime >inister or the


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;nder Article 65- of the India onstitution, the 3resident can declare such an emergency only on

the %asis of a written reuest %y the a%inet >inisters headed %y the 3rime >inister ' *uch a

proclamation must %e approved %y the 3arliament within one month' *uch an emergency can %e

imposed for si months' It can %e etended %y si months %y repeated parliamentary approval&

there is no maimum duration'(--)( page needed )

In such an emergency, Eundamental +ights of Indian citiFens can %e suspended'()266 he si

freedoms under +ight to Ereedom are automatically suspended' =owever, the +ight to


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his type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within - months' It can last up to a

maimum of three years via etensions after each .&month period' =owever, after one year it can

%e etended only if

1' A state of !ational Cmergency has %een declared in the country or in the particular state'

-' he Clection ommission finds it difficult to organise an election in that state'

he *ar$aria ommission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of

Article 65. many times for achieving political motives, %y dismissing the state governments

although there was no constitutional %rea$ down in the states' (61) During -005, 3resident:s rule

was imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 65. unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically

elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections'

here is no provision in the constitution to re&promulgate president:s rule in a state when the

earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months

duration' During -014 in Andhra 3radesh, president:s rule was first imposed on >arch 1, -014

and it ceased to operate on April 60, -014' 3resident:s rule was promulgated after %eing fully

aware that the earliest parliament session is feasi%le in the end of >ay, -014 after the general

elections' It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on April -, -014 %y the president' (6-)(66)

Financial emergency(edit)

Article -- accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources availa%le with the

states for pu%lic purpose' (10)(64)

;nder article 6.0 of the constitution, 3resident can proclaim a financial emergency when the

financial sta%ility or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened' (10)=owever, until

now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or

a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have %een framed either %y

the finance commission or %y the central government'

*uch an emergency must %e approved %y the 3arliament within two months %y simple maority' It

has never %een declared'(65)2.04 A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until

revo$ed %y the 3resident'(1.)2195

he 3resident can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including udges of

the *upreme ourt and =igh ourts, in cases of a financial emergency' All money %ills passed %y

the *tate legislatures are su%mitted to the 3resident for approval' =e can direct the state to

o%serve certain principles economy measures8 relating to financial matters'(6.)

Selection process(edit)Eligibility(edit)

Article 5 of the onstitution sets the principle ualifications one must meet to %e eligi%le to the

office of the 3resident' A 3resident must %e2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarkaria_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biharhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-33https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-const-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-34https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-const-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_Commission_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_Commission_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-sharma_kanhaiya-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-sharma_kanhaiya-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-sharma_kanhaiya-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Kumar-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Kumar-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_High_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-general_studies_Indian_polity-36https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=16https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=16https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=17https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_58_.7BQualifications_for_election_as_President.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarkaria_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biharhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-33https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-const-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-34https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-const-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_Commission_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-sharma_kanhaiya-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Kumar-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_High_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-general_studies_Indian_polity-36https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=16https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=17https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_58_.7BQualifications_for_election_as_President.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India


7/26

• A citiFen of India

• f 65 years of age or a%ove

•

ualified to %ecome a mem%er of the


8/26

@henever the office %ecomes vacant, the new 3resident is chosen %y an electoral

college consisting of the elected mem%ers of %oth houses of 3arliament >'3's8, the elected

mem%ers of the *tate 'em%ers of 3arliament euals the total num%er of votes cast %y *tate 3s and >


9/26

Date establis"ed Salary in $%%& Salary in '((&

60 Decem%er -00 ₹50,000 ;*J7408 ₹1'5 la$h ;*J-,-008

*ources2(46)

he 3resident of India used to receive ₹10,000 ;*J1008 per month as per the *econd

*chedule of the onstitution' his amount was increased to ₹50,000 ;*J7008 in 199' n 11

*eptem%er -00 the "overnment of India increased the salary of the 3resident

to ₹1'5 la$h ;*J-,-008' =owever, almost everything that the 3resident does or wants to do is

ta$en care of %y the annual ₹--5 million ;*J6'6 million8 %udget that the "overnment allots for

his or her up$eep'(44) +ashtrapati Bhavan, the 3resident:s official residence, is the largest

3residential 3alace in the world'(45)(4.)

he +ashtrapati!ilayam at Bolarum, =ydera%ad and +etreat Building at hhara%ra, *himla are the official

+etreat +esidences of the 3resident of India'(47) he official state car of the 3resident is a custom&

%uilt heavily armoured >ercedes BenF *.00 @--18 3ullman "uard'

Presidential Amenities

•

+ashtrapati Bhavan, official residence of the 3resident, located at !ew Delhi'

•

+ashtrapati !ilayam is the official retreat of the 3resident located in =ydera%ad'

•

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-ibn_300-44https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-ibn_300-44https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-RandhawaMukhopadhyay1986-45https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-RandhawaRandhawa1971-46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Nilayamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Nilayamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolarumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolarumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad,_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad,_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Retreat_Buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chharabrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chharabrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimlahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Publications2001-47https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Car_for_Presidenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_S-Classhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Nilayamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-ibn_300-44https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-RandhawaMukhopadhyay1986-45https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-RandhawaRandhawa1971-46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Nilayamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Nilayamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolarumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad,_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Retreat_Buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chharabrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimlahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Publications2001-47https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Car_for_Presidenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_S-Classhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Nilayam


10/26

he 3resident:s Bodyguards is an elite household cavalry regiment of theIndian Army'

•

Air India ne is the call sign of any aircraft carrying the 3resident' he aircraft are operated as #I3

flights %y the Indian Air Eorce'

Removal(edit)

he 3resident may %e removed %efore the epiry of the term through impeachment' A 3resident

can %e removed for violation of the onstitution of India?(4) he process may start in either of the

two houses of the 3arliament' he house initiates the process %y levelling the charges against

the 3resident' he charges are contained in a notice that has to %e signed %y at least one uarter

of the total mem%ers of that house' he notice is sent up to the 3resident and 14 days later, it is

ta$en up for consideration'

A resolution to impeach the 3resident has to %e passed %y a two&third maority of the total

num%er of mem%ers of the originating house' It is then sent to the other house' he other house

investigates the charges that have %een made' During this process, the 3resident has the right to

defend oneself through an authorised counsel' If the second house also approves the charges

made %y special maority again, the 3resident stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated

hisKher office from the date when such a resolution stands passed' !o president has faced

impeachment proceedings so the a%ove provisions have never %een used' (49)

*upreme ourt can remove the president for the electoral malpractices under Article 7118 of the

constitution' ;nder Article 6.1 of the constitution, though president can not %e summoned for

uestioning ecept on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his

controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions ta$en %y the president would %e declaredinvalid %y the courts' he case would %e decided %y the courts %ased on the facts furnished %y

the union government for the president:s role' As clarified %y the *upreme ourt in the case

:+ameshwar 3rasad rs vs ;nion f India Anr on -4 /anuary -00.:, though president can

not %e prosecuted and imprisoned during his term of office, he can %e prosecuted after his term

of office for the guilty committed during his term of presidency as declared earlier %y the courts'

(50) !o president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his

unconstitutional decisions %y the courts till now' !o criminal case at least on the grounds

of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their

unconstitutional acts though many decisions ta$en during the term of presidency had %een

declared %y *upreme ourt as unconstitutional, mala fides, void, ultra vires, etc'(51)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President's_Bodyguard_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President's_Bodyguard_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_India_Onehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Air_Forcehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counselhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Bhardwaj-49https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_Vhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_Vhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_Vhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_XIXhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_XIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevention_of_Insults_to_National_Honour_Act,_1971https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mala_fideshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_vireshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President's_Bodyguard_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_India_Onehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Air_Forcehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counselhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Bhardwaj-49https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_Vhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_XIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevention_of_Insults_to_National_Honour_Act,_1971https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mala_fideshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_vireshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-51


11/26

Succession(edit)

he ffice of the 3resident falls vacant in the following scenarios2

1' n the epiry of hisKher term

-' By reason of death

6' By reason of resignation

4' +emoval %y impeachment

Article .5 of the Indian onstitution says that the #ice 3resident of India will have to discharge

the duties, if the ffice falls vacant due to any reason other than epiry of the term' (-.)2-0'10 he #ice

3resident reverts to office when a new 3resident is elected and enters office' @hen the 3resident

is una%le to act %ecause of a%sence, illness or any other cause, the #ice 3resident discharges

the 3resident:s functions until the 3resident resumes the duties'

A #ice 3resident who acts as or discharges the functions of the 3resident has all the powers and

immunities of the 3resident and is entitled to the same emoluments as the 3resident' It should %e

noted here that when the #ice 3resident discharges the duties of the 3resident, heKshe does not

function as the hairperson of the +aya *a%ha'

he Indian 3arliament has enacted the law he 3resident Discharge of Eunctions8 Act, 19.98

(5-) for the discharge of the functions of the 3resident when vacancies occur in the offices of the

3resident and of the #ice 3resident simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the

incum%ent or otherwise' In such an eventuality, the hief /ustice, or in his a%sence, the senior

most /udge of the *upreme ourt of India availa%le discharges the functions of the 3resident

until a newly elected 3resident enters upon his office or a newly elected #ice 3resident %egins to

act as 3resident under Article .5 of the onstitution, whichever is the earlier'(1)29. Eor eample, in

19.9, when 3resident La$ir =usain died in ffice, #ice 3resident #' #' "iri served as the acting

3resident of India' =owever, later, #'# "iri resigned from %oth posts Acting 3resident of India

and #ice 3resident of India8 as he %ecame a candidate in the 19.9 3residential election in India'

In this event, the then hief /ustice of India, /ustice >ohammad =idayatullah served as the

acting 3resident of India until the net 3resident was elected'

Important presidential interventions in the past(edit)

he 3resident:s role as defender of the onstitution and the powers as =ead of *tate, especially

in relation to those eercised %y the 3rime >inister as leader of the government, have changed

over time' In particular, 3residents have made a num%er of interventions into government and

lawma$ing, which have esta%lished and challenged some conventions concerning 3residential

intervention'

Proving ma)ority in t"e parliament(edit)

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=23https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_65_.7BThe_Vice-President_to_act_as_President_or_to_discharge_his_functions_during_casual_vacancies_in_the_office.2C_or_during_the_absence.2C_of_President.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Arora-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Arora-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-BakshiM2010-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-BakshiM2010-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=24https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=25https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=23https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_65_.7BThe_Vice-President_to_act_as_President_or_to_discharge_his_functions_during_casual_vacancies_in_the_office.2C_or_during_the_absence.2C_of_President.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-Arora-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India#cite_note-BakshiM2010-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=24https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_India&action=edit&section=25


12/26

Main article: #ote o" con"idence

In 1979, the 3rime >inister, haran *ingh, did not enoy a 3arliamentary maority' =e responded

to this %y simply not advising the 3resident to summon 3arliament' (17) *ince then, 3residents have

%een more diligent in directing incoming 3rime >inisters to convene 3arliament and prove their

maority within reasona%le deadlines - to 6 wee$s8' In the interim period, the 3rime >inisters are

generally restrained from ma$ing policy decisions'

Proo! o! Ma)ority to !orm a *overnment(edit)

*ince the 1990s, 3arliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of

parties having a distinct maority, until the -014 3s who are pledging support to their candidature' his is in addition to the reuirement

that a 3rime >inister prove he has the support of the


13/26

List of Presidents of India(edit)Main article: ist o" Presidents o" India

• 19502 Dr' +aendra 3rasad 507,000 electoral votes8 defeated G

*hah 9-,0008,


14/26

@hile in order to %e a 3resident, a person must %e ualified for election as a mem%er of the


15/26

mem%er %ench of the *upreme ourt, which decides on the matter' he decision of the *upreme

ourt is final'(4)

#at" o! A!!irmation(edit)

he article .9 of Indian onstitution provides the ath of Affirmation for the ffice of #ice3resident as under2&

MI, OOOOOOOO do swear in the name of "odKsolemnly affirm that I will %ear true faith and

allegiance to solemnly affirm the onstitution of India as %y law esta%lished and that I will

faithfully discharge the duty upon which I am a%out to enter'M

he 3resident administers the oath of office and secrecy to the #ice&3resident'

Term(edit)

he #ice 3resident holds office for five years' =eKshe can %e re&elected any num%er of times'

=owever, the office may %e terminated earlier %y death, resignation or removal' he onstitution

does not provide a mechanism of succession to the office of #ice 3resident in the event of an

etraordinary vacancy, apart from re&election' =owever, the Deputy hairman of the +aya

*a%ha can perform the duties of the hairman of the +aya *a%ha in such an event'

Removal(edit)

he #ice 3resident cannot %e formally impeached, unli$e the 3resident' he onstitution states

that the #ice 3resident can %e removed %y a resolution of the +aya *a%hapassed %y an

effective maority more than 50P of effective mem%ershiptotal mem%ership & #acant seats88 andagreed to %y a simple maority 50P of present and voting mem%ers8 of the


16/26

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1957

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19.H19-8

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191-H-00-8

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal_Swarup_Pathakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal_Swarup_Pathakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal_Swarup_Pathakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._D._Jattihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._D._Jattihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._D._Jattihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._V._Girihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal_Swarup_Pathakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal_Swarup_Pathakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal_Swarup_Pathakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._D._Jattihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._D._Jattihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._D._Jattihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullah


17/26

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Ansari

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Venkataramanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Venkataramanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Venkataramanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Venkataramanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shankar_Dayal_Sharmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shankar_Dayal_Sharmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shankar_Dayal_Sharmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Narayananhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Narayananhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Narayananhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Narayananhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishan_Kanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishan_Kanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairon_Singh_Shekhawathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairon_Singh_Shekhawathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairon_Singh_Shekhawathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairon_Singh_Shekhawathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Venkataramanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Venkataramanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Venkataramanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shankar_Dayal_Sharmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shankar_Dayal_Sharmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shankar_Dayal_Sharmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Narayananhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Narayananhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Narayananhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishan_Kanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishan_Kanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairon_Singh_Shekhawathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairon_Singh_Shekhawathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairon_Singh_Shekhawathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansari


18/26

%orn in 19678

(-)(6)

/awa

harlal

!ehru

14

!ove

m%er

19

15 August

194757 years, -74 days

-

orari

Desai

-9

Ee%ruary

19.

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.haran

*ingh

-6Decem%e

r 190-

- /uly 1979

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i

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da

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17,075

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-74 days8

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_India#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_India#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulzarilal_Nandahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulzarilal_Nandahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulzarilal_Nandahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morarji_Desaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morarji_Desaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_India#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_India#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulzarilal_Nandahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulzarilal_Nandahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulzarilal_Nandahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morarji_Desaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morarji_Desaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhi


19/26

#' 3'

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-5 /une

1961

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days

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishwanath_Pratap_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishwanath_Pratap_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Raohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Raohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Raohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Raohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishwanath_Pratap_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishwanath_Pratap_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Raohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Raohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Raohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singh


20/26

daysda

ys16 days8

15

!aren

dra

>odi

he /udiciary interprets the onstitution as its final ar%iter'(6) It is its duty as mandated %y the

onstitution, to %e its watchdog, %y calling for scrutiny any act of the legislature or the eecutive,

who otherwise, are free to enact or implement these, from overstepping %ounds set for them %y

the onstitution'(4) It acts li$e a guardian in protecting the fundamental rights of the people, as

enshrined in the onstitution, from infringement %y any organ of the state' It also %alances the

conflicting eercise of power %etween the centre and a state or among states, as assigned to

them %y the onstitution'

@hile pronouncing decisions under its constitutional mandate, it is epected to remain unaffected

%y pulls and pressures eerted %y other %ranches of the state, citiFens or interest groups' And

crucially, independence of the udiciary has %een held to %e a %asic feature of the onstitution, (5)

(.) and which %eing inaliena%le, has come to mean & that which cannot %e ta$en away from it %y

any act or amendment %y the legislature or the eecutive'(7)

his independence shows up in thefollowing manner2 !o minister, or even the eecutive collectively, can suggest any names for

appointment as udges, to the 3resident,()(9) who ultimately decides on appointing them from a list

of names recommended only %y the collegi!m of the udiciary' !or can udges of the *upreme

ourt or a =igh ourt %e removed from office once appointed, unless an overwhelming two&

thirds of mem%ers of any of the =ouses of the 3arliament %ac$ the move, and only on grounds of

proven misconduct or incapacity'(10)(11) A person who has %een a udge of a court is de%arred from

practicing in the urisdiction of that court'

Appointment and :rans!er o! Judges at Present(edit)

As per the onstitution, as held %y the court in the hree /udges: ases & 19-, 1996, 1998, a

udge is appointed to the *upreme ourt and the =igh ourts %y the 3resident of India from a list

of names recommended %y the collegi!m Q a closed group of the hief /ustice of India and the

most senior udges of the *upreme ourt, for appointments to the *upreme ourt, and they,

together with the hief /ustice of a =igh ourt and its senior&most udges, for appointments to

that court' his has resulted in a >emorandum of 3rocedure %eing followed, for the

appointments'

/udges used to %e appointed %y the 3resident on the recommendation of the ;nion a%inet'

After 1996, as held in the *econd /udges: ase, the eecutive was given the power to reect a

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-SanjayHegde-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-SoumitraSen-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-SoumitraSen-11https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Three_Judges%27_Cases&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Three_Judges%27_Cases&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Cabinethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-SanjayHegde-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-SoumitraSen-11https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Three_Judges%27_Cases&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Cabinet


21/26

name recommended %y the udiciary' =owever, according to some, the eecutive has not %een

diligent in using this power to reect the names of %ad candidates recommended' (1-)(16)(14)

he collegium system has come under a fair amount of criticism' (9) 3resently, %y a recent order in

the Eourth /udges: ase,(15) the court has invited everyone, (1.) including the pu%lic,(17)(1) to suggest

%y mid&!ovem%er -015,(19) how to improve it, %roadly along the lines of & setting up an eligi%ility

criteria for appointments, a permanent secratariat to help the collegium sift through material on

potential candidates, infusing more transparency into the selection process, grievance redressal

and any other suggestion not in these four categories, li$e transfer of udges' (-0)

Carlier, one recommendation %y a collegium came to %e challenged in court' he court held that

who could %ecome a udge was a matter of fact, and any person had a right to uestion it' But

who should %ecome a udge was a matter of opinion and could not %e uestioned' As long as an

effective consultation too$ place within a collegium in arriving at that opinion, the content or

material placed %efore it to form the opinion could not %e called for scrutiny in a court' (-1)

Courts(edit)Supreme ourt o! ;ndia(edit)

Main article: S!preme Co!rt o" India

he *upreme ourt of India is the highest court of the land as esta%lished %y 3art #, hapter

I# of the onstitution of India' According to it, the *upreme ourt is a federal court, guardian of

the onstitution and the highest court of appeal' Articles 1-4 to 147 of the onstitution lay down

the composition and urisdiction of the ourt' 3rimarily, it is an appellate court which ta$es upappeals against udgments of the =igh ourts of the states and territories' =owever, it also ta$es

writ petitions in cases of serious human rights violations or any petition filed under Article 6-

which is the right to constitutional remedies or if a case involves a serious issue that needs

immediate resolution'(--) It had its inaugural sitting on - /anuary 1950, the day India:s

constitution came into force,(-6) and since then has delivered more than -4,000 reported

udgments'

he *upreme ourt comprises the hief /ustice and 60 other /udges'

he proceedings of the *upreme ourt are conducted in Cnglish only' *upreme ourt +ules,

19.. are framed under Article 145 of the onstitution to regulate the practice and procedure of

the *upreme ourt'

2ig" courts(edit)

Main article: 1igh co!rts o" India

here are -4 =igh ourts at the *tate level' Article 141 of the onstitution of India mandates that

they are %ound %y the udgments and orders of the *upreme ourt of India %y precedence'

hese courts have urisdiction over a state, a union territory or a group of states and union

territories' Below the =igh ourts are a hierarchy of su%ordinate courts such as the civil courts,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-SanjayHegde-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Chapter_IV_.7BThe_Union_Judiciary.7Dhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Chapter_IV_.7BThe_Union_Judiciary.7Dhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Chapter_IV_.7BThe_Union_Judiciary.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-23http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/scrules1966.pdfhttp://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/scrules1966.pdfhttp://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/scrules1966.pdfhttp://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/1537130/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_141_.7BLaw_declared_by_Supreme_Court_to_be_binding_on_all_courts.7Dhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_141_.7BLaw_declared_by_Supreme_Court_to_be_binding_on_all_courts.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-SanjayHegde-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Chapter_IV_.7BThe_Union_Judiciary.7Dhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Chapter_IV_.7BThe_Union_Judiciary.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-23http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/scrules1966.pdfhttp://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/scrules1966.pdfhttp://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/1537130/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_141_.7BLaw_declared_by_Supreme_Court_to_be_binding_on_all_courts.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India


22/26

family courts, criminal courts and various other district courts' =igh courts are instituted

as constitutional courts under 3art #I, hapter #, Article -14 of theIndian onstitution'

he =igh ourts are the principal civil courts of original urisdiction in the state along with District

ourts which are su%ordinate to the =igh courts' =owever, =igh courts eercise their original civil

and criminal urisdiction only if the courts su%ordinate to the high court in the state are not

competent not authorised %y law8 to try such matters for lac$ of pecuniary, territorial urisdiction'

=igh courts may also enoy original urisdiction in certain matters if so designated specifically in a

state or Eederal law' e'g'2 ompany law cases are instituted only in a high court'

=owever, primarily the wor$ of most =igh ourts consists of Appeals from lower courts and writ

petitions in terms of Article --. of the onstitution of India' @rit /urisdiction is also original

urisdiction of =igh ourt' he precise territorial urisdiction of each =igh ourt varies'

/udges in a high court are appointed %y the 3resident after consultation with the hief /ustice of

India, hief /ustice of =igh ourt and the governor of the state' he num%er of udges in a court

is decided %y dividing the average institution of main cases during the last five years %y the

national average, or the average rate of disposal of main cases per udge per year in that =igh

ourt, whichever is higher'(citation needed )

he alcutta =igh ourt is the oldest =igh ourt in the country, esta%lished on - /uly 1.-,

whereas the Allaha%ad =igh ourt is the largest, having a sanctioned strength of udges at 1.0'

=igh courts which handle a large num%er of cases of a particular region, have

permanent 2enches or a %ranch of the court8 esta%lished there' Eor litigants of remote regions,

:circuit %enches: are set up, which wor$ for those days in a month when udges visit' (-4)

District courts(edit)

Main article: District Courts of India

he District ourts of India are esta%lished %y the *tate governments in India for every district or

for one or more districts together ta$ing into account the num%er of cases, population distri%ution

in the district' hey administer ustice in India at a district level' hese courts are under

administrative control of the =igh ourt of the *tate to which the district concerned %elongs' he

decisions of District court are su%ect to the appellate urisdiction of the concerned =igh court' (-5)

he district court is presided over %y one District /udge appointed %y the state "overnment' In

addition to the district udge there may %e num%er of Additional District /udges and Assistant

District /udges depending on the wor$load' he Additional District /udge and the court presided

have euivalent urisdiction as the District /udge and his district court' (-.) he district udge is also

called M>etropolitan session udgeM when he is presiding over a district court in a city which is

designated M>etropolitan areaM %y the state "overnment' (-7) he district court has appellate

urisdiction over all su%ordinate courts situated in the district on %oth civil and criminal matters'

*u%ordinate courts, on the civil side in ascending order8 are, /unior ivil /udge ourt, 3rincipal

/unior ivil /udge ourt, *enior ivil /udge ourt also called su%&court8' *u%ordinate courts, on

the criminal side in ascending order8 are, *econd lass /udicial >agistrate ourt, Eirst lass

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_courthttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_VI#Chapter_V_.7BThe_High_Courts_in_the_States_for_7Dhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_VI#Chapter_V_.7BThe_High_Courts_in_the_States_for_7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_jurisdictionhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_VI#Article_226_.7BPower_of_High_Courts_to_issue_certain_writs.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcutta_High_Courthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahabad_High_Courthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_governments_in_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-District_Courts_of_India_-_official_website-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-CrPc_Section_8_-_Metropolitan_areas-27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_courthttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_VI#Chapter_V_.7BThe_High_Courts_in_the_States_for_7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_jurisdictionhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_VI#Article_226_.7BPower_of_High_Courts_to_issue_certain_writs.7Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcutta_High_Courthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahabad_High_Courthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_governments_in_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Courts_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-District_Courts_of_India_-_official_website-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-CrPc_Section_8_-_Metropolitan_areas-27


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/udicial >agistrate ourt, hief /udicial >agistrate ourt'In addition :Eamily ourtsM are

esta%lished to deal with matrimonial disputes alone' he 3rincipal udge of family court is

euivalent to District /udge'

4illage courts(edit)

#illage courts, called oderniFation

• 5riticism

• .+eferences

• 7Cternal lin$s

Structure(edit)

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Adalathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya_Panchayathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madras_Village_Court_Act&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madras_Village_Court_Act&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram_Nyayalayas_Act,_2008https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-fundcrunchtoi-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-fundcrunchtoi-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajya_Sabhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajya_Sabhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Structurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Functions_and_powershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#State_Election_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Modernizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Criticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Election_Commission_of_India&action=edit&section=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_India&action=edit&section=7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Adalathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya_Panchayathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madras_Village_Court_Act&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram_Nyayalayas_Act,_2008https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-lay-justice-india-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-fundcrunchtoi-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_India#cite_note-fundcrunchtoi-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajya_Sabhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_(India)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Structurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Functions_and_powershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#State_Election_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Modernizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Criticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Election_Commission_of_India&action=edit&section=1


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Originally in 1950, the commission had only a Chief Election

Commissioner. Two additional Commissioners were appointed to the

commission for the first time on 16 October 199, b!t they had a "ery

short ten!re#!ntil 1 $an!ary 1990. The Election Commissioner %mendment

%ct, 199& made the Election Commission a m!lti'member body. The concept

of a &'member Commission has been in operation since then, with

decision'ma(ing power by ma)ority "ote.*+

he hief Clection ommissioner of India can %e removed from his office %y 3arliament with two&

thirds maority in


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ommission of India' Cci'nic'in' +etrieved on -014&05&-1'RKrefS It helps to avoid confusion of the

administrative machinery and the electorate and ensures that political parties are %rought under

the purview of the election commission'

o get rid of the growing influences and vulgar show of money during elections the Clection

ommission has made many suggestions in this regard' he Clection ommission has fied the

legal limits on the amount of money which a candidate can spend during election campaigns'

hese limits have %een revised from time to time' he Clection ommission %y appointing

o%servers $eeps an eye on the individual account of election ependiture' he contestants are

also reuired to give details of ependiture within 60 days of declaration of results' he campaign

period was reduced %y the Clection ommission from -1 to 14 days for


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!A sym%ol in India

he Clection ommission had tried to %ring improvements in election procedures %y introduction

of C#> H Clectronic voting machines' It was thought that C#>s would reduce malpractices and

improve efficiency' It was first tried out on an eperimental %asis in the state of Gerala for the19-

india achieved independence from the british o1.docx

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